GEC3

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN

WORLD
CHAPTER 4: DATA MANAGEMENT
 STATISTICS
Points to ponder:
Why decision-making is
an important aspect in our
life?
 STATISTICS
Decision-making
We make decisions according to
the information that we have in our
life. Sometimes we commit biases.
 STATISTICS
Points to ponder:
Why data management is
important?
 STATISTICS
Points to ponder:
How is data management
important to you as future (1)
teacher? (2) researcher? and
(3) administrator?
 STATISTICS
Data management
(1) gathering and organizing data
(2) representing data using
graphs and charts
(3) interpreting organized data
 STATISTICS
Data management
is an administrative process
that includes acquiring, validating,
storing, protecting and processing
required data
 STATISTICS
Data management
to ensure:
(1) accessibility
(2) reliability
(3) timeliness
 STATISTICS
Statistics involves information,
numbers, and visual graphics.
It will help us examine the
information available and interpret
its meaning.
 STATISTICS
The word statistics originated
form the Latin word “status”
meaning state.
For a long time, it was identified
solely with the display of data and
charts.
 STATISTICS
Even today, most people regard
statistics as synonymous with
“arrays of numbers” and “myriads
of graphs.”
 STATISTICS
it is a science that deals with the
collection, classification, analysis,
and interpretation of numerical facts
or data, in such a way that valid
conclusions and meaningful predictions
can be drawn from them.
 DESCRIPTIVE VS INFERENTIAL
Descriptive statistics involves the
collection and classification of
data.
The analysis and interpretation
of data constitute inferential
statistics.
 STATISTICS (SINGULAR AND PLURAL)
The word statistics is used both
as singular and plural.
The singular statistics is the
science of collection, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of
numerical data.
 STATISTICS (SINGULAR AND PLURAL)
The word statistics is used both
as singular and plural.
The plural statistics refers to
numerical facts or observations
collected with a definite purpose.
 POPULATION AND SAMPLE
Population
is the set of measurement
corresponding to the entire
collection of units about which the
information is sought.
 POPULATION AND SAMPLE
Sample
it is the subset of objects or
subjects drawn from the population.
 POPULATION AND SAMPLE
Descriptive statistics will allow you
to summarize the data collected from
the samples.
Inferential statistics will enable you
to draw conclusions about the
population based on the sample data.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
1. Simple Random Sampling
in this case each individual is
chosen entirely by chance and each
member of population has an equal
chance, or probability, of being
selected.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
1. Simple Random Sampling
It allows the sampling error to
be calculated and reduces selection
bias.
METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
2. Systematic Sampling
Individuals are selected at
regular intervals from sampling frame.
The intervals are chosen to ensure an
adequate sample size. Example select
every 10 of 1000 sampling frame.
th
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
2. Systematic Sampling
This is often more convenient
than simple random and it is easy to
administer. However, it may lead to
bias.
METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
3. Stratified Sampling
In this method, the population
is first divided into subgroups (or
strata) who all share a similar
characteristic.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
3. Stratified Sampling
For example, in a study of
stroke outcomes, we may stratify the
population by sex, to ensure equal
representation of men and women.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
3. Stratified Sampling
The study sample is then
obtained by taking equal sample
size from each stratum (subgroup).
Proportionality is applied.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
3. Stratified Sampling
This improves the accuracy
and representativeness of the results
by reducing sampling bias
METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
4. Clustered Sampling
In a clustered sample,
subgroups of the population are
used as the sampling unit, rather
than individuals.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
4. Clustered Sampling
This sampling can be more
efficient than simple random
sampling, especially where a study
takes place over a wide
geographical region.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
4. Clustered Sampling
Disadvantages include an
increased risk of bias, if the chosen
clusters are not representative of the
population, resulting in an increased
sampling error.
METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM
POPULATION (PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
1. Convenience Sampling
It is perhaps the easiest
method of sampling, because
participants are selected based on
availability and willingness to take
part.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
1. Convenience Sampling
Useful results can be obtained,
but the results are prone to significant
bias, because those who volunteer to
take part may be different from those
who choose not to (volunteer bias),
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
1. Convenience Sampling
and the sample may not be
representative of characteristics of
other, such as age or sex. Note:
volunteer bias is a risk of all non-
probability sampling methods.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
2. Quota Sampling
This method of sampling is
often used by market researchers.
Interviewers are given a quota of
subjects of a specified type to
attempt to recruit.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
2. Quota Sampling
This has the advantage of being
relatively straightforward and
potentially representative, the chosen
sample may not be representative of
other characteristics that were not
considered.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
3. Judgement (Purposive) Sampling
This is also known as selective,
or subjective sampling, this techniques
relies on the judgement of the
researcher when choosing who to ask
to participate.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
3. Judgement (Purposive) Sampling
Judgement sampling has the
advantage of being time-and-cost
effective to perform while resulting in a
range of responses (particularly useful
in qualitative research).
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
3. Judgement (Purposive) Sampling
However, in addition to
volunteer bias, it is also prone to errors
of judgement by the researcher and the
findings, while being potentially broad,
will not necessarily be representative.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
4. Snowball Sampling
This method is commonly
used in social sciences when
investigating hard-to-reach groups.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
4. Snowball Sampling
Existing subjects are asked to
nominate further subject known to
them, so the sample increase in size
like a rolling snowball.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
4. Snowball Sampling
For example, when carrying out
a survey of risk behaviors among
intravenous drug users, participants
may be asked to nominate other users
to be interviewed.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING)
4. Snowball Sampling
This sampling can be effective
when a sampling frame is difficult to
identify. However, by selecting friends
and acquaintances of subjects already
investigated. There is a risk of bias.
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(BIAS IN SAMPLING)
Five Potential Sources of Bias
1. Any pre-agreed sampling
rules
2. People in hard-to-reach
groups are omitted
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(BIAS IN SAMPLING)
Five Potential Sources of Bias
3. The selected individuals are
replaced with others, for example if
they are difficult to contact
4. There are low response rates
 METHODS OF SAMPLING FROM POPULATION
(BIAS IN SAMPLING)
Five Potential Sources of Bias
5. An out-of-date list is used as
the sample frame (for example, if it
excludes people who have recently
moved to an area)
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
Variable
When you collect data from a
sample, the particular characteristic
of the object or the individual is
called variable.
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
Variable
This is so called variable
because it varies from object to
object.
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
Variable
The variable in a study may be
quantitative or qualitative.
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
Quantitative Variable
This has a value or numerical
measurement for which operation
can be applied.
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
Quantitative Variable
Ex. Age, height, and weight are
quantitative.
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
Qualitative Variable
Describes an object or
individual by placing the object or
individual into a category or a
group.
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
Qualitative Variable
Examples are gender, nationality,
color, types of personality, and
product brand.
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
Quantitative data can be discrete
or continuous. Discrete data is
obtained through counting.
Continuous data is obtained by
measuring.
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
The number of households in a
particular community is an example
of discrete data while family income
and weight of an individual are
some of the examples of continuous
data.
LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
Four Different Levels
1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval
4. Ratio
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal
At this level of measurement,
numbers in variable are use only to
classify the data. Words, letters, and
alpha-numeric symbols can be
used.
LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal
Ex. Religious Affiliation
School Type
Course
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
2. Ordinal
At this level of measurement,
numbers indicate order.
Ex. marathon, class scores,
costumer satisfaction and etc.
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
3. Interval
At this level of measurement,
numbers tell the distances between
the measurements in addition to the
classification and ordering.
LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
3. Interval
Ex. Temperature
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
4. Ratio
Think of this scale as the
combination of the first three scales.
Examples the time to answer a quiz
and the number of absences of
students in a class.
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
4. Ratio
Think of this scale as the
combination of the first three scales.
Examples the time to answer a quiz
and the number of absences of
students in a class.
 LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
Examples of Measurement Scales
LEVELS
(SCALES)
OF
MEASUREMENT
LEVELS (SCALES) OF MEASUREMENT
There is not complete agreement among statisticians
about the classification of data into one of the four
categories. For example, some researchers classify IQ data
as ratio data rather than interval. Also, data can be altered so
that they fit into a different category. For instance, if the
incomes of all professors of a college are classified into the
three categories of low, average, and high, then a ratio
variable becomes an ordinal variable.