Lecture 1: Overview of the course; Nature of stress 1

What is psychology?
Psychology is the science/scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

A scientific study/science uses scientific methods. The scientific method has characteristics such assystematic
observation/empiricism, objectivity, and replicability/verifiability.

Behaviors are actions that can be observed and measured.

Mental processes includes diverse activities of the mind such as perception, thinking, memory,imagination
etc.

Overview of the course

This course will systematically address the issues related to the psychology of stress, health, andwell-
being.
In the initial level, this course will discuss the concepts of stress, health, and coping [Link],
following questions will be addressed-

What is the mechanisms by which our mind creates stress?

Is there a connection between our mind and body? Can stressful experiences cause physicaldiseases such as
heart diseases? Can stress influence our immune system?

Are there any positive dimensions of stress?

What are healthy and unhealthy coping strategies for stress management? Are there anyevidence
based coping strategies that can be used by us?

In the next level, this course will then discuss what lies beyond stress and coping paradigm. In thiscontext, the
idea of positive mental health, happiness and well-being will be discussed.

The psychology of happiness and well-being fills the gaps in the area of stress and health by providing
understanding how can we move beyond managing stress and achieve greater sense of happiness, well-being,
flourishing and a meaningful life.
In this connection, this course willaddress the following questions-
What is happiness? What makes us happy? Do we really know what will make us happy?Can we
become happier? What are the barriers in achieving sustainable happiness?
Are there any evidence based happiness enhancing strategies/activities/interventions?

Is happiness sufficient for our well-being? Are there other dimensions of human well-being
 The nature of stress
Key concepts:
Why stress related problems is a global epidemic? Why is it important to understand thedynamics of
stress in our life?

What is psychological stress? Is stress an environmental stimulus? Is it a reaction in our body andmind? Or is
it an interaction between the person and the environment?

What are the mental processes involved in the stress response? What are
the different characteristics, types, and sources of stress?

Have you ever experienced the following symptoms before or after an event?
(Symptoms of stress)

Forgetfulness, confusion
Inability to concentrate
Constant worrying
Irritability/moodiness
Loneliness/isolation
Sleeping too much or too little
Eating more or less

Procrastinating
Excessive drinking of alcohol or smoking or [Link]
cold/headache/chest pain

Stress: A global epidemic

WHO dubbed stress as the health epidemic of the 21st century.

In the context of America, stress is estimated to cost around 300 billion $ per year and there isan
increase in the stress level of about 10-30% between 1983 to 2009 (Fink, 2017).

Recently, in 2019, a global well-being study conducted by Cigna corporation reported that about
82% Indians are suffering from stress on account of work, health and finance-related concerns which
is higher than other developed and emerging countries such as the USA, UK, Germany, France and
Australia.

The consequences of this rapid increase in the stress level could be devastating in multipledimensions of
our health, well-being and functioning such as physical and mental health, performance, productivity,
quality of personal and social life etc. and accounting for a significant burden of disability within
nations.
There may be multiple possible reasons behind the rise of stress and its related problems. Onemajor cause
could be rapidly changing world increasing challenges and demands.
 Therefore, it is very important for all of us to understand the dynamics of stress in our life because of its
far reaching implications to our health and quality of life. Without understandingthe dynamics of stress
in our life, we can not lead a productive and flourishing life.

Various perspectives on definition of stress

Although the word stress today is intuitively understood by most people, its precise definition is generally
elusive. Nevertheless, it is commonplace to regard stress as undesirable and harmful toone‘s health and
well-being (Harrington, 2013).
There have been many and varied attempts to define stress. We can divide these definitions intovarious
categories. For example-

(1) Stimulus-based definitions of stress

Stimulus-based definitions define stress as an environmental stimulus which causes a strainreaction in the
individual exposed to the stressful stimulus.
This type of definition came from the physics and engineering where a substance is said to beunder the
stress when an external load produces a distorting force inside the substance calledstrain.
Stress is viewed as a demand from the external environment.
―stress is that which happens to the man, not that which happens in him; it is a set of causes , nota set of
symptoms‖ (Symonds, 1947) .

Stimulus based definitions are not in popular use now as researchers found such definitions asvery narrow
and limiting.

Response-based definition of stress

Response based definitions focus on the response to the stressful stimuli as the actual stress itself. The
response is primarily viewed in terms of the physiological response patterns in thebody as a result of
stressful stimuli.

One of the most popular definition in this category is-

―stress is the non-specific response of the body to any demand made upon it‖ (Selye 1974).

Response-based definitions of stress are also no longer popular in use just like stimulus baseddefinitions
because of its limitations.

Interactional definition of stress

Interactional definition of stress was developed as a response to the shortcomings of the stimulusand
response based definitions. Here stress is defined in terms of interaction between the environment
(stimulus) and the person (response).
One of the most popular definition of stress in this category is proposed by Richard Lazarus andSusan
Folkman (1984). It states that- “stress is a particular relationship between the person and the
environment that is appraised bythe person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his
or her well-being”
This definition is more process-oriented and takes account of the dynamic nature of thestress
relationship between the person and the environment.

Contemporary researchers‘ views stress mostly in terms of interactional perspective.

This perspective look at stress as a subjective phenomenon which depends on the appraisals andperception of
the individual

What is stress?

Stress is the experience or condition that results (anxious or threatening feelings) when weinterpret
or explain a situation being more than our coping resources can handle.

Stress=Perceived situation>Personal coping resources

Stress is an individual subjective experience

A given situation may be stressful for one person and not for [Link]
are stressed by different kinds of things.
There is nothing wrong or bad to feel stressed in a situation when someone else doesn‘t.

What makes something as stressful?

The amount of stress each person experiences depends on his or her understanding/belief abouta
situation/event (dangerous, threatening etc.).

Different things are stressful for different people largely because-The

meaning of the event differs from person to person
People have different resources available for dealing with a stressful situation.

Cognitive appraisals of stress

Appraisals of stress explain how different individuals have different reactions to the samestimulus based
on their mental interpretations of the stimulus.

Some may find an event/action as stressful, others may find exciting, and yet others may beunaffected.

This difference may result from differences in the appraisals of the event.
Lazarus‘s appraisal and coping model gives us more detail.
 Lazarus‟s appraisal and coping model
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) proposed a three-process cognitive appraisals consisting ofprimary
appraisal, secondary appraisal, and reappraisal.
Primary Appraisal: Here people judge a particular event/situation as positive or negative.
According to Lazarus, events can be appraised during primary appraisal in three possible [Link] can
be seen as irrelevant, relevant but not threatening, or stressful.
Stressful reactions occur when the situation is judged as potentially involving harm-loss, threat,and/or
challenge.
-Harm-loss appraisals are past or present oriented and result from appraisals of loss or damagethat is
happening or has already happened. The losses may include loss of money, job, or psychological loss such
as loss of self-esteem.
-Threat appraisals are future oriented. When the future suggests the possibility of harm or loss,the
person will experience threat.
-Challenge appraisals see the potential for gain or growth. Threat appraisals generally evokenegative
emotions such as anxiety, fear, and anger, but challenge appraisals evoke feelings of excitement,
eagerness, and exhilaration.

Secondary Appraisal: It occurs when a situation is judged as stressful and involves theevaluation of
personal resources or ability to cope. E.g. An interview situation.
Coping processes will be discussed in detail in the upcoming lectures.

Stress Reappraisals: Here the stressful situation is reappraised based on ongoing feedback from the
situation along with the person‘s self-assessment of how well he or she is dealing with the situation.

A reappraisal is simply an appraisal that follows an earlier appraisal in the same encounter andmodifies it
 Module 1 (Lecture 2)
The Nature of Stress 2

Key Concepts:
Different characteristics of stress
Major types of stress
Sources of stress

Characteristics of stressStress is
subjective and may be self created
People are not very objective in their appraisals of potentially stressful events. Some people are
more prone to feel threatened by life‘s difficulties than others.
A large chunk of our stressful experiences could be self created by our pessimistic andmaladaptive
thought processes.
A large chunk of our sufferings are self created.

Stress is an everyday event

Many everyday events such as waiting in line, having car trouble, misplacing things etc. can bestressful and
are called as daily hassles.

A major stressful events, such as divorce can trigger a cascade of many minor stressors such astaking new
responsibilities.

Daily hassles may have significant negative effects on a person‘s mental and physical health
(Delongis, Folkman, & Lazarus, 1988).

Stress can have an additive/cumulative effects

Research shows that minor daily hassles can be more strongly related to mental health thanmajor
stressful events (Kanner et al, 1981).

Many theorists believe that stressful events can have a additive or cumulative effects (Seta, seta,&
McElroy, 2002).

This additive effects may have serious negative consequences when an individual experiencesmultiple
stressors frequently in his/her life.

Stress may be influenced by culture

Culture includes shared ideas, beliefs, behaviors of a group.
The cultural background/norms of an individual could affect their experience of stress byinfluencing our
appraisal/perception of an event.

Some studies suggests that the Japanese and Korean students seem to suffer greater examstress than British
suggests a possible cultural differences in beliefs lead to differences in theexperience of exams as
stressful (Colby, 1987).

Stress can have Spillover effect

Stress spillover refers to the process where stress in one domain, such as workplace spill over to create stress
in another domain such as family relationships (Grzywacz, Almeida, & McDonald, 2002) such as
marital satisfaction.

There can be positive spillover effect also. For example, positive emotions experienced at workplace can
lead to positive mood and interactions with family members at home (Greenhaus& Powell, 2006).

Stress Contagion/Stress transfer

It refers to the process where one person‘s reaction to stress affects the health of a significantother such
as spouse‘s depression affects one‘s well-being (Saxbe & Repetti, 2010).

In an interesting study by Waters, West, and Mendes (2014) found that mothers‘ stressfulexperiences are
contagious to their infants and can reciprocally influence each other‘s physiological reactivity.

Major types of stress

Acute vs chronic stress
Acute stress: Stressors that have a relatively short duration and a clear end point. E.g., waitingfor the
result of a test.

Chronic stress: Stressors that have a relatively long duration without a clear end point. E.g.,Poverty

Social Stressors
Social stressors can be divided into three major categories: Life events, chronic strains, and dailyhassles
(Carr & Umberson, 2013).

Life events are acute changes that require adjustment within a relatively short time period suchas job
loss. Unexpected (sudden death of loved one) and off-time (widowed prematurely) life events are
more distressing (George, 1999).
Traumatic life events such as sexual assault are extremely stressful and may have long lastingeffects.

Chronic stress/strain

Daily hassles: These are minor events that require adjustment throughout the day such as trafficjams.
Distress vs Eustress
Eustress is a positive stress that can be beneficial for us. For example, various challenges thatputs pressure
to grow, improve, achieve goals etc.

Distress is the negative stress that we generally refer to when we talk about stress.

Other sources of stress

Frustrations: It occurs in any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted such as traffic jams.
(Weiten & Lloyd, 2007). Some frustrations such as failures and losses can be verystressful.

Psychologists John Dollard and colleagues (1939) proposed ―Frustration-Aggression‖ hypothesisby

suggesting that (a) frustration always produces an aggressive urge and (b) aggression is always the
result of prior frustrations.

Conflicts: It occurs when two or more incompatible motivations compete for expression. (Weiten&
Lloyd, 2007).

Kurt Lewin (1935) discussed three types of conflicts-

approach-approach-when one has to choose between two equally desirable but incompatibleoptions.
Eg., want to stay healthy and also want to eat unhealthy fatty foods.

Avoidance-avoidance-when one has to choose between two equally undesirable options. E.g., apatient with
serious illness has to choose between having a traumatic surgery or long term therapy with unpleasant
side effects.

Approach-avoidance-when there are desirable and undesirable factors within a single option.E.g., A
person wants to go to the gym but also believes gym membership is unnecessary and extravagant
expense.

Life changes: these are any noticeable changes in one‘s life circumstances that requirereadjustment.

Holmes and Rahe (1967) developed the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) to measure lifechange as
a form of stress. This scale included 43 major life events such as death of a spouse,divorce personal
injury, retirement etc.

Interestingly, they also included positive events as a source of stress such as marriage.
Pressure: It involves expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way. There can be two types
of pressures-the pressure to perform and the pressure to conform (Weiten & Lloyd,2007).

One is under the pressure to perform when he/she is expected to perform tasks and
responsibilities quickly, efficiently and successfully.

Pressure to conform involves pressure to follow others‘ expectations such as one is expected tofollow
parents values and rules.
 Lecture 3 (Module 1)Biology
Of Stress

Key concepts:

Fight-or-flight response

General adaptation syndrome

Stress-brain-body pathways

Gender difference in stress response

The physiology of stress

Stressful experiences are associated with various physiological changes in the body. Some ofthese include
the following-

The Fight-or-Flight Response

Walter cannon (1932) was the first person to describe body‘s reaction to stress in terms of fight-or-flight
response.

It refer to physiological reaction of the body as a result to threat or stressor. It mobilizes andprepares body
either for the fight (stand) or flight (run away) when confronted by a threat.

The Fight-or-Flight Response reaction occurs in the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervoussystem.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Hans Selye, an endocrinologists studies changes in the body‘s physiology in reaction to stressorsusing rat as
his subjects in 1950s.
He summarized body‘s short and long term reactions to stress as a three phased process termedas GAS.

Phase 1: Alarm Reaction. It occurs once a threat is recognized. Here essentially fight-or-flightresponse
occurs resulting in physiological arousal to master resources to deal with the threat.

Phase 2: Stage of Resistance. If the stress continues, one enters this stage. Here the body tries toadapt to the
stressor by making many changes in the body to reduce the effect of the stressor.

Phase 3: Stage of Exhaustion. If the stress is not resolved in the phase 2 and continues for a substantial
amount of time, one may enter this stage. Here the body‘s resistance to the stress maygradually decrease or
collapse quickly particularly by reducing immune functions. This may lead to ―disease of adaptation‖
such as ulcers or high BP.
 Stress-Brain-Body Pathways
The hypothalamus is the center of the brain in the context of stress response. It activates twopathways
leading to release of stress hormones. These are-
The sympathetic adrenal medullary (SAM) system, which leads to the secretion of the two
catecholamines-adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
The hypothalamic pituitary adrenocortical (HPA) system, which leads to the secretion ofcorticosteroids
such as cortisol.

In the SAM pathway, the Sympathetic NS activates adrenal medulla, which secretes the stresshormones
catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline) in the blood stream. Their releaseincreases heart rate,
blood pressure, release of glucose and fatty acids from the liver thus increasing energy in the body. This is
a quick reaction (within a minute) and is significant for coping with acute stress.

In the HPA pathway, the hypothalamus activates anterior pituitary, which secretes adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) in the blood stream which reaches the adrenal cortex whichreleases cortisol in the blood
steam. Cortisol influences metabolism, storage of the fats and immune functions. This process is much
slower (may take 30 minutes) and is significant for coping with chronic stress.

The bodily consequences of chronic stress response is different from the acute stress [Link] chronic
stress response adversely affects our physical health.

Stress and Brain

Stress, hippocampus, and pre-frontal cortex
Chronic release of stress hormone such as cortisol adversely influence two major areas of the brain i.e.
pre-frontal cortex (executive functions such as working memory and decision making,regulating thoughts
and emotions) and hippocampus (important in learning memory and emotions).

In a study by Justin B. Echouffo-Tcheugui and colleagues (2018) found that high level of bloodcortisol
was associated with poorer memory and cognitive functioning particularly for the women. It was also
associated with lower total cerebral brain volume.

Chronic stress has a shrinking effect on the pre-frontal cortex

Stress hormones such as cortisol may adversely affect the functioning of pre-frontal cortex (executive
functions such as working memory and decision making) by making structural changessuch as neural
atrophy in the region (Cook and Wellman, 2004).

Chronic stress also increases the activity of amygdala and make it hyperactive and may pre-dispose us to
be in a constant state of fight-or flight.
Stress can disrupt synaptic regulation (brain cell connectivity)
It can disrupt synapse regulation (van der Kooij et al, 2014), resulting in the loss of sociabilityand the
avoidance of interactions with others and memory.
They discovered an enzyme (MMP-9), when triggered by stress, that attacks a molecule in the
hippocampus which is responsible for regulating synapses. When the synapses are modified, fewer
neural connections are able to be made in the area.

Gender Difference in Stress Response

Fight-or-flight response may be a primary physiological response to stress. However, Taylor andcolleagues
(2000) reported that female‘s response to stress are more marked by a pattern called ―Tend-and-
befriend‖.

This theory suggests that under stress, females show more tending behavior by giving more attention to
nurturant activities such as caring for the offspring and dependents to protect andreduce distress. They
also show befriending behavior by creating and maintaining social network to aid in the process of
protection and reducing distress.

The biological support for this theory partially comes from the ―oxytocin‖ hormone (mainly
produced in hypothalamus). Oxytocin is also released as a response to stress, but it is moreinfluential
among females. Oxytocin calms the females by reducing anxiety, and promotes affiliative behavior
such as grooming, touching and bonding behavior.
 Lecture 4: stress and health (non-infectious diseases)

Stress and Health

Stress in itself is not an illness, despite being an unpleasant experience. However, stress may
lead to various physical and mental health consequences. Some surveys show that stress is the
number one threat for health in the USA and about 70-90% of doctor‘s visits are related to
stress (Harvard business Review, 2011).

Mind-Body connections can explain the relationships between the stress and health. The
17th-century French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) proposed the idea of mind-
body dualism (separation between the mind and body). However, modern research clearly
indicate that the mind and body are closely connected to each other and can influence each
other.

The mind-body connection was evident when we discussed the biology of stress.

Psychosomatic diseases

Psychosomatic diseases are the physical diseases that are caused or deteriorated by mental
factors such as stress, anxiety, depression etc. In fact, a branch of psychology called health
psychology investigates the role of psychological factors such as stress, emotions, beliefs etc.
on physical health and illness.

Historical Background
Claude Bernard (1878) used the concept of ―dynamic equilibrium‖ to understand the disease.
The dynamic equilibrium is the stability/consistency of the inner environment. The
disturbances of this equilibrium may adversely affect our health.

Walter Canon (1929) used the term ―homeostasis‖ as an extension of Bernard‘s concept of
dynamic equilibrium. It also means the maintenance of a constant inner condition. He further
stated that conditions such as stress can disrupt homeostasis and lead to fight-or-flight response.

Hans Selye (1956) in his model of general adaptation syndrome (GAS) described changes in
the physiological responses in the body as a result of chronic stress. Initially, Alarm stage is
associated with the activation of sympathetic NS. The resistance stage is associated with the
release of glucocorticoids (such as cortisol) from the HPA axis. The exhaustion stage is
associated with the diseases of adaption (psychosomatic diseases) due to chronic release of
stress hormones such as cortisol.
 Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) is a relatively new field of study that revealed that there is a
constant interactions between our central nervous system (CNS) and immune system. Many
studies indicated that psychological factors such as stress can influence our central nervous
system and which in turn influences our immune functions.

Pathways linking stress and health

Infectious and non-infectious diseases
Stress can lead to both infectious and non-infectious diseases. Infectious diseases occur due
to the attack of an external gents such as bacteria, viruses etc. and can be transmitted by direct
physical contact. Non-infectious diseases occur due to internal factors such as wear and
tear/malfunctioning of an organ and is not transmitted by physical contact. E.g., cardiovascular
diseases. It was evident that the physiological responses to stress is very complex and is
primarily carried out by activating two major physiological pathways-

The sympathetic adrenal medullary (SAM) system which leads to the secretion of the two
catecholamines-adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).

The hypothalamic pituitary adrenocortical (HPA) system which leads to the secretion of
corticosteroids such as cortisol.

Stress and Non-infectious/Non-communicable Diseases

Stress can contribute to the development of diverse non-infectious diseases that were
believed to be purely physiological in origin such as cardiovascular diseases. Stress related
non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as coronary heart diseases, diabetes, chronic
pulmonary diseases, neuropsychiatric diseases etc. are the major health crisis in the 21st
century (Narayan, Ali, & Koplan, 2010).

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Division of Global Health
Protection, the NCDs are responsible for more than 68% of deaths worldwide, and 75% of
deaths in low- and middle-income countries. NCDs are generally preceded by stress-related
metabolic syndrome such as hypertension, high cholesterol, reduced responsiveness to insulin
(Fricchione, 2018). Stress-related chronic NCDs continue to plague primary care practitioners,
resulting in enormous mortality, morbidity, and suffering and contributes to the expanding of
health care costs (Fricchione, 2018).

Cardiovascular diseases

The cardiovascular system includes heart, blood and the blood vessels of the body and is
regulated by the autonomic nervous system. Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading
cause of death globally and causing an estimated 17.9 million lives each year (WHO, 2020).
 The diseases related to cardiovascular system primarily include coronary artery disease
(CAD)/coronary heart diseases (CHD) and hypertension. CHD develops when the coronary
arteries (blood vessels that supply oxygen and blood to the heart) becomes narrow due to fatty
deposits/cholesterol in the arterial wall resulting in reduced blood flow to the heart. This
process is called as atherosclerosis.

Hypertension also called as high blood pressure is a condition in which the force of the blood
against the wall of the artery is higher than the usual and can lead to heart diseases, strokes,
kidney damage or death. The ideal blood pressure is usually considered to be between
90/60mmHg and 120/80mmHg whereas high blood pressure is considered to be 140/90mmHg
or higher.

How stress contributes to cardiovascular diseases?

The answer is still not completely clear. However, there are many possible pathways that can
be linked to cardiovascular diseases. Some are discussed below-

The experience of stress can cause high level of physiological arousal leading to erratic and
rapid heart beat, which can cause stroke, cardiac arrest or even death to a person especially to
individuals with pre-existing heart diseases (Herbert & Cohen 1994). Stress hormones thatare
released during stressful situations (cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine) promotes
atherosclerosis by increases the build up of fatty patches or plaques on arterial wall leading to
the narrowing down of the artery. This narrow artery decreases the blood flow resulting in the
increase of blood pressure. This decrease in flood flow causes less oxygen flow to the heart
muscle which may result in chest pain/angina and heart attack (Herbert & Cohen 1994).

Broken Heart Syndrome

Stress can cause ―Broken Heart Syndrome‖, particularly in women following a
stressful/traumatic event.

According to John Hopkins medicine website-

―the ―broken heart syndrome,‖ is a condition in which intense emotional or physical stress can
cause rapid and severe heart muscle weakness (cardiomyopathy)….. With stress
cardiomyopathy, we believe that the heart muscle is overwhelmed by a massive amount of
adrenaline that is suddenly produced in response to stress. The precise way in which
adrenaline affects the heart is unknown. It may cause narrowing of the arteries that supply the
heart with blood, causing a temporary decrease in blood flow to the heart.‖
Broken heart syndrome, also called stress-induced cardiomyopathy can strike even if you‘re
healthy.

According to the American Heart association website ([Link])-

 ―Women are more likely than men to experience the sudden, intense chest pain-the reaction toa
surge of stress hormones-that can be caused by an emotionally stressful event. It could be the
death of a loved one or even a divorce, breakup or physical separation, betrayal or romantic
rejection. It could even happen after a good shock (like winning the lottery.)…..Broken heart
syndrome may be misdiagnosed as a heart attack because the symptoms and test results are
similar. But unlike a heart attack, there‘s no evidence of blockedheart arteries in broken heart
syndrome.‖

Stress and Cholesterol

Stress can increase the bad cholesterol level in the body directly or indirectly through
unhealthy behaviors. A study by Catalina-Romero et al. (2013) collected data from 91,593
participants and found a positive correlation between those who experienced job stress and
unhealthful cholesterol levels in their body. Another study by Assadi (2017) found that
psychological stress led to higher levels of bad cholesterol (low-density lipoproteins, LDL), and
decreasing levels of good cholesterol (high-density lipoproteins, HDL).
Stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol can trigger the production of cholesterol (a
waxy, fatty substance the liver makes to provide the body with energy and repair damaged
cells). However, excess cholesterol may gradually be accumulated as fats in the body and can
clog the arteries and cause heart attack ([Link]).

Stress may induce behavioral changes such as eating unhealthy foods (high carbohydrate)
which may further increase cholesterol levels.

Personality Traits and Cardiovascular diseases

Friedman and Rosenman (1974) suggested that people with certain personality traits are more
pre-disposed to suffer from stress than others. Consequently, they are more likely to have
coronary heart diseases. They identified two types of personality traits in this context-Type A
and Type B people.

They asked questions like-

Do you feel guilty if you use spare time to relax?
Do you need to win in order to derive enjoyment from games and sports?
Do you generally move, walk and eat rapidly?
Do you often try to do more than one thing at a time?

Type A: They exhibit following characteristics-

-Excessive competitiveness and achievement orientation leading to extreme self-criticism
-An exaggerated sense of time urgency leading to a constant struggle against the cloak and a
compulsion to try to do more than one thing at a time.
-Anger/hostility that may or may not be openly expressed.

Type B: They show opposite characteristics of Type A being more easygoing and much less
demanding of self and others and with no exaggerated sense of time urgency.

Friedman and Rosenman conducted a longit-udinal study over a period of eight and half years
with a sample of 3524 men aged 39-59 years. They found that Type A individuals were twice
as likely to develop CHD than Type B individuals in part due to the higher physiological
reactivity that type A people show.

Later research indicated that only some aspects of Type A behavior, especially anger/hostility
are more important for understanding the risk of heart diseases (McCann and Matthews 1988).
Some research also indicated that particularly anger which is suppressed rather than expressed
could be a significant risk factor for higher physiological reactivity and CHD. It was reported
thatindividuals who suppress their anger are twice vulnerable to mortality than who express
anger (Contrada, 1989).

Behavioral pathways
Stress can adversely affect health by increasing the frequency of unhealthy behaviors, or by
decreasing the frequency of health behaviors, or by disrupting prescribed healthy behavior
patterns (Herbert & Cohen 1994).

Stress may induce many behavioral changes and disruptions in life style and routines.
Common behavioral changes include-
-Disturbances in sleep
-Disturbances in food intake (unhealthy/over-eating)
-Excessive smoking
-Physical inactivity
- excessive drinking of alcohol and so on.

-Such behaviors can be especially problematic for the individuals having pre-existing illnesses
such as heart diseases. These behaviors can increase blood pressure and damage arteries of the
heart.
 Lecture 5: Stress and Infectious Diseases

Stress and Infectious Diseases

Stressful events such as the death of a loved ones can weaken immune system and lead to
various infectious diseases. An interdisciplinary field of study called ―Psychoneuroimmunology‖
studies this relationship between the psychological factors, neurological factors, and immune
system.

Classic experiment that led to the birth of psychoneuroimmunology

In the early 1970s, Ader and Cohen were studying taste aversion using rats as subjects. The
researchers had been giving rats a saccharin solution (sweet taste) accompanied by an
injection of cyclophosphamide, an immunosuppressive drug that also induces gastrointestinal
upset. When the injections stopped, the rats had become conditioned to avoid consuming the
sweet solution. To complete the experimental protocol, they forced the rats to take the
saccharin solution using eye droppers. A surprising observation they made was that some of
the animals they had force-fed with the saccharin later died. The magnitude of the avoidance
response and the mortality rate of the rats was directly related to the volume of solution
consumed.

They hypothesized-Conditioning of immunosuppressive effects (of cyclophosphamide) was

happening in addition to conditioning the taste avoidance response. They added that the tasteof
saccharin alone was enough to stimulate neural signals that suppressed the rats' immune
systems, just as if they had been overdosed with the immunosuppressant. They later found that
behavioural conditioning process could suppress immune responses as measured by antibody
concentrations revealing connections between the brain and the immune system.

Immune System

The immune system protects us from infections and illness from outside microorganisms and
harmful substances. The immune system is very complex and carry out sophisticated
coordinated responses to protect our body. The Key player of immune system is white blood
cells specifically lymphocytes (one type of WBC). There are mainly two types of
lymphocytes:B and T cells.B cells secrete antibodies into the body fluids to destroy antigens.
Each B cells produce a specific antibody when triggered by an antigen. It can recognize free
floating antigens. T cells recognizes specific infected or cancerous cells. T cells are of two
types: helper and killer T cells. Helper T cells (also known as CD4 cells) coordinate immune
responses by communicating with other cells. Killer T cells (also called cytotoxic T
lymphocytes or CD8 cells) directly attack other cells carrying certain foreign or abnormal
molecules on their surfaces.

Other major components include natural killer cells (NK), phagocytes, and cytokines.
 Important organs which are store house of immune cells include bone marrow (soft tissue in
the hollow centers of bones), thymus (lies behind breastbone) and spleen (flattened organ atthe
upper left of the abdomen).

Stress and Immune System

Hans Selye (1975) suggested that stress globally suppresses the immune system and proposed
one of the first model relating stress and immune response. He found that in the stage of
exhaustion of GAS, body runs out of reserve energy and immunity which may result invarious
diseases and even death. Many early studies have supported Selye‘s findings by reporting
association of chronic stress with decrease in natural killer cell, suppression of lymphocyte
responses (Herbert & Cohen, 1993).

In the early 1980s, psychologist Janice Kiecolt-Glaser and immunologist Ronald Glaser were
intrigued by animal studies that linked stress and infection. From 1982 through 1992, they
studied medical students. they found that the students' immunity went down every year underthe
simple stress of the three-day exam period. The students had less number of natural killercells,
which fight tumors and viral infections. They also had fewer infection-fighting T-cells.

Pressman and Cohen (2005) found that social isolation and feelings of loneliness each
independently weakened first-year students' immunity. Loneliness and social isolation may
lead to higher and more intense experience of stress.

Dhabhar and McEwen (1997, 2001) proposed a biphasic model which takes account of type of
stress (acute or chronic) and their affect on immune response. This model states that acute
stress enhances while chronic stress suppresses the immune response. They found that acute
stress increases the immune functions by helping in the redistribution of immune cells in the
body. However, chronic stress exhausts resources and weakens immune responses.

Segerstrom and Miller (2004) conducted an extensive meta-analysis on 293 independent

studies reported from 1960 to 2001 (N=18,941). Analysis of the results confirmed that stress
changes immune functions. Results of the meta-analysis was in line with the proposition of
biphasic model, i.e., the short term stress may enhance immune function as an adaptive
response, but chronic stress suppresses immune response as a result of too much exhaustionof
body resources.

More specifically they found that-

-Acute time limited stressors such as public speaking enhanced natural immunity (defense
against non-specific foreign invaders). However, some aspects of specific immunity (attacks
specific invaders) were suppressed.

-Focal stressful events such as natural disaster or loss of spouse was not strongly associated
with immune changes when taken as a whole. However, specific category such as loss of a
spouse was associated with a decline in natural immune responses.
-Chronic stressors such as living with a handicap, dementia care giving, and unemployment have
negative effects on almost all functional measures of the immune system (both natural and
specific immunity) irrespective of demographic variables such as gender and age.

Further, meta-analysis also showed that the older and sick people are more vulnerable to
stress related immune change.

Stress and Immune System: Mechanisms

Stress Hormones

The relationship between stress and immune function is very complex and many mechanisms
are yet to be discovered. However, research indicated that the stress hormones (pathways
already discussed) such as cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine may make us more
resistant to stressors in short term, but are generally found to impair immune systems in long
term (Boneau et al. 1993). For example, Talbott and Kreamer (2007) found that cortisol-

-Hinder the production as well as activity of white blood cells.

-Suppresses white blood cells to produce chemical messenger that facilitate communicationwith
other immune cells.

-Can also signal many immune cells to shut and stop working

Behavioral pathways

Research also indicated that the behavioral component associated with stressful experienceshas
detrimental effect on immune functions. For example-

excessive drinking of alcohol,

lack of exercise,
sleep difficulties

(Kiecolt-Glaser & Glaser, 1988; Venjatraman & Fernandes, 1997; Savard, Laroche, Simard,
Ivers, & Morin, 2003).

Implications
One important implications of of these findings are that the interventions aimed at stress
reduction (especially chronic stress) such as relaxation, emotion regulation, social support etc.
may attenuation of stress related immune suppression and may help to fight germs (Zakowski,
Hall, & Baum, 1992).
The relaxation response may elicit the secretion of health-promoting chemicals such as
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and which may lead to homeostatic physiologic changes.
Further, the use of self-regulation techniques that calms the mind lowers the activity of
sympathetic nervous system's response to stress and promotes healing process (Gertz &
Culbert, 2009).

In a recent metaanalysis by Shields, Spahr, and Slavich (2020) involving 56 unique

randomized clinical trials and 4060 participants found that-

-psychosocial interventions such as cognitive behavior therapy were associated with positive
changes in immunity over time, including improvements in beneficial immune system
functionand decreases in harmful immune function.

-This enhanced immune functions persisted for at least 6 months following treatment for
participants.

Psychotherapies are aimed at reducing distress and enhancing emotional and mental health.
Therefore, this study indicates that stress management and working towards enhancing
emotional health can increase our immune functions that are long lasting.
 Lecture 6: Stress and Psychological Disorders

Stress and Psychological Disorders

Stress may contribute to the development of various psychological disorders such as depression,
Schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
(Weiten and Lloyd, 2007). Acute stress disorder (ASD) and PTSD will be discussed in more
detail as it directly results from exposure to extremely stressful or traumaticevents.

Traumatic events are life threatening events that may overwhelm the capacity to cope and
people generally responds with ―intense fear, helplessness, and horror‖.

Acute Stress Disorder (ASD)

―Acute stress disorder is an intense, unpleasant, and dysfunctional reaction beginning shortly
after an overwhelming traumatic event and lasting less than a month. If symptoms persist
longer than a month, people are diagnosed as having posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)‖
(Barnhill, 2020). According to the American Institute of Stress, between 5 and 20 percent of
people exposed to trauma such as a car accident, assault, or witnessing a mass shooting
develop ASD. And approximately half of those go on to develop PTSD. ASD was
reclassifiedin the Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders in DSM 5.

Acute stress disorder (ASD) is a psychiatric diagnosis that may occur in patients after
witnessing, hearing about, or being directly exposed to a traumatic event, such as motor
vehicle crashes, acts of violence, work-related injuries, natural or man-made disasters, or
sudden and unexpected bad news. (Kavan & Elsasser, 2012).

Symptoms

It may occur in patients within four weeks of a traumatic event. Symptoms

include-anxiety,
intense fear or helplessness,
dissociative symptoms,
re-experiencing the event, and
avoidance behaviors.
Persons with this disorder are at increased risk of developing posttraumatic stress disorder.
(Kavan & Elsasser, 2012). Symptoms must be present for a minimum of two days, but not
longer than four weeks; patients with persistent symptoms may develop PTSD. Symptoms of
ASD typically peak in the days or weeks after a patient is exposed to trauma, then gradually
decrease over time (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs)
PTSD

PTSD is a mental disorder that may occur among people after experiencing or witnessing
extremely stressful/traumatic events such as war, disasters, accidents, rape etc. PTSD had
many names. It was called as ―shell shock‖ during the world war I and ―combat fatigue‖
duringthe world war II. Serious attention to PTSD was given after the end of Vietnam war in
1975 which resulted in return of many psychologically disturbed US military veterans. Some
studiessuggested that about half million Vietnam veterans were suffering from PTSD even
after a decade of the end of war (Schlenger et al., 1992). The American Psychiatric
Association (APA) added PTSD to the third edition of its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM-III) in 1980.

DSM-5 Criteria for PTSD

Criterion A (one required): The person was exposed to: death, threatened death, actual or
threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence, in the following way(s):
Direct exposure
Witnessing the trauma
Learning that a relative or close friend was exposed to a trauma

Indirect exposure to aversive details of the trauma, usually in the course of professional duties
(e.g., first responders, medics)

Criterion B (one required): The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced, in the following
way(s):

Unwanted upsetting memories

Nightmares
Flashbacks
Emotional distress after exposure to traumatic reminders
Physical reactivity after exposure to traumatic reminders

Criterion C (one required): Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma, in the
following way(s):
Trauma-related thoughts or feelings
Trauma-related reminders

Criterion D (two required): Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the
trauma, in the following way(s):
 Inability to recall key features of the trauma
Overly negative thoughts and assumptions about oneself or the world
Exaggerated blame of self or others for causing the trauma
Negative affect

Decreased interest in activities

Feeling isolated
Difficulty experiencing positive affect

Criterion E (two required): Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after
the trauma, in the following way(s):

Irritability or aggression
Risky or destructive
behaviorHypervigilance
Heightened startle reaction
Difficulty concentrating
Difficulty sleeping

Criterion F (required): Symptoms last for more than 1 month.

Criterion G (required): Symptoms create distress or functional impairment (e.g., social,
occupational).
Criterion H (required): Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.

The symptoms of PTSD are very common after the exposure to a traumatic event. However,
the majority of the people do not develop clinical disorder. According to American
PsychiatricAssociation website, approximately 3.5% of US adults experiences PTSD and 1 in
11 peopleis likely to be diagnosed with PTSD in their life time and women are twice as likely
as men to have PTSD. PTSD can occur to people of any ethnicity, nationality, culture, and
age.

It is very common that many other conditions may co-occur with PTSD such as depression,
anxiety and substance abuse. PTSD can occur to children as well. In some cases, PTSD
symptoms may surface after many months or even years after the traumatic event (Holen,
2000).

PTSD can be treated with psychotherapies and medication. We will discuss few therapeutic
approaches while discussing coping strategies.
PTSD in children

When children experience severe stress may develop long term symptoms (longer than one
month) and can be diagnosed with PTSD. Studies indicate that children can develop PTSD
after exposure to traumatic events such as violent crime, sexual abuse, natural disasters, andwar
(Kaminer, Seedat, & Stein, 2005) .

Diagnosis of PTSD in children

Diagnosis of PTSD in children is very difficult. Kaminer, Seedat, and Stein (2005) reported
following reasons-

(1) PTSD criteria require a verbal description of internal states and experiences, a task beyond
the cognitive and expressive language skills of young children. The clinician must infer from
behavioral observations.

(2) Traumatized children often display many other symptoms apart from the core PTSD
symptoms which are not assessed by standardized scales.
These additional symptoms may include-
-the loss of recently acquired developmental skills (regression),

-the onset of new fears or the re-activation of old ones,

-accidents and reckless behavior,

-separation anxiety (often manifested in anxious clinging), and

-psychosomatic complaints such as stomach aches and headaches

(3) Young children may sometime express post-traumatic anxiety through hyperactivity,
distractibility and increased impulsivity. These symptoms may be confused with attention
deficit/ hyperactivity disorder.

According to Center for disease control and prevention website, PTSD symptoms in children
may include-

Reliving the event over and over in thought or in play or drawings

Nightmares and sleep problems
Becoming very upset when something causes memories of the eventLack
of positive emotions
Intense ongoing fear or sadness
 Have trouble focusing
Irritability and angry
outbursts
Constantly looking for possible threats, being easily startled
Acting helpless, hopeless or withdrawn
Denying that the event happened or feeling numb
Avoiding places or people associated with the event

Acute stress disorder occurs immediately following the source of trauma, and post-
traumatic stress disorder occurs as a long-range effect of this trauma. ASD and PTSD share
many core symptoms, but ASD includes dissociative symptoms such as detachment, reduced
awareness of surroundings, derealization, depersonalization, and dissociative amnesia (APA,
2000)

Complex PTSD (C-PTSD)

CPTSD was originally formulated by Judith Herman, in 1992 to describe distinctive

psychological responses arising from events where an individual is under the sustained and
coercive control of a perpetrator (i.e., torture). Complex PTSD, which has been recently
introduced in the International classification of diseases (ICD)‐11. However, it has not found
place in DSM yet.

CPTSD was excluded from the DSM-5 following the argument of some commentators that the
symptoms of CPTSD can be accommodated within the framework of existing definitions of
PTSD (Resick et al., 2012). This assertion stems from the expansion of the diagnosis of PTSD
in the DSM-5 to encompass symptoms such as self-blame, negative beliefs about the self and
feeling alienated from others (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). CPTSD is considered
to be especially likely to occur following exposure to repeated, prolonged, interpersonal trauma
exposure (Nickerson, et al. 2016) rather than a single traumatic event.

The exposure to traumatic events could be over a period of months or even years such as
torture, prisoner of war situations, long term childhood sexual abuse, prolonged physical or
emotional abuse, or sex trafficking situations. Although most commonly seen in the wake of
prior prolonged childhood abuse, this disorder can also occur in survivors of other severe
traumas, such as torture (Bryant, 2019)

Symptoms
In addition to core PTSD symptoms, CPTSD may include (Bryant, 2019)-
experience disturbances in self‐identity (e.g., negative self‐concept),
emotional dysregulation (e.g., emotional reactivity, violent outbursts), and
persistent difficulties in relationships

It may also include-

periods of amnesia or dissociation,

distorted perspective about the perpetrator, andfeelings

of guilt, shame or lack of self worth.
 Lecture 7: Positive Effects of Stress and Trauma 1

Positive Effects of Stress and Trauma

Stress and trauma may have certain positive effects. With the growth of positive psychology,
the focus on the positive aspects of stress and trauma gained momentum.

There can be three possible ways by which stress can have positive effects (Weiten and
Lloyd, 2007). These are-

• Stressful events help us to satisfy the need for stimulation and challenge

• Stress can inoculate individuals for future stress. In other words, exposure to stress
increases our tolerance for similar events in future.

• Stress can promote/facilitate psychological growth and self-improvement.

Posttraumatic Growth (PTG)/Stress Related Growth

"that which does not kill us makes us stronger.‖

-Friedrich Nietzsche

―The pain of yesterday is the strength of today.‖

– Paulo Coelho

In addition to experiencing various negative symptoms of trauma and stress (such as PTSD),
many people also report various positive changes in their life as a result of facing traumatic
events. These positive psychological changes experienced by people as a result of the struggle
with highly challenging life circumstances is known as PTG (Tedeschi and Calhaoun,2004).
The term ‗PTG was introduced by Tedeschi and Calhoun in 1995. ‗‗suffering and distress can
be possible sources of positive change‘‘ (Tedeschi and Calhaoun, 2004, p. 2).
 PTG is not a direct result of trauma but rather related to how the individual struggles as a
result of the trauma (Tedeschi and Calhoun, 2004). Coping is necessary but not sufficient to
achieve psychological thriving or PTG.

Thriving represents more than a return to equilibrium following challenge.

Research indicate that PTG experiences are fairly common and outnumbers the reports of
psychiatric disorders. For example, one study reported that approximately 30% - 90% of the
survivors of traumatic events report at least some positive changes following trauma
(Tedeschi, Park & Calhoun, 1998).

According to Tedeschi and Calhoun (2004) PTG include four specific criteria:

(1) it calls attention to major trauma disruptions instead of common stressors;

(2) those who experience growth after trauma describe the process as transformative;

(3) the growth is reported as an ongoing process versus being a coping mechanism;

(4) disruption of core beliefs that coexists with traumatic distress is required.

The concept of PTG is not a new concept. Various religions, philosophies, folklores have been
taking about this concept by emphasizing the transformative power of human sufferings.

The presence of PTG does not mean absence of distress. Both can occur simultaneously.

Post traumatic growth can be considered an outcome as well as a process.

PTG and related concepts

PTG is sometimes confused with some related concepts such as resilience, recovery, thriving,
and flourishing.

PTG vs Thriving

Thriving is defined as ―the psychological state in which individuals experience both a sense of
vitality and a sense of learning‖ (Spreitzer et al. 2005, p. 538). Although thriving is associated
with growth, it is more often understood as an everyday occurrence and is not normally linked
to traumatic or significantly adverse experiences (Maitlis, 2019).
PTG vs Flourishing

As with thriving, flourishing is a broader term associated with well-being (Maitlis, 2019).
Flourishing individuals are ―filled with emotional vitality…functioning positively in the
private and social realms of their lives‖ (Keyes & Haidt 2003, p. 6). Thriving, flourishing, and
posttraumatic growth all involve individuals‘ positive functioning and experience above normal
levels. However, PTG occurs only occurs only after the traumatic events, whereas in thriving
and flourishing it may or may not occur after a negative event (Maitlis, 2019).

PTG involves transformation that comes through the struggle with posttraumatic situations.
The idea of transformation is less prominent in thriving or flourishing (Maitlis, 2019).

PTG vs Resilience vs Recovery

PTG is different from the concept of Resilience. Resilience is the ability to bounce back and go
on with life after a hardship. Resilient people return to their baseline level of functioning very
soon after the hardship. PTG on the other hand is not about returning to the baseline, rather it is
an experience of improvement that is deeply profound and significant for the concerned
person. Resilience can be seen to differ from posttraumatic growth in that it emphasizes
stability in the context of trauma, rather than a trajectory of increased positive functioning
(Maitlis, 2019). Recovery is also different in that it involves a return to prior levels of
functioning after a crisis, rather than a trajectory of increased functioning (Maitlis, 2019;
Bonanno et al. 2011).

Domains of PTG

Reports of PTG can be subsumed under 5 dimensions or domains (Tedeschi and Calhaun,
2004). They are-

(1) An increased appreciation for life in general (Finding joy in small things, feelings of being
lucky

(2) More intimate and meaningful relationship with others (realizing the importance of
relationships, finding the real friends, increased sense of compassion and empathy)

(3) Sense of personal strength (realizing your hidden capabilities and potentials, increased
ability to deal and handle things)

(4) New possibilities for one‟s life (Finding new paths and career)

(5) Spiritual and existential growth (Greater engagement with the existential questions, newer
insights into the existential problems)
 Posttraumatic Stress and Posttraumatic Growth

The relationship between posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic stress seems to be very
complex. According to the theoretical model of PTG by Tedeschi and Calhaun, PTS and PTG
are not opposite ends of a spectrum and in fact some degree of PTS is pre-requisite for PTG as
growth comes through struggle with the highly distressing trauma (Tedeschi et al. 2018;
Tedeschi & Calhoun 1995).

Research on the relationship between posttraumatic stress and posttraumatic growth has
produced mixed findings-
-some studies showed greater posttraumatic stress is associated with greater posttraumatic
growth (Lowe et al. 2013).

-some studies reported a negative or an inverted U-shaped relationship, with the highest levels
of growth occurring at moderate levels of stress (Lowe et al. 2013).

-some recent longitudinal studies have found a positive relationship between posttraumatic
stress and posttraumatic growth over time, such that initial levels and increases in
posttraumatic stress predicted increases in posttraumatic growth (Dekel et al. 2012, Lowe etal.
2013).

Types of Traumatic Events and PTG

Research suggests that PTG is a common experience for individuals after a traumatic event.
In general, it has been claimed that the nature of the event itself is less important for
posttraumatic growth than the way that an individual experiences it (Maitlis, 2019). Research
has indicated PTG resulting from diverse traumatic experiences-

Personal traumatic experiences and PTG

Research indicated reports of PTG after personal losses such as-

-bereavement (e.g., Davis et al. 1998);

-medical problems (e.g., Helgeson et al. 2006);

-interpersonal violations, such as rape and other forms of sexual assault (e.g., Frazier et al.
2001).

-community traumas, such as natural disasters (e.g., McMillen et al. 1997) and terrorism (e.g.,
Updegraff et al. 2008).
.
 Work related traumatic experiences and PTG

PTG research remains surprisingly small in the context of work and organizational life.
However, a small body of research explored PTG in certain job contexts which are vulnerableto
trauma (Maitlis, 2019).

Inherently traumatic work/job

PTG has been reported in many inherently traumatic work such as-

-military (e.g., Mark et al. 2018, Tsai et al. 2015),

-police (e.g., Chopko et al. 2018, 2019),

-emergency services (e.g., Sattler et al. 2014, Shakespeare-Finch et al. 2003), and

-disaster/rescue work (e.g., Paton 2006, Shamia et al. 2015).

Together, this research shows that although doing such work often leads to posttraumatic
stress and PTSD, it can also prompt posttraumatic growth (Maitlis, 2019).

Secondary trauma at work

Secondary or vicarious trauma is regular part of job of professionals whose work can be
traumatizing because it involves supporting others who have been traumatized.

Research indicated PTG among health professionals such as labor and delivery nurses,
psychotherapists, social workers, interpreters, clergy, and funeral directors (Cohen & Collens
2013; Manning-Jones et al. 2015).

In many of these cases, PTG is linked to the change and growth that workers witness in their
clients, which prompts in those workers a new appreciation of what is possible, in terms of the
difference they can facilitate, and in some cases it may prompt a spiritual broadening
(Manning-Jones et al. 2015, cited in Maitlis, 2019).

In such cases, empathetic engagement with the clients facilitated secondary PTG (Splevins etal.
2010). Thus, witnessing posttraumatic growth in others can itself be positively transformative
(Maitlis, 2019).
 Lecture 8: Positive Effects of Stress and Trauma 2

Three Models Of PTG (Janoff-Bulman, 2004)

Janoff-Bulman (2004) in her commentaries on PTG article by Tedeschi and Calhaun (2004)
proposed three possible explanatory models of PTG.

Model 1: Strengths through suffering

This model is very apparent in our collective and cultural narratives. Phrases such as ―no pain
no gain‖; ―That which does not kill us makes us stronger‖ are reflective of this idea. As a
resultof struggle with traumatic experiences, many survivors become aware of their hidden
strengths and potentials and develop newer skills and coping abilities that can lead to new
sense of confidence, courage and possibilities in life. This painstaking exercise of self
reflection and rumination may result in new self perception that may be qualitatively different
from the pre-trauma self.

Model 2: Psychological preparedness

As a result of the struggle with the traumatic experiences, survivors are better prepared for the
subsequent hardships and is likely to be less traumatized by the future trauma. This may
happen by changes and rebuilding of the survivor‘s assumptive world. Here PTG is seen as
rebuilding of the assumptive world that accounts the traumatic experiences and their future
possibilities resulting in more shockproof schemas.

This model is more in line with the stress inoculation model (Meichenbaum, 1985) and the
concept of vaccination.

Model 3: Existential Reevaluation

It involves meaning making process aftermath of a traumatic event. Human beings are
meaning making animals and a traumatic event may cause an existential crisis by threatening
the meaning of life. Janoff-Bulman (2004) discusses two types of meaning that define the
struggle of survivors aftermath of a traumatic event-Meaning as comprehensibility and
meaning as significance.

Immediately after the traumatic event, the survivors are concerned with meaning as
comprehensibility, i.e., they struggle to comprehend or make sense of the traumatic event.
They may ask why it happened? Consequently, the survivors may engage with the meaning
as significance, i.e., the survivor may question the significance of the event in their life. They
may ask why it happened to me?

This meaning making process may lead survivors to reevaluate their life and find newer
meaning when a survivor may paradoxically realizes the preciousness and meaning of life atthe
face of loss and meaninglessness. Some may engage in spiritual/religious/existential questions
that may stimulate growth in certain dimensions.

The Process of PTG: The Functional Descriptive Model

Tedeschi and Calhoun (2004) proposed a Functional descriptive model of PTG to explain the
process of PTG.

They used a metaphor of earthquake to explain the process of PTG. They proposed that the
traumatic events are like seismic events that shatters our assumptive world just like earthquake
shatters physical structures. The ―assumptive world‖ includes assumptions/beliefsabout our
life and world which gives meaning and purpose and guides behavior. This threat and
shattering of assumptive world gives rise to significant psychological distress.

They extended this metaphor to the physical rebuilding that takes place after the trauma.
Generally, physical rebuilding are designed to be more resistant to shocks in the future as a
learning process. Similarly, the cognitive rebuilding that take place after the trauma produces
―schemas that incorporate the trauma and possible events in the future, and that are more
resistant to being shattered. These results are experienced as growth‖ (Tedeschi & Calhoun,
2004, p. 5).

PTG is not the direct outcome of trauma. It is the struggle with the new realities aftermath of
trauma that is crucial in determining the extent to which PTG occurs. Traumatic events
challenges/shatters assumptive world leading to distress and automatic intrusive ruminative
thoughts. Further, it leads to engagement in coping responses and intense cognitive
processing to manage overwhelming emotions.

Social support and self-disclosure supports the process of growth by reducing emotional
distress and automatic ruminative thoughts. Ruminative thoughts changes to reflective
thoughts (conscious and deliberate) leading to newer schema change and narrative
development and finally PTG.

PTG is closely connected to the development of wisdom.

PTG may not remove distress completely, but enduring distress may co-exist.

Organismic Valuing Theory Of PTG

Joseph and Linley (2005) proposed the organismic valuing theory of growth through adversity
based on the humanistic psychology. This model provides explanation for why some individual
are able to achieve high levels of growth after the trauma and some fail to do so.

Based on the principle of humanistic psychology, it suggests that human beings have inherent
tendencies towards growth and actualization. In consistency with these tendencies they show
intrinsic motive to rebuild their assumptive world in the aftermath of trauma.

This theory suggests that there can be three possible cognitive outcomes of traumatic
experiences-

Assimilation-help to return to pre-trauma baseline

Negative accommodation-result into psychopathology such as PTSD

Positive accommodation-result into PTG.

This theory has also laid emphasis on social environment as a facilitator of actualizing
tendency that is essentially needed for growth.

PTG and well-being

In general, it appears that reports of PTG, especially when maintained, predict better
subsequent well-being (Joseph & Hefferon 2013).

Disaster workers who experience posttraumatic growth tend to feel they have gained in self -
esteem, a sense of accomplishment and meaningfulness in their work, and a better
understanding of their work (Brooks et al. 2018).

In a meta-analysis of 87 cross-sectional studies relating PTG to health outcomes, growth was

found to be positively related to measures of well-being, including self-esteem and life
satisfaction and negatively related to depression (Helgeson et al. 2006).

PTG and wisdom

Wisdom is considered as psychosocial maturity that integrates cognitive, reflective, and

emotional personality traits (Karelitz et al., 2010). The concept of wisdom often invokes the
stereotypical image of the ―old wise man‖ (Weststrate et al., 2016).
Wisdom accumulates through life experiences, and it has been reported that age affects the
depth of wisdom, and that life wisdom advances with aging (Ardelt, 2016).
Wisdom can be differentiated from PTG. Wisdom is a broader concept that can be found
across the life span of human development and is not restricted to the posttraumatic situations
(Linley, 2003). Wisdom may develop through traumatic experiences, but it need not be
restricted to it.

PTG was equated and covaried with the development of wisdom in the model of Tedeshi and
Calhaoun (2004). In fact, domains of PTG are aspects of wisdom only.

Although both PTG and wisdom have been conceptually linked, there is not much empirical
studies available linking PTG with wisdom. Few studies indicate positive relationship between
them (Webster & Deng, 2015).

Facilitating PTG

Tedeschi and Calhoun (2006) suggest that posttraumatic growth is facilitated by „expert
companionship.‟

Expert companions are people who can listen for extended periods, and repeatedly, to stories
that can involve horror, fear, guilt, shame, and confusion. Expert companions cannot prescribe
posttraumatic growth. They facilitate it through kind and empathic listening. They may be
professionals, friends, or family.

Five Ways to Facilitate PTG

Calhoun and Tedeschi (1999, 2013) outlined five ways to facilitate posttraumatic growth

(1) Education

In order to facilitate growth, it is important to understand and educate oneself about the
trauma, how it is caused by disruption of core belief systems

It is important to make sense of trauma and understand that when a traumatic event shatters our
life assumptions, it is painful, confusing and frightening and may lead to anxiety and repetitive
thinking about the traumatic events such as why did this happen to me? What should I do now?

Processing trauma in this way is normal and may stimulate growth. Expert companion may
facilitate this education process.
(2) Emotion Regulation

Learning to regulate emotions and reduce psychological distress is crucial for PTG.

Managing negative emotions help us to come to our senses and right frame of mind for
deliberate and reflective thinking which is significant for PTG.

One needs to engage in constructive coping such as shifting thinking from loss, failures,
uncertainties to success, possibilities, available resources to deal with the situation and so on.

Coping strategies such as social support, breathing exercises and meditation also can behelpful
(3) Self-disclosure

It is always good to talk about what has happened and is happening, what are you strugglingwith
and so on. Such self-disclosure helps in processing of the trauma and help in finding solutions to
the problems and increases the possibility of receiving social support.

It facilitates meaning making and reflective thinking which are crucial for PTG.
An expert companion can facilitate this process by encouraging trauma survivors to disclose
details about their experience, so that they can begin to work together to understand what
happened and what potential meaning can be found.

Self-disclosure in the form of writing such as dairy writing or other forms of writing can also
facilitate PTG.

(4) Narrative Development

Re-building or reconfiguring core life assumptions and beliefs and life story into a coherent
narrative in crucial for PTG. This new version of the life narrative will incorporate one or more
domains of PTG.

Development of coherent life narrative is crucial in order to proceed to the next chapter of life.
Otherwise, we may be stuck with the event and older narratives.

(5) Service

PTG is facilitated by serving, benefiting, and helping other close people, community and
especially trauma victims similar to themselves.
 Lecture 9

Role of Personality Variables in Stress

Personality variables includes an individual‘s unique and relatively consistent patterns of

behavior and style of response. Personality characteristics differentiates one individual from
another.

Personality traits may influence stress response. Some personality traits are more prone to
stress as compared to others.

Type A and Type B individuals

Type A individuals because of their competitive achievement orientation, time urgency and
anger/hostility are more likely to experience stress in their life as compared to Type B who show
opposite behavioral traits. (details about this personality type was discussed earlier)

Psychological Hardiness

Psychological Hardiness

The concept of psychological hardiness was introduced by Susan Kobasa (1979). She defines
hardiness as a set of characteristics that differentiates stress resistant people from those
vulnerable to stress. Hardiness is characterized by the combination of three characteristics called
3Cs: Commitment, control and challenge.
Commitment: People with strong commitment believe that it is important to remain involved
with people and events that are significant no matter how stressful things become. They don‘t
waste time in withdrawal, alienation or isolation (Maddi, 2006).
Control: People with strong sense of control continue to have an influence on the outcomes of
significant events going on around them, no matter how difficult this becomes. They don‘t let
themselves slip into powerlessness and passivity (Maddi, 2006).

Challenge: People with strong sense of challenge interprets stress as normal and regular partof
life and provides an opportunity to learn, grow, and develop. They believe that comfort and
security is not our birthright (Maddi, 2006).

These three characteristics provide hardy individuals the necessary courage to face stressful
situations and grow out of them (Maddi, 2006).

The initial research

The initial research on hardiness came from a 12 year longitudinal study on 450 male and
female supervisors, managers, and decision-makers of Illinois Bell Telephone (IBT) conducted
from 1975 through 1987 by Maddi and Kobasa. The objective of this study was to find out
individual differences in stress reaction that can be explained by the concept of hardiness.

At the start of the experiment the IBT was under the federal regulation. However, after the 6
year of the study in 1981 deregulation hit the company and created a lot of chaos such as the
company reduced its employees from 26000 to 14000 in just one year. The data collected 6
years after this event showed that about two third of the sample suffered and collapsed in
terms of performance problems, violence, absenteeism, divorces, health problems such as heart
attacks, mental problems etc. However, the other one third of the sample interestingly not only
survived but thrived also. For example, some of them rose up in the management, some joined
other companies and made significant contributions, some started their own firmsetc.

This research indicated that psychological hardiness differentiated this two groups of sample.

Hardiness and stress

Hardiness has been found to be negatively related to both self-report and objective (blood
pressure) measures of stress (Maddi, 1999) and positively associated with psychological well-
being (Maddi & Kobasa, 1984).

Hardiness buffer against the development of anxiety or depression (Rhodewalt & Zone,1989).
Hardiness served as both a protective factor and a resource that promotes the ability to
experience psychological growth following stressful and traumatic events (Waysman,
Schwarzwald, & Solomon, 2001). Hardy individuals appraise stressful events less negatively
(Westman,1990)

Hardiness was associated with lower PTSD symptoms among Vietnam veterans (King et al.,
1998) and buffered the impact of combat exposure on PTSD development (Taft, Stern, King, &
King, 1999).

Psychological hardiness and performance under stress

Individuals high in hardiness have shown better performance under stress in diverse
environments and occupations such as-

-military (e.g., Maddi et al., 2012),

-academia (Maddi, et al., 2009),

-sport (Hanton, Neil, & Evans, 2013),

-fire-fightering (Maddi et al., 2007),

-business (Luszczynska & Cieslak, 2005).

Hardiness also predicts better performance longitudinally and helps to buffer stress within a
stressful environment (De La Vega, Ruiz, Gomez, & Rivera, 2013). People with high hardiness
respond in a facilitative way to the negative stressors in the environment (Mosley & Laborde,
2016)
 Hardiness training

Several studies have reported that hardiness can be taught.

Maddi (1987) developed a hardiness training program to enhance the quality of hardiness
among people.

They proposed that ―hardiness training engages cognition, emotion, and action in coping
effectively with stressful circumstances and uses the feedback from this process to deepen
commitment and control and challenge beliefs about oneself in the world‖ (Maddi, Kahn, &
Maddi, 1998, p. 79).

They further said-

―hardiness training is to teach trainees the skills of transformational coping whereby one can
decrease the stressfulness of circumstances through cognitively and emotionally exploring
one's appraisals of them so as to reach broader perspective and deeper understanding and using
the information gained in this way to develop and carry out decisive, problem–
solving action plans. The second aim of hardiness training is to use the feedback obtained
through the first aim to deepen the motivational self–perceptions of commitment, control, and
challenge‖ (p. 79-80).

Maddi (1987) showed that hardiness training can increase personality hardiness and
decreased subjective (e.g., anxiety and depression) and objective (blood pressure) signs of
strain. They found that results persisted over the 6–month follow–up period.

Some later study also indicated that hardiness training is more effective than
relaxation/meditation and placebo/social support conditions in increasing self reported
hardiness and job satisfaction and decreased strain and illness severity (Maddi, Kahn, &
Maddi, 1998).

Locus of Control

Rotter (1966) proposed the concept of locus of control which was found to differentiate people
on stress vulnerabilities. He coined the term locus of control (LOC) to describe individuals‘
generalized beliefs about causality and control

LoC includes our general expectancies about the connections between one‘s action and its
outcomes.

Locus of control refers to the generalized expectancy to perceive outcomes in life as a result of
one‘s own actions and within one‘s own control (i.e., internal locus of control), as opposed to
being determined by external factors, such as chance or powerful others (i.e., external locus of
control) (Rotter, 1966)
 Internal vs external locus of control
Internal locus of control: People with ILoC generally expects that their actions will lead to
predictable outcomes and consequences. They tend to make internal attributions by explaining
what happens to them as due to their internal or personal factors.

External locus of control: People with ELoC generally expects that outcomes are more
influenced by external factors such as luck, chance etc. They tend to make external attributions
by explaining what happens to them as due to the external or circumstantial factors.

People with high internal locus of control generally try to master their environment, while
thosewith high external locus of control often perceive that outcomes in life are outside their
own control and feel helpless (Keenan and McBain, 1979).

Thousands of studies tend to indicate that the internal locus of control is more beneficial as
compared to the external locus of control in the context of stress and health. For example,

external locus of control are associated with ill health and the internal LOC acts as a buffer
against the effects of stress on health (Bartlett, 1998).

For example, an individual may make an external attributions by believing that there is no point
in joining a professional course as it is very less likely that he will get a job in future.
Consequently, he/she may feel stressed and helpless. Furthermore, job stress is often related tolack
of control over the nature of work.

However, it is fruitful to remember that extremes in either direction (internal or external)

could be maladaptive (Taylor & Cooper, 1989).

LoC and coping style

LoC has also been associated with coping style. External locus of control has been associated
with avoidance coping/ resignation, greater stress and poor health (Evers et al.,
2000; Gianakos, 2002; Gore et al., 2016). Internal locus of control, on the other hand, has
been associated with help-seeking and positive thinking, and lower levels of work stress in
general (Gianakos, 2002; Gore et al., 2016)

Weiner‟s theory of LoC and attribution

Weiner (1979; 1986) incorporated the notion of internal and external locus of control into his
attribution theory. He proposed that in order to predict people‘s expectancies and behaviors, itis
important to evaluate how the cause of the outcome (especially in success and failure situation)
is perceived in terms of its locus of causality (internal/external), controllability, and stability.

This theory tries to identify how people explain or find causes of success and failure.

According to the Weiner‘s model, success and failures can be analyzed in terms of following
characteristics-
(1) Locus of control (internal/personal or external/situational): We may believe a cause is
internal if its origin is within us or external if the cause originate in our environment.

(2) Stability (Stable or unstable): if we believe a cause is stable it is less likely to change over
time and unstable if it is likely to change over time.

(3) Control (Controllable or uncontrollable): This factor was added later. We can
voluntarilychange a controllable factor while an uncontrollable factor is one that we believe
can not bechanged easily.

According to Weiner, success or failure can be attributed to internal/personal causes (e.g.,

ability, motivation) or from external/situational causes (e.g., luck, task difficulty).

He also claimed that those internal/personal and external/situational causes could be either
stable (less likely to change over time) or unstable (more likely to change over time).

According to the theory, four causal factors play significant role in our motivation in
achievement situations: Ability, efforts/motivation, luck and task difficulty.

Stability attributions influence our expectancy or predictions about the future

Controllability influences our persistence on a task
Locus of control influences our emotional reactions

For example a student fail in an exam and he attributes the cause of failure to

(1) Lack of ability (internal, stable, uncontrollable factor)

Low expectancy of future success, low self-esteem/humiliation/shame, leaving or quitting the

setting

(2) Lack of efforts (internal, unstable and controllable

factor)Hopeful and positive anticipation, motivate to amend
past
 Lecture 10

What is Coping?
The concept of coping presumes that there is a condition of stress or adversity. Coping
includes ways to deal with those stress and adversity. Coping strategies include thoughts and
behaviors that we use to manage the demands of stressful situations (Folkman & Lazarus,
1980). Coping skills help us to tolerate and adjust to negative events or situations and to
maintain emotional equilibrium and positive self-image.

Why understanding about coping is Important?

It is significant that we have insights about coping and stress management strategies
because-

It is evident that stress accounts for a significant proportions of physical and mental disorders.
Unhealthy coping strategies are major contributors to these stress related diseases.
Stress cannot be removed from our life. It has to be managed properly to lead a healthy life.

Categories/groupings among coping responses

Coping is a very broad concept with a long and complex history (Folkman and Moskowitz
2004).
Many distinctions have been made within coping responses. Some of the more important
distinctions are-

(1) Problem focused vs Emotion focused coping

(2) Engagement vs Disengagement coping

(3) Adaptive vs Mal-adaptive coping

Emotion-focused vs Problem focused coping

Lazarus and Folkman (1984) suggest that there are two main forms of coping: emotion-
focused coping and problem-focused coping.
Problem focused coping involves tackling or dealing with the problem that is causing stress
such as generating options to solve the problem, implementing steps to solve the problem.
Emotion focused coping are aimed at managing the feelings of distress associated with the
stressful situations rather than the actual problem or the source of the stress such as positive
reappraisal, self controlling etc.
Emotion-focused coping includes a very wide range of responses (Carver, 2019), such as -
self-soothing (e.g., relaxation, seeking emotional support),
expression of negative emotion (e.g., yelling, crying),
focus on negative thoughts (e.g., rumination),
attempts to escape cognitively from the stressful situation (e.g., avoidance, denial, wishful
thinking)
Some behaviors can serve either a problem-focused or an emotion-focused function,
depending on the goal behind their use (Carver, 2019).

For example, seeking social support is emotion focused if the goal is to obtain emotional
support and problem focused if the goal is to obtain advice or instrumental help.
Problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping also tend to facilitate one another
(Carver, 2019).

Effective problem-focused coping diminishes the distress generated by a threat. On the other
hand effective emotion-focused coping facilitate better problem focused coping by diminishing
emotions and helping solving problem more calmly.

Engagement vs Disengagement Coping

Engagement coping is aimed at actively dealing with the stressor or stress-related emotions
while disengagement coping is aimed at avoiding confrontation with the threat or avoiding the
stress-related emotions (Carver, 2019). Engagement coping may include problem focused
coping and forms of emotion-focused coping such as support seeking, emotion regulation,
acceptance, and cognitive restructuring.

Disengagement coping includes responses such as avoidance, denial, and wishful thinking.
Disengagement coping is often emotion focused, because it typically involves an attempt to
escape feelings of distress (Carver, 2019) and it is generally ineffective over long term.
One form of disengagement coping i.e., avoidance will be discussed in more details under
maladaptive coping.

Adaptive vs Maladaptive Coping

People may cope with stress with diverse strategies ranging from maladaptive (unhealthy) to
adaptive (healthy) strategies. Adaptive coping has been defined as an effective means of
coping that allows individuals to adequately address stressors (Brown, Westbrook, &
Challagalla, 2005). Adaptive or constructive coping involves confronting problems, realistic
appraisals of stress and coping resources, learning to recognize and manage disruptive
emotional reactions to stress, and learning to control harmful and destructive habitual
behaviors (Weiten and Lloyd, 2005). Maladaptive coping strategies are generally unhealthy
and has limited value and provide temporary relief.

Common Maladaptive Coping Strategies

Avoidance/Giving up

Avoidance coping represents one of several broad dimensions of coping strategies

characterized by efforts to escape or distance oneself from stressful events and associated
feelings of distress (Weibe, 2019). Many people use avoidance or simply withdrawing from a
stressful situation as a coping strategy. Here the person avoids the stressors rather than
actively deal with them. This may help in short term but apathy and inaction is likely to be
associated with the sadness and dejection and maladaptive in the long term. This may further
proliferate the problems and stress in future. Therefor it is a maladaptive coping strategy. For
example, procrastination. There is no active attempt to solve the problem causing stress or
reduce the distress associated with the stressful situation.
In many situations, the longer a person avoids dealing with the problem, the more difficult or
complex it becomes, and the less time is available to deal with it when one cannot avoid it any
longer. E.g., procrastination
Avoidance coping mostly include emotion focused coping strategies, which is aimed at
minimizing the emotional consequences of stressful events rather than to deal with thestressor
directly. The use of avoidance coping is influenced by both dispositional and situational
factors (Weibe, 2019).
Individuals who have personality traits that are linked to the behavioral inhibition system such
as neuroticism are more likely to use avoidance coping strategies than those who have traits
that are linked to the behavioral activation system such as optimism and extraversion. One‘s
personal and environmental resources also influence the use of avoidance coping strategies.

Avoidance coping is more common among people with fewer personal, economic, and social
resources (Holahan & Moos, 1987).

Learned helplessness and avoidance coping

Avoidance coping is more common when one is dealing with situations that cannot be actively
altered (Weibe, 2019). Martin Seligman (1967) proposed the concept of ―learned helplessness‖
(LH) which is also related to the giving up/avoidance [Link] helplessness occurs
after an individual repeatedly experience negative uncontrollable situations and become
passive and unmotivated and stay that way even after the environmentchanges so that
success/control is possible. Learned helplessness was discovered accidentlyby psychologists
Martin Seligman and Steven Maier in 1967.
They were studying the effects of an inescapable shock upon subsequent escape and avoidance
learning in an animal model (dogs).Dogs that were classically conditioned to expectan
inescapable electrical shock after hearing a tone made no attempts to escape when later shifted
to an shuttle box even though simply jumping over the low barrier would provide them relief
from the shock. Here the individual believes that efforts are futile as failure is inevitable. Here
the individual learned to be helpless.
Uncontrollable and undesirable event ------> Perceived lack of control ----- > Generalized
helpless behavior
LH may contribute to other psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety.
In general, avoidance coping is less adaptive than approach coping, and is associated with
poorer subjective well-being, psychological adjustment, and physical health (Weibe, 2019).
Giving up/avoidance could be adaptive in certain circumstances where it is pointless to keep
adjusting such as a job in which one is not equipped to handle even after repeated efforts or
one is faced with unattainable goals.
Avoidance coping that occur in the early stages of dealing with a stressful event appear to be
adaptive as it give time to develop skills and resources to manage stress (Suls and Fletcher
1985). Similarly, avoidance strategies such as distancing may be adaptive when dealing with
uncontrollable stressful events such as loss and bereavement (Carver, 2006)

Self-indulgence

It basically means excessive/unrestrained or impulsive satisfaction of ones desires, appetites, or

urges. For example, smoking, drinking, internet addiction etc. Stress may lead to reduced
impulse control and self-indulgence behavior (Tice, Bratslavsky, & Baumeister, 2001). As a
response to stress, people may develop alternative rewards as a compensation by substituting
forms of satisfaction such as eating, smoking or drinking (Moos & Billings, 1982). Here people
turn away from their negative feelings and try to escape by turning to something that feels
better. So, it gives temporary relief.
Self-indulgence has marginal value as a coping strategy and too much of this behavior may
pose serious risks and problems such as excessive drinking may be harmful to health. It may
feel good in short term but has negative health, economic and other consequences.
Nowadays, one of the most prevalent form of self-indulgence is internet addiction. In fact
because of its widespread prevalence, many researchers have been arguing to include internet
addiction disorder in the DSM. Its symptoms primarily include impulsive use of internetby
staying online longer than intended and experiencing moodiness, depression, irritability when
not online. Furthermore, such addiction adversely affects relationship, job and career (Cash,
Rae, Steel, & Winkler, 2012). Some people exhibit pathological specific type of internet
addiction when used for specific purpose such as gambling or pornography while others may
exhibit a general and global pattern of internet addiction (Davis, 2001; cited in Weiten &
Lloyd,2007).

Self-blame and negative thoughts

In response to stress, people tend to engage in excessive negative thoughts and self-blame
which may be maladaptive and counterproductive. Realistic self-blame may be necessary in
many circumstances. However, many people tend to engage in irrational thoughts and self-
blame which are also called as catastrophic thinking. Such thought processes may have
adverse impact on our psychological and emotional health.
Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck did pioneering research in this direction. Beck (1987) proposed
that people with excessive negative thoughts often-

(1) irrationally attribute failures to personal shortcomings.

(2) Focus more on negative feedback from others and ignore positive feedback

(3) Make pessimistic projections about their future.

More detailed discussion will be made about the role of thoughts in coping while discussing
constructive coping.
 Lecture 11

Defensive Coping

Defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological responses that distorts reality to protect
people from being overwhelmed by the feelings of anxiety, painful emotions, ideas and drives.
These are unconscious ways of coping with anxiety. For example, sometimes people refuse to
admit some aspects of reality by denying or blocking it from experiencing it as accepting it may
cause anxiety. For example, a smoker may deny that smoking is bad causes cancer as accepting
this fact and smoking may cause anxiety.
The idea of defense mechanisms is one of the original contributions of Sigmund Freud who
proposed the theory of psychanalysis. His daughter Anna Freud further developed and
elaborated on these ideas.
Freud discovered five major properties of defense mechanisms (Vaillant, 1992)-

(a) Defense mechanisms are unconscious mental processes.

(b) They help us to manage instincts and affect.

(c) They are discrete from each other (there are varieties of defense mechanisms)

(d) They are dynamic and reversible

(e) They can be adaptive as well as pathological.

Basics of Freud‟s theory

It is necessary to understand some of the basic ideas of Freud‘s theory to understand defense
mechanisms.

Levels of mind
According to Freud, there are three levels of mind-Conscious, sub-conscious/pre-conscious,
and unconscious. This division is made based on the level of awareness each part of the mind
has. Each of these level plays their role in human behavior.

Conscious mind consists of all thoughts, memories, feelings that we are aware or consciousin
a moment.
Preconscious/subconscious mind consists of thoughts, feelings, and memories that are not
conscious at the moment but can be easily brought into the conscious mind.
This is neither fully conscious nor fully unconscious.

For example, you may not recall the name of a person you met in past immediately but with
some effort it is possible. This part of the mind is more like a mental waiting room.
Unconscious mind consists of all mental processes that are inaccessible and outside our
conscious mind.
However, it influence our behavior and thoughts continuously and is a major source of
behavior.
It mostly consists of repressed unpleasant and unacceptable experiences and feelings.
According to Freud, this is the largest part of our mind.
Iceberg analogy

Freud used the analogy of iceberg in water to explain these levels of mind. A small portion or
tip of the iceberg above water represents conscious mind. The part of the iceberg submerged
but visible represents preconscious mind. The largest part of iceberg lies below the water and
not visible represents our unconscious mind.

Structure of personality
Freud viewed human personality as energy system and the nature of personality is determined
by the distribution of energy among ID, EGO, and SUPER-EGO.
ID
It is the reservoir of psychic energy and operates on pleasure principle, i.e. it motivate us seek
pleasure and avoid pain. It is irrational, illogical, primitive and drives people to seek immediate
gratification of desires.
It is instinctual and immature component of our personality.
This is the primary component of personality and only component present from birth. It is
entirely unconscious. A baby after birth is entirely ruled by the ID component of the
personality.

EGO
The ego starts to develop at around the age of 3 years from the ID.
EGO operates on the reality principle, i.e. it ensures socially acceptable ways of ID impulses.
It is the rational part of our personality that postpones the gratification of ID impulses to a later
appropriate time. In order to deal with the reality, EGO resorts to defense mechanisms by
distorting reality.

SUPER-EGO

It is the last component of our personality that begins to develop at around the age of 5 years.
It operates on the moral principle, i.e. it internalizes moral standards of right and wrong from
the society and parents and directs our behavior and judgments.
It focuses on what is ideal rather than what is real.
ID, EGO, and SUPER-EGO continuously interacts with each other and a healthy personality
will have a balanced interaction between them and imbalances will lead to maladaptive
personality.
For example, a very dominant ID in a person may make him highly impulsive and may engage
in behavior without any concerns for appropriateness such as a criminal. On the other hand a
person with a very dominant SUPER-EGO may become overly idealistic, moralistic and
judgmental.
The EGO has a tough duty to balance the demands of both ID and SUPER-EGO. Therefore,
EGO sometimes resorts to various defense mechanisms to maintain this balance.

Various defense mechanisms

Following are some of the most common defense mechanisms used by people-
Repression and suppression
Repression is unconscious removing/blocking/forgetting unpleasant thought, impulses or
memories. For example, sometimes people are not able to remember traumatic memories that
happened in childhood.
Suppression is very similar to repression. Only difference is that in suppression people
consciously remove unpleasant feelings/thoughts/memories out of their awareness.

Denial
It is simply refusing to admit or accept a particular aspects of reality. People use denial when
they are unable to face or accept some aspect of reality of their life. For example, a person
addicted to drugs may deny that he/she is doing anything wrong.

Regression

When confronted with stress and anxiety, sometime people display immature behaviors that
have relieved anxiety in the past. Here people revert back to the behavior of earlier
developmental stages. For example, an adult might respond to a frustrations by crying or
throwing tantrums.
Rationalization

Here we give logical/rational or socially acceptable reasons for our unacceptable behaviors or
feelings. For example, people may rationalize their failure by blaming others or outside
situations.

Intellectualization

Here we reduce anxiety by reacting to an event or situation in a detached, cold ways. It helpsus
to avoid thinking about emotional aspect of an event by focusing on the intellectual
components. For example, reacting to a death of loved one by saying that everybody will die
one day and we can not control death.
Displacement

It involves taking out our frustrations/aggressions/impulses on people or objects that are less
threatening. For example, displaced anger or aggression is very common where people express
take out their anger on spouse that actually originated after a bad interaction with theirboss.

Projection

Here people attribute their own unacceptable characteristics or qualities to another person. For
example, a person with adulterous nature may blame his partner of cheating him.

Reaction formation

Here the person tries to deal with anxiety by behaving in opposite ways of his actual feelings
and thinking. By using this defense mechanisms people hide their true feelings about
something by showing exaggerated opposite behavior. For example, a person expressing
exaggerated sadness/crying on the death of a person who was disliked by him.

Compensation

It involves developing talents in one area to compensate for failure in other area. For example,
developing talents and skills in sports to overcome weakness in academics.

Sublimation
It involves expressing unacceptable impulses by converting them into a more acceptable form.
For example, a person with a lot of anger and aggressive impulse express his anger or aggression
by joining boxing. This is one of the most healthy and successful defense mechanism.

Are all defense mechanisms pathological?

Defense mechanisms vary in their adaptive functions and some are very commonly used by
people. However, excessive use of defense mechanism can be detrimental to our mental
health.
Vaillant (1986) proposed a hierarchical structure of defense mechanisms. He proposed that
there can be four levels of defense mechanisms-
Level 1: Psychotic/pathological defenses (denial, extreme projection)
Level 2: Immature defenses (Fantasy, projection)
Level 3: Neurotic defenses (Displacement, intellectualization, reaction formation, repression)
Level 4: Mature defenses (Sublimation, humor, suppression)
 Lecture 12

Constructive Coping

Constructive coping involves dealing with the stress in a relatively healthy and positive ways.
We are not born with the capability for coping and most of us are not exposed to the stress
management techniques. Consequently, we struggle in our life while dealing with difficulties of
our life.
Stress create tension which is not inherently bad (Antonovsky, 1987). Our quality of life
willdepend on how we manage this tension.
Therefore, it is essential that we learn and develop coping skills that are constructive and
healthy for the management of stress.

Effective coping skills reduces distress and lead to positive, healthy outcomes.
Caplan (1964) identified seven characteristics of effective coping skills. They are-

(1) Actively exploring reality and being willing to seek out information

This is about realistic assessment of the situation by finding accurate information and it help us
to cope with the situation in much better way.
Often our fears, anxieties, and stress are result of exaggerated thoughts and beliefs.
(2) Frustration tolerance and a willingness to express both positive and negative
feelings freely

As coping involves managing emotions, expression of emotion both positive as well as

negative can be helpful in this direction especially in a safer way.
Bottling-up of emotions can complicate the process of emotion regulation.
(3) Actively seeking out help from others

Seeking social support is one of most significant coping resources and may provide resourcesfor
both emotion focused and problem focused coping.

(4) Breaking problems into manageable parts and working through them
It is more stressful and difficult to deal with big problems. Breaking a big problem into smaller
manageable chunks is easier to deal with and is less stressful.
(5) Being aware of fatigue and pacing coping efforts while maintaining control in as
many areas of functioning as possible.

Coping with stress and crisis can lead to fatigue and exhaustion. Therefore, it is important to
recognize our limits and take care and pace coping efforts in such a way that we can maintain
control in as many areas as possible.
(6) Mastering feelings where possible, being flexible, and possessing a willingness to
change

it is necessary to accept that we feel the way we do and then to control our reactions and
 responses for better outcomes.
One need to be flexible in their approach and motivation to change.
(7) Having trust in oneself and others and maintaining a optimism on outcomes

By having trust in your ability to deal with your situation and having faith in the others who
aresupporting you, it is easier to deal with the demands of your life.

It is also important to maintain an optimistic outlook on outcomes to succeed in coming out of

the crisis.

Coping Effectiveness Training (CET)

Chesney, Folkman, et al (1996, 2003) developed coping effectiveness training framework to

deal with the stressors more effectively.
The framework converts the major ideas of stress and coping theory into more practical
straightforward steps.

This framework includes three steps necessary for effective coping-

(1) Specificity of stressor: Identify stressors and break them from general to more specific
stressors.

(2) Changeability of stressors: Sort your stressors into changeable and unchangeable
aspects.

(3) Match strategies with the source of stressors

General vs specific stressors

Effective coping starts with breaking a large global stressful situation into more manageable
specific stressors that needs attention. This approach reduces our stress as we have to dealwith
one chunk of stressor at a time.

Focus on more specific and recent event that needs attention rather than on large global
situation. Ask Who, What, Where and When to get to specific event or situation.

Focus more on specific recent situation that needs attention.

Changeable and unchangeable situations

Some situations can be changed while others can not be.

Changeable stressors- need to quit smoking Unchangeable
stressors-Loss of loved one

Many situations are complex in which some aspects can be changed but others cannot. What
one person sees as unchangeable, another person may consider to be changeable.
 Match the coping strategies with the situation

Effective coping involves using different types of coping while dealing with changeable and
unchangeable situations.
Changeable situation -------- Problem focused coping (changing distress causing problem)
Unchangeable situation --------- Emotion focused coping (managing distressing emotions)
Frustrations and maladjustment happens when people do not match appropriate coping to the
situation.

Physical ways of coping

Physical exercise

Most of us are aware of the physical health benefits of exercise. However, research indicate
that exercise also promotes mental health and reduces stress levels.
Physical exercise particularly aerobic exercises received attention in stress research such as
running, dancing, and other aerobics.
Studies indicated that people report feeling calmer after 20-30 minutes of aerobic exercise
which may last several hours after exercise (Jackson, 2013).

Possible mechanisms between exercise and stress reduction

Exercise and physiological changes

According to one Harvard medical school publication (2011), physiological impact of
exerciseinclude-
-Reduction of stress hormones such as cortisol
-Release of endorphins which acts as painkiller and enhances mood (that‘s why people feel
‗high‘ after aerobic exercises.)
Other physiological benefits are-
-exercise-induces increases in hypothalamic temperature which promote tension reduction
following exercise (Breus & O'Connor,1998).

-anxiety and stress reduces following exercise may be caused by a post-exercise decrease in
brain cortical activity (Breus & O'Connor,1998).

Exercise and time out hypothesis

Exercise reduces stress and anxiety by giving a break from whatever is causing an individual
problems or worry. This is called as time out hypothesis (Breus & O'Connor,1998; Bahrke &
Morgan, 1978).

A study that tested the time-out hypothesis by measuring state anxiety in four conditions-quiet
rest, study, exercise, and studying while exercising.

They reported that the ‗‗exercise only‘‘ condition had the greatest calming effect. However,
when participants were not given a break from their stressor in the ‗‗studying while exercising‘‘
condition, exercise did not have the same calming effect (Breus & O'Connor,1998).

How much exercise is necessary?

Moderate to vigorous aerobic exercise program (150 minute moderate and 75 minute vigorous
per week) is sufficient to bring out necessary beneficial physiological effects. However, for
taking time out or break from stressors, a shorter duration activity can serve purpose especially
when lack of time or fatigue issues are there (Jackson, 2013).
 Lecture 13: Relaxation exercises for coping

Relaxation Exercises

Relaxation exercises are becoming increasingly popular as a method of teaching people tocope
with the stress and anxiety.
Relaxation response is opposite to stress response.

Deep Breathing/Diaphragmatic Breathing

Have you noticed how you breathe when you are relaxed and when you are anxious/tensed? Our
breathing pattern can influence our mental and physical state and health.
There are two basic patterns of breathing-

(1) Thoracic (Chest) breathing.

(2) Diaphragmatic (Abdominal) breathing.

Thoracic or chest breathing is shallow rapid breaths in the upper lungs (near chest). On the
other hand, diaphragmatic or abdominal breathing is deep, slow breathing in the lower lungs
(in abdomen). Our chest area moves during the chest breathing while abdomen or stomach
moves in diaphragmatic breathing. Deep breathing is fundamental of all relaxation exercises.
According to one Harvard medical school publication, deep breathing is becoming more and
more unnatural for todays generation. One major reason is related to our concept of ideal body
image. A flat stomach is considered attractive to both men and women and consequently we
hold in our stomach muscles. This may interfere with deep abdominal breathing and gradually
chest breathing becomes normal. In shallow breathing, the lowest part of the lungs doesn't get
proper share of oxygenated air.

Mind and Breathing Pattern

When we are anxious, stressed, or disturbed, our breathing pattern becomes rapid, shallowand
irregular, i.e, our breathing changes to thoracic breathing.
Interestingly, by changing breathing pattern we can change our mental experiences. If we
consciously change our breathing to slow, deep, and abdominal during anxiety or stress, it will
activate parasympathetic system and induce relaxation and calming effect.
Slow, deep breathing has been shown to increase parasympathetic activity (Pal, Velkumary, &
Madanmohan, 2004).
A growing number of empirical studies have revealed that diaphragmatic breathing may trigger
body relaxation responses and benefit both physical and mental health (Ma, yue, et. al., 2017)

A Simple Deep Breathing Exercise

Sit or lie down in a comfortable position in a quite place.
Put one hand on your belly and the other hand on your chest.
Inhale, taking a deep breath through your nose. As you inhale feel your belly rise and push
your hand out. Your hand on the chest should not move.

After a short pause, exhale, breathe out through your pressed lips as if you were whistling. As
you exhale your hand on your belly should fall back, and use it to push all the air out.

Do this breathing few times (5-10 times) until you feel relaxed. Take your time with
eachbreath.

Progressive Muscle Relaxation

One of the most popular relaxation exercise developed by Jacobson (1938) called progressive
muscle relaxation (PMR). Progressive Muscle Relaxation teaches you how torelax your
muscles through a two step process. First, you systematically tense particular muscle groups
in your body, such as your neck and shoulders. Next, you release the tensionand notice how
your muscles feel when you relax them.

Mind-body connection

According to Dr. Jacobson, There is a direct relationship between tension in the mind and
tension in the body muscles. Anxiety and stress creates tension or tighten up muscles in the
body. This tightness in the muscle leads to various unpleasant feelings in the body such as
headache, pain in neck, chest, back etc. These unpleasant feelings in the body further
increases stress and anxiety that again increases muscle tensions. This is a vicious cycle.
Relaxation is the only way to break this vicious cycle. Relaxation is a skill that we need to
learn. PMR is one such skill that induces relaxation very easily and can be learned by
everybody.
PMR works based on the principle of one cannot feel anxious or stressed when physically
relaxed. (Jacobson, 1977).

Before You Start

Preparation

Set aside about 15 minutes for the exercise.

Find a quiet and comfortable place.
Remove your shoes and wear loose clothing.

Consult your doctor before performing PMR if you have any underlying medical conditions that
hinder physical activity.

Do not perform if you have broken bones or pulled muscles.

Avoid doing it immediately after heavy food.
General Instructions for PMR

Start with deep breathing

Before you begin, take few slow, deep breaths.
Tensing muscle group

As you breathe in, tense the first muscle group as hard as you can for five to ten seconds:
🢝 Feel the tension in your muscles.
🢝 It may cause some discomfort or shaking but not pain.
🢝focus and tense only the target muscle group.

Relaxing muscle group

Then while you exhale, fully release the tensed muscles and [Link]
how the stress leaving the target body part.
Notice the difference between tension and relaxation.
Fully immerse in the experience of relaxation.

Rest

Take 10-20 seconds rest and relax.

Repeat tensing and relaxing each of the muscle groups progressively from toe to head.

See video lecture for the detailed instructions and procedure of PMR
 Lecture 14: Mental ways of coping

Humans are imperfect information processors and we develop many distortions or

dysfunctional thinking patterns. These dysfunctional thinking patterns is common to all
psychological disturbances. A large percentage of our thoughts are not factual. They are
irrational and colored by our biases, negativities, insecurities and so on. Therefore, manytimes
symptoms of stress, anxiety, depression and other negative emotions are actually caused by
distorted/ dysfunctional thinking patterns. Therefore, one of the useful way of dealing with
stress and other emotional problems is to change our thinking patterns.

ABC Theory

Albert Ellis (1957) developed Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) that focus on
changing the thinking or beliefs pattern to reduce maladaptive emotions and behavior.
According to Ellis, you feel the way you think. Therefor, feelings can be changed by changing
our thinking patterns. Problematic emotional reactions are caused by negative self talk which
Ellis called as irrational/catastrophic thinking. Ellis used ABC sequence to explain this idea.

See video lecture for detailed description of ABC theory with examples

Irrational/Catastrophic Thinking

According to Ellis, an irrational idea or belief has following characteristics (Will Ross,
REBTnetwork)-
It distorts reality.
It is illogical.
It prevents you from reaching your goals.
It leads to unhealthy emotions.
It leads to self-defeating behavior.
We have many irrational ideas and beliefs. However, Ellis found out that there are three main
and core irrational beliefs. Others are variations of these beliefs. They are based on a demand
– about ourselves, others, or the environment. These are-

1. "I must be outstandingly competent, or I am worthless."

2. "Others must treat me considerately, or they are absolutely rotten.―

3. "The world should always give me happiness."
These catastrophic thinking are based on irrational assumptions, are automatic habitual and
unconscious.
These beliefs take the shape of absolute statements and has many thinking errors such as-

•ignoring the positive,

•exaggerating the negative, and
•overgeneralizing.
Reducing Catastrophic/Irrational Thinking

The major aim of the REBT is to reduce the irrational thinking using our logical and rational
faculties. In this way we will be able to change our emotional experiences in the positive
direction. There can be two major steps in the process-

(1) Detecting irrational thoughts

(2) Disputing the irrational assumptions

Detecting Irrational Thoughts

Ask yourself ―why am I getting upset or emotionally disturbed?‖

Examine your self talk closely to find out irrational thoughts and expectations
Spot unrealistic pessimism and exaggeration in your thinking
See if you are using keywords such as never, must, always which are typical of catastrophic
thoughts.

Disputing Irrational Beliefs

For disputing irrational beliefs we should employ our reasoning process to remove the
irrationality.

Albert Ellis proposed asking following questions as a technique to dispute irrational beliefs-

(1) What is the self-defeating irrational beliefs do I want to dispute?

(2) What evidence exists of the falseness of this belief?

(3) Does any evidence exist of the truth of this belief?

(4) `What is the worst that can happen if you give up this belief?

(5) And what is the best that can happen if you give up this belief?

How to dispute irrational thoughts? An exampleWhat

is the self-defeating irrational beliefs do I want to dispute?
-I must receive love from someone for whom I really care.

Source: [Link]
What evidence exists of the falseness of this belief?
-No law of the universe exists that says that someone I care for must love me (although I would
find it nice if that person did!).

-If I do not receive love from one person, I can still get it from others and find happiness that
way

- If no one I care for ever cares for me, which is very unlikely, I can still find enjoyment in
friendships, in work, in books, and in other things

-If someone I deeply care for rejects me, that will be most unfortunate; but I will hardly die!
Source: [Link]

Does any evidence exist of the truth of this belief?

No, not really. Considerable evidence exists that if I love someone dearly and never am loved in
return that I will then find my-self disadvantaged, inconvenienced, frustrated, and deprived.

I certainly would prefer, therefore, not to get rejected. But no amount of inconvenience amounts
to a horror. I can still stand frustration and loneliness.

Source: [Link]
What is the worst that can happen if you give up this belief?
I would get deprived of various possible pleasures and conveniences.

I would feel inconvenienced by having to keep looking for love else-where.

Source: [Link]

What is the best that can happen if you give up this belief?
I could devote more time and energy to winning someone else’s love—and probably find some-
one better for me.

I could devote myself to other enjoyable pursuits that have little to do with loving or relating,
such as work or artistic endeavors.

I could find it challenging and enjoyable to teach myself to live happily without love.
Source: [Link]

Final Thought
Ellis reported that it takes time and practice in changing our beliefs. We need to continually
work on recognizing our irrational beliefs, disputing them, and transforming our negative
emotions into positive emotions.
 Lecture 15: coping with social support

Coping with Social Support

Human beings are social animal and we are programmed to bond with others. This is a
fundamental need which does not fade with age. It has a profound implications for our mentaland
physical health
Social support can be defined as ―information from others that one is loved and cared for,
esteemed and valued, and part of a network of communication and mutual obligations‖.
(Taylor, 2011, page 180).
Social support can be thought of as the soothing impact of friends, family, and acquaintances
(Baron & Kerr, 2003).The need for stable and strong social relationships with others is a very
powerful, pervasive and fundamental motivation (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). It helps us to
establish a network of close, caring individuals who can provide social support in times of
distress, sorrow, and fear.
Social support is a particularly important personal resource because it helps provide access to
further resources beyond those already possessed by the individual (Hobfoll et al., 1990).
There can be several sources of social support such as parents, friends, relatives, loved [Link]
can also be a source of support for many (Allen, 2003).

Different Forms of Social Support

Social support can take different forms such as tangible support, informational support,emotional
support, invisible support (Taylor, 2011).
Tangible support: Material support such as services, financial or goods
Informational support: Information, advice, or suggestions during difficult or stressful times.

Emotional Support: Words or actions that make a person feel cared about, understood, and
affirmed. For example, emotional support may include empathy, caring, love and trust.
Invisible support: Receiving help from other but is unaware of it. This kind of help is most
likely to benefit the recipient (Bolger & Amarel, 2007) as there can be costs involved with other
types of supports.

Just as we sometimes need different types of support, some people are better at providing one
kind of support than another (although some people are good at more than one type). Social
support is beneficial when there is a match between what one needs and what one receives from
the support network is called as matching hypothesis (Cohen & McKay, 1984). For example,
when a person needs tangible support, providing emotional support may not be helpful and vice
versa.

Effects Of Social Support

Social support can be a good source of coping during the stress. People with high social
support experience less stress and cope more successfully (Taylor, 2010). Different types of
social support such as emotional, tangible, and informational support were found to lower
blood pressure when individuals were faced with short-term stressors (Bowen, Uchino, et al.,
2014).
In a classic study by Berkman and Syme (1979), on a sample of 6928 adults in Alameda
County, California who were followed over 9 years found that compared to those with the
mostsocial contacts, isolated men and women were, respectively, 2.3 and 2.8 times more
likely to die even after controlling for a variety of health-related variables, such as smoking,
alcohol consumption, self-reported health at the beginning of the study, and physical activity.
In another meta-analysis of 148 studies conducted between 1982 and 2007 involving over
300,000 participants found that individuals with stronger social relationships have a 50%
greater likelihood of survival compared to those with weak or insufficient social
relationships (Holt-Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010).

Studies have also shown that higher social support is linked to better survival rates following
cardio-vascular disorders (Brummett et al., 2001), breast cancer (Falagas et al., 2007), and
HIV infection (Lee & Rotheram-Borus, 2001).

Biological Pathways of Social Support

Social support has been found to have beneficial effects on cardiovascular, endocrine, and
immune system (Taylor, 2010). It slows down or reduces the physiological and neuroendocrine
response to stress (Taylor, 2011). Social support has been linked to boosting the immune
system, especially among people who are experiencing stress (Uchino, Vaughn, Carlisle, &
Birmingham, 2012). It is also linked to reduce blood pressure for people performing stressful
tasks (Lepore, 1998). Social support facilitates coping and health outcomes by havingbeneficial
physiological effects in stressful situations.

It is also possible that social support may lead to better health behaviors, such as a healthy
diet, exercising, smoking cessation, and cooperation with medical regimens (Uchino, 2009).

Stress Moderation by Social Support

There are two hypotheses have been explored to understand the role of social support in
moderating the effects of stress-
(1) Direct effects hypothesis: It predicts that the social support is generally beneficial in all
the time (both stressful and non-stressful times).
(2) Buffering hypothesis: It predicts that the social support is primarily beneficial during the
period of high stress. According to this hypothesis, social support acts as a buffer or protective
resource and mitigates the negative effects of stress during the time of high stress

Both the hypotheses were supported by research (Taylor, 2011). Social support has been
found to predict better health among the people in high stress (such as chronic diseases) aswell
as among the people in general regardless of stress.

Social Support Network Analysis: A Convoy Model

A social convoy model: Social convoy model was developed by Toni Antonucci and Robert
Kahn of the University of Michigan in 1980. A convoy represents a group of people moving
together through life. According to the convoy model, individuals are surrounded by supportive
others who move with them throughout the life course. These relationships vary in their
closeness, their quality, their function (e.g., aid, affect, affirmation exchanges), and their
 structure (e.g., size, composition, contact frequency, geographic proximity) (Antonucci,
Ajrouch, & Birditt, 2014).

The convoy measure involves placing close and important individuals into three concentric
circles representing three levels of closeness: close, closer, closest. It is a simple way to
represent complex human relationships.

Example

People in convoy represents our social support network. These people support us and we
support them. It is essential that we maintain our convoy throughout the life particularly people
in our inner circles.

Social Convoy Exercise

You can analyze your social support network or convoy using this exercise-

Inner circle
List people in your inner circle who are very close to you, so close that it is hard to imagine your
life without them

Middle circle
List people in your middle circle who are close to you, but not as close as people of inner circle

Outer circle
List people in your outer circle who are less close but still important in your life.

See video lecture for social convoy exercise

Building Social Support Network

Building social support is an active process which needs active participation. Few suggestions
include-
Identify and improve the problems in existing social network
Build new connections by joining and participating in groups and communities that you like
Altruistic and volunteer work
Alternative sources of support: Pets etc.
(See video lecture for detailed explanation)
Lecture 16: Meditation and Mindfulness

Meditation practices are common to almost all religious and spiritual traditions. It has been
used for healing, insights, and enlightenment. It is during the 1960s that scientific studies
started focusing on the clinical effects of meditation on health after the reports of extraordinary
feats of bodily control and altered states of consciousness by eastern yogis and meditation
practitioners reached the west.

With the scientific advancement and refinement in instrumentation, scientific study of effects
ofmeditative practices became possible. A formal acknowledgement of the academic curiosity
within psychology came in 1977, when the American Psychological Association issued a
statement on meditation stating that-―meditation may facilitate the psychotherapeutic process.‖
They also encouraged research ―to evaluate its possible usefulness‖ (Kutz, Borysenko, &
Benson, 1985, p.1). As a result, both health care professionals and lay people embraced
meditation as a valuable tool for stress reduction and a device for healing both mental and
physical disorders.

What is Meditation?

The word ―meditation‖ is derived from the Latin word ―meditari‖, which means ―to engage in
contemplation or reflection.‖ The word meditation comes from the same Greek and Latin root
as the word medicine.

Manocha (2000) described meditation as a discrete and well-defined experience of a state of

―thoughtless awareness‖ or mental silence, in which the activity of the mind is minimized
without reducing the level of alertness.
Walsh and Shapiro (2006) defined meditation from cognitive and psychological perspective, asa
family of self-regulation practices that aim to bring mental processes under voluntary control
through focusing attention and awareness.

Types of Meditations

There are many diverse meditation techniques are practiced. All these practices can begrouped
into two basic approaches-

(1) concentrative meditations

(2) mindfulness/ insight meditations.

Concentration meditation aims at single pointed focus on some sound, image or sensation to
still the mind and achieve greater awareness (Hussain& Bhushan, 2010). For example,
Transcendental meditation of Mahesh Yogi.
Mindfulness ―involves opening up or becoming more alert to the continuous passing stream of
thoughts, images, emotions and sensations without identifying oneself with them. Such
practice helps in developing non-reactive state of mind, which is the foundation for calm and
peaceful state of consciousness. Here instead of narrowing the focus (concentration)
practitioner becomes alert to the entire field of consciousness‖ (Hussain & Bhushan, 2010,Page.
441). Example, Vipassana and Zen meditations belong to this category.

What is Mindfulness?

Jon Kabat-Zinn is one of the first academician to introduce and popularize mindfulness in the
academic and research circle. He is also the founder of mindfulness based stress reduction
(MBSR). He defined mindfulness as ―Paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the
present moment, and non-judgmentally‖ (Kabat-Zinn, 1994, p. 4).

Based on this definition, Shapiro and her collegues (2006) proposed three components of
mindfulness-

1. ―On purpose‖ or intention, 2. ―Paying attention‖ or attention, 3. ―In a particular way‖ or

attitude

(1) intention, (2) attention, and (3) attitude

Intention

Intention sets the stage for all human [Link] may intent to do mindfulness for various
reasons such as stress reduction, emotion regulation, self-exploration, enlightenment etc.
Intentions may change from time to time.

Research indicated that outcomes of mindfulness practice correlated with the intention
(Shapiro, 1992). For example, those who practiced for stress reduction attained better coping
with stress and those who practiced for self-exploration attained better insights into their self.

Attention

Paying attention is the core of mindfulness practice. Paying attention involves observing the
operations of one‘s moment-to moment, internal and external experience i.e. all contents of
consciousness (Shapiro et al., 2006). Here paying attention includes attending to our present
experiences moment to moment here and now by suspending all interpretations and
judgments. Such attention takes us out of our non-stop wondering disturbed mind to our
senses in the present moment.

Attitude

Attitude here refers to the qualities of attention or how pay attention. This is also an important
aspect of mindfulness practice (Shapiro et al., 2006). Mindfulness also includes paying
attention to our internal and external experiences without evaluation or interpretations, but with
heart qualities such as acceptance, patience, kindness, openness even when there are
unpleasant experiences (Shapiro et al. 2006). Such qualities of attitude give us a break from
non-stop resistance by trying to push away unpleasant experiences and craving for pleasant
experiences. This may be called as peace and real happiness.
Therapeutic Effects of Mindfulness

Research on mindfulness has identified diverse benefits. Some of them are as follows-

Stress reduction (Hoffman et al., 2010; Coffey & Hartman, 2008; Ostafin et al., 2006)

Increases positive affect and decreases anxiety, depression, and negative affect (Farb et al.,2010)

Improvements to working memory (Jha et al., 2010).

Increase in relationship satisfactory and decrease in conflicts (Barnes et al., 2007).

increased immune functioning and physical health (Davidson et al., 2003; Grossman,
Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004).

Improvement to well-being (Carmody & Baer, 2008).

Mechanisms for the Therapeutic Effects of Mindfulness

Reperceiving as a meta-mechanism: According to Shapiro et al. (2006) ―intentionally

attending with openness and non-judgmentalness leads to a significant shift in perspective,
which we have termed reperceiving‖ (page 377).
Re-perceiving means shift in perception. Shapiro et al. (2006) define re-perceiving as de-
identifying with conditioned judgments, shifting focus instead to direct perception of sensations
in the current moment. This reperceiving helps us to dissociate or dis-identify from the non-
stop mental drama and to witness our experiences moment to moment with more clarity and
objectivity.

According to Shapiro et al. (2006), reperceiving is a meta-mechanism that leads to other

additional mechanisms that further contributes to the positive effects of mindfulness. They are-

(1) self-regulation and self-management,

(2) emotional, cognitive and behavioral flexibility,

(3) values clarification and,

(4) exposure

Self-regulation and Self-management

Mindfulness promotes self-regulation and management and other positive effects associated
with it. Reperceiving facilitates greater connection with our experiences. Consequently, we
have more access to experiential information and less experiential avoidance of unpleasant
feelings and emotions. It increases our degree of freedom. This reduces automatic, intrusive,
habitual, and maladaptive reaction patterns.

Values Clarification

Mindfulness helps people to identify the true values and meaning of their life. Ordinarily we
are identified and conditioned by the outside societal forces which dictates our values and
choicesof life. Mindfulness helps us to break from the influences of these forces and objectively
look atour life, reflect and rediscover our true values and meaning of life.

Cognitive, Emotional and Behavioral Flexibility

Mindfulness enhances flexibility at all levels, i.e., mental, emotional and behavioral levels.
Reperceiving increases the clarity and objectivity to our moment to moment experiences.
Consequently, our degree of freedom and choice to respond in a situation increases either
mentally, emotionally or behaviorally. We become less and less victims of our environment,
thoughts and emotions.

Exposure

Exposure is a technique used in various therapies such as phobias. The basic idea is that
people gets desensitized when systematically exposed to an unpleasant emotions again and
again. Mindfulness brings about many positive changes by the principle of exposure. In
mindfulness, we connect directly with the moment to moment experiences including negative
emotions and observe them without avoidance and resistance. This approach reduces our
negative, maladaptive, and neurotic emotional patterns such as phobias, anxieties etc.

All these mechanisms may lead to may associated positive outcomes discussed earlier.

Instructions for Mindfulness Practice (See video lecture)

 Module 6: Beyond Stress And Recovery

Lecture 17: Positive Mental Health and Well-

being

Positive Mental Health and Well-being

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as:

… a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity.

Mental health is clearly an essential part of this definition.

Mental health is described by WHO as:
… a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope
withthe normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a
contribution to his or her community.
This definition clearly indicates that the mental health is more than the absence of mental
illness. In a true sense, It is state of well-being beyond mental illnesses. In this positive sense
mental health is the foundation for well-being and effective functioning for an individual and
fora [Link] definition also suggests that mental, physical and social functioning are
interdependent. Despite this, mental health is still thought of as a luxury and not a fundamental
aspect of our health.
Mental health is often used synonymously with mental health conditions or illnesses such as
depression, anxiety etc. However, the concept is more than that. In the broader sense, if a person
is not having mental illnesses does not necessarily mean that they are experiencing positive
mental health or flourishing. Therefore, it is a complex concept.
Mental health has two major dimensions-
-Mental health conditions/illness
-Positive mental health experiences such as happiness, life satisfaction, self-realization,
meaning in life etc.

Well-being is concerned primarily with the promotion of positive mental health experiences.

What Is Well-being?

Well-being refers to optimal functioning and experience (Ryan and Deci 2001). The Royal
Society in the UK (2004) defined wellbeing as a "positive and sustainable mental state that
allows individuals, groups and nations to thrive and flourish.” This means at the level of an
individual, wellbeing refers to psychological, physical and social states that are distinctively
positive (Huppert, Baylis and Keverne, 2004). It is about enriching human life and enhancing
human functioning.
 Well-being Categories
Well-being has been defined in diverse ways. However, most of these definitions falls under
four distinct categories (Huta, 2015). They are-
Orientations: What a person seeks in life and why (such as values, motives, ideals, and
goals.
Behaviors: The actual activities that a person does (e.g., attending parties, writing down
goals).
Experiences: Momentary or typical subjective feelings, emotions, and cognitive-
affectiveappraisals (e.g., positive affect).
Functioning: How well a person is doing in life in terms of abilities, accomplishments, health
habits etc. (such as being good at self-regulation, achieving maturity).

Hedonism vs Eudaimonism

Within each categories of well-being, researchers have focused on different contents of well-
being (Huta, 2015). For example, the contents of experience category may include positive
and negative affect, life satisfaction etc. Although there are numerous and complex definitions
of well-being, the majority of researchers agree that the contents of well-being fall under two
higher order philosophies or traditions – hedonia and eudaimonia (Huta, 2015).

Historical Roots of Hedonism and Eudaimonism

The debate between hedonism and eudaimonism has a long history. In the 4th century BC, this
debate was prominent between the two Greek philosophers-Aristotle and Aristippus. Aristotle
was the proponent of eudaimonism and suggested that a good life should be in accordance with
our true nature, virtue and reason. Aristippus on the other hand was the proponent of hedonism
and said that pleasure is the only good in life and pain only evil. The goal of life should be to
gain maximum pleasure.
Since then, many philosophers took side of both the traditions. For example, Hobbes, bentham
took the side of hedonism while plato, Kant took the side of eudaimonism.

Biological Roots of Hedonism and Eudaimonism

Pleasure seeking or hedonia is regulated by the hot systems of the brain (older subcortical
part of the brain) while self-reflective process akin to eudaimonic processes is related to the
cold systems (newer, complex, cerebral part) of the brain (Steger and Shin, 2012)
See video lecture for visual presentation
Huta (2015) suggested that
―people need both hedonia and eudaimonia to flourish... Hedonia and eudaimonia are not
opposites, nor are they mutually exclusive – they are complementary psychological functions.
Furthermore, a person may derive a hedonic benefit but a eudaimonic loss from an activity, and
vice versa. It is therefore important to assess both hedonic and eudaimonic variables when
studying well-being outcomes.‖
 Psychology of Hedonic Well-being/Subjective Well-being

Psychologists who have adopted the hedonic view have tended to focus on a broad conception
of hedonism. Hedonic well-being which is also called as ―subjective well-being‖ captures the
presence of positive affect and life satisfaction as well as the absence of negativeaffect (Diener
et al. 1999). Subjective well-being also called as happiness is generally defined as an
experiential state that contains a globally positive affective tone.

Researchers have conceptualized and measured happiness in at least two quite different ways.
One is affect balance, indicating having more pleasant than unpleasant emotional states, and is
thus essentially an aggregate of how one feels at different moments. The other,life satisfaction,
goes beyond momentary feelings to invoke an integrative, evaluative assessment of one‘s life
as a whole.

SWB consists of three components: life satisfaction, the presence of positive mood, and the
absence of negative mood, together often summarized as happiness.

Psychology Of Eudaimonic Well-being/Psychological Well-being

The hedonic approach of well-being has been criticized by many scholars as being incomplete
because well-being is more than emotion and life satisfaction. Eudaimonic well-being
addresses these criticism by conceptualizing well-being in terms of positive functioning,
meaning in life and pursuing worthwhile goals, actualization of inner potentials and so on. The
core of wellness is not how pleasantly or unpleasantly one feels but how one functions in
response to life challenges (Ryan, 1989).
Eudaimonic well-being which is also called as ―psychological well-being.‖ One of the most
common way by which eudaimonic well-being is conceptualized and measured in psychology
is by using six dimensions of psychological functioning proposed by Ryff (1989). These are-
Autonomy
environmental mastery
personal growth
positive relations with
otherspurpose in life, and
self-acceptance.

Eudaimonic well-being will be discussed in more detail later in this course (last two modules).

Well-being as a Combination of Hedonism and Eudaimonism

There are models of well-being that combines the indicators of both hedonic and eudaimonic
well-being. Two such models will be discussed-
Keyes 13 dimensions of mental health as flourishing and
Martin Seligman‘s model of flourish (PERMA)

(will be discussed in the next lecture in the context of well-being and resilience).
 Keyes Model of Mental Health as Flourishing
According to Corey L. M. Keyes (2005, 2007), positive mental health includes hedonic well-
being and the psychological and societal aspects of eudaimonic well-being. Therefore, mental
health is a combination of emotional, psychological, and social well-being.
He distinguishes the state of flourishing from the state of languishing. The state of
flourishingis a combination of high level of subjective well-being with an optimal level of
psychological and social functioning. The state of languishing is a combination of low levels
of subjective well-being and low levels of psychological and social well-being. Keyes (2010)
further statedthat those who are not languishing or flourishing are considered to be in
moderate mental health.

Keyes 3 factors and 13 Dimensions Of Mental Health As Flourishing

3 factors of positive mental health and flourish

(1) Positive Emotions (Emotional well-being)

(2) Positive psychological functioning (Psychological well-being)

(3) Positive social functioning (Social well-being)

The dimensions under each of these factors are as follows-

Positive Emotions (Emotional well-being)

Positive affect: Regularly cheerful, interested in life, in good spirits, happy, calm and
peaceful, full of life.
Avowed quality of life: Mostly or highly satisfied with life overall or in domains of life.

Source: Keyes (2007, Table 1, p. 98)

Positive psychological functioning (Psychological well-being)

Self-acceptance: Holds positive attitudes toward self, acknowledges, likes most parts of self,
personality.

Personal growth: Seeks challenge, has insight into own potential, feels a sense of continued
development.

Purpose in life: Finds own life has a direction and meaning

Environmental mastery: Exercises ability to select, manage, and mold personal environs to
suit needs.

Autonomy: Is guided by own, socially accepted, internal standards and values.

Positive relations with others: Has, or can form, warm, trusting personal relationships.

Source: Keyes (2007, Table 1, p. 98)

Positive social functioning (Social well-being)

Social acceptance: Holds positive attitudes toward, acknowledges, and is accepting of
human differences.
Social actualization: Believes people, groups, and society have potential and can evolve or
grow positively.
Social contribution: Sees own daily activities as useful to and valued by society and others.
Social coherence: Interested in society and social life and finds them meaningful and
somewhat intelligible.
Social integration: A sense of belonging to, and comfort and support from, a community.
Source: Keyes (2007, Table 1, p. 98)
 Lecture 18: Well-being and Resilience

What is Resilience?

Resilience is another significant concept that is closely connected to well-being.

There are different definitions of resilience. Some are-
‗Dynamic process encompassing positive adaptation within the context of significant adversity‘
(Luthar, Gicchetti, and Becker, 2000; p. 543)
Resilience is characterized by ‗good outcomes in spite of serious threats to adaptation or
development‘ (Masten, 2001; p. 228).

There are two defining aspects to resilience (Toland and Carrigan, 2016):
Exposure to significant threat or adversity
Achievement of positive adaptation despite threats to the development process

Some researchers also distinguish between resilience as a trait and resilience as a process
(Harms, et al., 2018).
As a trait it is considered as an individual ability to resist being damaged by trauma and
adversities. As a process, it is considered as an outcome of dynamic process of bouncing back
or recovering from the trauma or adversities. It looks at how an individual recover from the
adversities. Most of the researchers consider it as process and believes that resilience involves
thoughts, actions and behaviors that one can learn. It is not necessarily a privilege ofonly some
people.

Relationship between Resilience and Well-being

Resilience and well-being are closely related concepts to the extent that some well-being
instruments measure resilience (Davydov et al., 2010; Windle, 2011). The relationship
between resilience and well-being is not straightforward.

Many research indicate that higher level of well-being leads to more resilience (Kuntz,
Näswall, & Malinen, 2016). It could be due to the fact that positive individuals may be more
resilient because they approach situations expecting better outcomes and tend to elicit more
positive responses (Wood, Harms, & Vazire, 2010). Positive emotions (component of hedonic
well-being) facilitates resilience (Fredrickson, Tugade, Waugh, & Larkin, 2003) as it helps in
adaptive coping.

It is also possible that resilience to predict a number of well-being outcomes such as

subjective well-being (Liu, Wang, Zhou, & Li, 2014). It is also possible that some
antecedentsof well-being and resilience diminish the attainment of the other (Harms et al.,
2018).
For example, few studies reported that the positive emotions associated with well-being, suchas
joy and calmness, tend to generate a diffuse contentment rather than the sharp, vivid focus on
challenges associated with resilience (Fredrickson, 1998; Silard, 2016).
Therefore, well-being and resilience are closely connected. However, the relationship can be
complex and not straightforward.
 Seligman‟s PERMA Model of Well-being

Martin Seligman, the founder of positive psychology proposed five components of well-
being. He conceptualized well-being as a combination of both hedonic and eudaimonic
[Link] are-
Positive emotions (Feeling good)
Engagement (finding flow)
Relationships (authentic connections)
Meaning (purposeful existence)
Achievement (a sense of accomplishment).

Well-being, Resilience and PERMA

Professor Seligman‘s research has proven that an increase in PERMA will result in an
increase in resilience and a boost to mental health and well-being.
All the components of PERMA will be discussed in detail in the upcoming lectures.
A summary of each components will be discussed here briefly.

Positive Emotions

Positive emotions may include emotions such as amusement, hope, interest, joy, love,
compassion, gratitude etc.
Positive emotions can broaden our thoughts-action repertoire and build physical, psychological
and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001).
Positive emotions enhances well-being and performance related outcomes and reduction in
negative emotions (Hart, Caballero & Cooper, 2010)

Building positive emotions

 Practice gratitude by reflecting on things for which you are thankful.

 Doing activities that you enjoy
 Spending time with loved ones
 Playing with children, pets, and friends
 Doing exercises particularly aerobic exercises
 Listening to uplifting music that you like.
Optimism is strongly connected to positive emotions and optimistic people are highly resilient to
stressful events.
Source: well-being and resilience center (SAHMRI)
 Engagement

Engagement is about finding flow experience. The flow experience happens when we are
intensely focused on the task at hand in the present moment that we lose track of time.
Professor Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi is a leading researcher in this area. He found that flow
happens when we perform a challenging task where we have the opportunity to use your
skills/strengths (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997).
Flow and engagement improve subjective well-being, happiness, life satisfaction and positive
affect (Chen, Wigand, & Nilan, 1999). It is also found to be correlated with increase
performance, higher motivation and engagement and positive mood in organization context
(Kasa & Hassan, 2013)

Building Engagement

 Identify and do activities that lead you experience flow and engagement
 Identify and use your signature strengths. Find challenging tasks where you can exercise
your strengths.

 Learn and practice mindfulness meditation techniques to increase focus in the present
moment.

Relationships

Relationships refer to the nature of connections and interactions we have with others. We are
social creatures and positive relationships have a significant impact on our wellbeing.‖
(Seligman, 2012). Social support can be a good source of coping during the stress. People
with high social support experience less stress and cope more successfully (Taylor, 2010).
Social support is a particularly important personal resource because it helps provide access to
further resources beyond those already possessed by the individual (Hobfoll et al., 1990).
Therefore, our relationships and social support are one of the most significant source of well-
being and resilience.

Building Relationships
Identify and improve the problems in existing social network
Build new connections by joining and participating in groups and communities that you like
Altruistic and volunteer work
Meaning in life

Meaning is about doing things that are valuable and worthwhile. This involves belonging to
and/or serving something that we believe is greater than ourselves (Seligman, 2012). The
search for meaning in life could an intrinsic motivation among human beings. An individual
achieves meaning in life when his or her life is experienced as purposeful, significant, and
understandable (Steger, 2009). This sense of purpose provides individuals with goals that guide
action and promote well-being. Finding meaning in one‘s life is an important determinantof
psychological well-being (Frankl, 1997; Steger, Kashdan, Sullivan, & Lorentz, 2008).

Building meaning

People may find meaning in different things-professions, creative pursuits, hobbies,

volunteering for a cause etc. Find what's yours and devote more time to it.
Get involved in causes greater than your personal life.

Accomplishment

It is about things that we have done or accomplished in our life. It is about working and
reaching our goals. Even small goals such as doing half-an-hour exercise everyday and making
efforts to achieve them give us a sense of accomplishment, happiness and [Link]
increases our self-esteem and confidence.

Grit is associated with the idea of accomplishment. It is about perseverance and passion for
long-term goals introduced by Angela Duckworth. People who exhibit ‗grit‘ persevere at their
goals over time even at the face of failures and adversities. It is especially important to achieve
high and difficult goals where sustained application of talent over time is required.

Building accomplishment

Set achievable and realistic goals. Goals need not be very big and high all the time. Setting
and achieving small goals on a daily basis can increase our sense of accomplishment.
Set your goals by assess your talents, strengths, and skills and persevere at it even if you failfew
times.
Celebrate your achievements with yourself and others.
Achieving intrinsic goals (relating to growth and connection, rather than money and status),
produces larger gains in well-being (Sheldon 2004).

Building Resilience-Final thought

According to APA website ([Link]), there are four core components that can enhance our
resilience. They are-

Build
connections
Foster wellness,
Embrace healthy thinking and
Find purpose and meaning

So, the crux is that any strategy that leads to healthy coping and fosters well-being can
increase our resilience also.
 Module 7-Psychology of happiness

Lecture 19: What is Happiness? What Makes Us Happy?

The Idea of Happiness

Happiness is a universal goal.
“All men seek happiness. This is without exception. Whatever different means they employ, they
all tend to this end. The cause of some going to war, and of others avoiding it, is the same desire
in both, attended with different views. The will never takes the least step but to this object. This
is the motive of every action of every man, even of those who hang themselves.”
-Blaise Pascal

Happiness is highly valued in present day society. Not only do people aim at happiness in their
own life but also we care for the happiness of other people and that governments should aim at
creating greater happiness for a greater number of citizens (Bentham 1789).
For most of its history, psychology had concerned focused itself with disorders of human mind
such as anxiety, depression, neurosis, obsessions, paranoia, [Link] goal of practitioners
was to bring patients from a negative, ailing state to a normal state of functioning. Over the
decades, with the rise of positive psychology, a few psychological researchers had ventured
out of the dark realm of mental illness into the sunny land of the happiness and well-being.
The study of happiness has long been under the purview of philosophical speculation. Therewas
no proper empirical measures of happiness which made it an area of speculation and
uncertainties. However, during the last decades, with the development of reliable and valid
measures or questionnaires of happiness helped to made significant evolution of the knowledge
in the field.

Psychology of Happiness
Professor Ed Diener defined subjective well-being (also known as happiness) as-

Subjective well-being=SATISFACTION WITH LIFE + AFFECT

Subjective well-being=High positive emotion+ Low negative emotion+ high life satisfaction
It is measured by self-rating questionnaires

Life satisfaction represents one‘s assessment of one‘s own life

Affect represents the emotional side of SWB. The notion of affect comprises both positive and
negative moods and emotions that are associated with our everyday experiences.

Ruut Veenhoven‟s Model of Happiness

Ruut Veenhoven is a Dutch sociologists and a pioneer in the scientific study of happiness.
He explained happiness using the concept of qualities of life and life satisfaction.
Quality-of-life concepts can be sorted using two distinctions:
(1) Chances vs outcomes: Life chances are the opportunities that we get in life and
outcomes are actualization of those potentials and opportunities.
(2) Outer vs inner qualities of life: Outer qualities refers to the aspects of the environment
and inner qualities refers to the qualities of the person

Four qualities of life

Outer Qualities Inner Qualities

Life Chances Livability of environment Life-ability of the person

Life Results Utility of life Satisfaction with life

See video lecture for detailed explanation

Livability of the environment: Pollution, global warming and degradation of nature. It is

rather a precondition for happiness and not all environmental conditions are equally conducive
to happiness. Politicians and social reformers typically stress this quality of life.
Life-ability of the person: It denotes inner life-chances in terms of our ability to cope with the
problems of life. This quality of life is central in the thinking of therapists and educators.
Utility of life: It represents using life for something more than itself. It is about higher values
and meaning such as ecological preservation, cultural development. Moral advisors, such as
your pastor, emphasize this quality of life.
Satisfaction with life: It represents the inner outcomes of life in terms of subjective judgment
of life commonly referred to by terms such as 'subjective well-being', 'life satisfaction' and
'happiness‗. There is no professional interest group that stresses this meaning

According to Ruut, life satisfaction is the most appropriate concept to understand happiness asit
reflects the degree to which external living conditions 'fit' with inner life-abilities.

There can be different meanings and aspects to life satisfaction. These meanings can also be
charted in a fourfold matrix (Veenhoven, 2004) based on following dichotomies-

• Life-aspects versus life-as-a-whole and

• passing satisfaction versus enduring satisfaction.

 Four kinds of satisfaction

Passing Enduring

Part of life Pleasure Part-satisfaction

Life as a whole Top-experience Life-satisfaction

See video lecture for detailed explanation

Pleasures: It is passing satisfaction with a part of life. It can be sensory, such as a good food,or
mental, such as the reading an interesting book.
Part-satisfactions: It is enduring satisfaction with a part of life. It is mostly concerned with a
domain of life, such as working-life. One may be satisfied with work life and may not be
satisfied with other domain such as family life.
Top-experience: It is passing satisfaction but about life-as-a-whole. It may include intense,
oceanic experiences referred by poets and mystics.
Life-satisfaction: It is enduring satisfaction with your life-as-a-whole is called 'life-
satisfaction'and also commonly referred to as 'happiness'.
Life-satisfaction is most appropriate as a policy goal. Enduring satisfaction is clearly more
valuable than passing satisfactions and satisfaction with life-as-a-whole is also of more worth
than mere part-satisfaction (Veenhoven, 2004).

Affective Forecasting and Impact Bias

Will you become happier if your wishes become true?Can

you predict what will make you happy in future?

Affective forecasting includes predictions about emotional reactions to future events. Research
on affective forecasting has shown that people generally mispredict how much pleasure or
displeasure a future event will bring (Wilson & Gilbert, 2005). Generally people are good at
predicting whether future events are likely to be pleasant or unpleasant. However, they are not
good at predicting the intensity and duration of their future emotional reactions (Wilson &
Gilbert, 2005). Occasionally people underestimate and more commonly overestimate the
intensity and duration of their emotional reaction to future events.

Impact Bias

Impact bias is the error that people make by overestimating the intensity and duration of their
emotional reactions to future events (Wilson & Gilbert, 2005). This happens for both the
positive and negative emotions. For example, we may overestimate how happy or unhappy we
would become if we get a desirable or undesirable thing respectively in future.
 Causes of Impact Bias
Focalism: It is the tendency to overestimate how much we will think about the event in the
future and to underestimate the extent to which other events will influence our thoughts and
feelings (Wilson, et al., 2000; Wilson & Gilbert, 2005).
Making sense of novel/unexpected events: Making sense of an event reduces the intensity
and duration of our emotional reaction. Generally, people make sense of novel and unexpected
events very rapidly which they mispredict during forecasting (Wilson & Gilbert, 2005).

Impact Bias and Decision Making

Affective forecasts and impact bias may influence decisions ranging from the mundane
(Should I take the scenic route home today?) to the profound (Should I marry this person?).
People generally make decisions by projecting their emotional reactions to future events.
Impact bias can lead to mistaken projections and irrational or unbalanced decisions in their
life. People may also show a retrospective impact bias where they overestimate the impactof
past events on their happiness, explaining why they do not learn from experience and correct
their forecasts (Wilson, Myers, & Gilbert, 2003).
It may be difficult to correct impact bias as it is mostly unconscious. However, we reduce such
biases by rational thinking and analyzing other things that may influence us in the future.
 Lecture 20: Socio-demographic factors and Happiness

Income and Happiness

Can money buy happiness?
There is extensive literature on the relationship between income and well-being/ happiness
(Howell & Howell, 2008). However, the relationship is very complex and far from clear.
Economists generally view that income is a sufficient indicator of human well-being and
increasing the level of income will upsurge human well-being, life satisfaction or happiness
(Lakshmanasamy, 2010). Empirical studies show that the relationship between subjective (such
as life satisfaction and emotions) and the traditional objective well-being indicators (suchas
income, consumption) is weak.

Cross-sectional survey data show significant positive but small coefficient (Blanchflower &
Oswald, 2004). Diener and Oishi (2000) in a cross-sectional survey of a large sample from 19
countries reported a correlation between income and subjective well-being ranging from .02 to
.38. These findings generally indicate that subjective well-being increases with income at a
decreasing marginal rate.

Easterlin‟s Paradox
One of the main research paper in the literature on income and happiness has been Easterlin‘s
seminal article (1974; updated in 1995). In this paper, Easterlin reported a paradoxof
substantial real income growth in Western countries over the last fifty years, but without any

See video lecture for Easterlin graphs of different countries

corresponding rise in reported happiness levels (Clark, Frijters, & Shields, 2007).
More specifically, Easterlin paradox states that ―at a point in time both among and within
nations, happiness varies directly with income, but over time (in the long term such as 10
years), happiness does not increase when a country‘s income increases‖ (Easterlin et al., 2010,
p. 22463). In cross sectional data, happiness seems to increase with income (though ata
decreasing rate), within and across nations. However, in a time series data (such as 10 years)
happiness does not increase when a country‘s income increases. However, some recent
research indicates that the Easterlin Paradox does not hold under all circumstances (Slag and
Veenhoven 2018).

Possible Explanation of Easterlin‟s Paradox

Two theories are put forth to explain this paradox-

-Social comparison
-Adaptation

Together these theories are called as ―relative income theory‖ and they nullify the effect of
income gains (Slag, Burger, & Veenhoven, 2019).
Social comparison theory
The theory of social comparison suggests that people do not assess their life in isolation from all
others. Rather they compare their income and achievements with those around them, called the
peer group (or reference group). Our happiness is influenced by this comparison. We are happy if
we have more than the others and unhappy if we have less than others (Angeles, 2010).
Therefore, a proportional increase of all incomes in an economy or country would leave average
happiness unaffected, in line with the Easterlin Paradox (Angeles, 2010). Thus, according to
social comparison theory, it is one‘s relative income rather than one‘s absolute income which
determines life satisfaction or happiness.

Theory of adaptation
Adaptation involves comparison of current situation with a past situation. The adaptation theory
says that an increase in income will temporarily increase people‘s happiness, but over time they
will adjust to their higher income such that their happiness reverts back towards its original level.
Adaptation neutralizes the effect of income rise when aspirations rise at the same rate (Slag,
Burger, & Veenhoven, 2019).

Age and Happiness

There seems to be no clear cut consensus on the relationship between age and happiness due to
differences in data and method applied. Some early psychological studies suggested no age-
happiness relationship (Cantril, 1965). Some studies reported that life satisfaction increases
with age (Argyle, 1999; Diener, 1999). A growing body of evidence suggests that the
relationship between age and happiness seems to be U-shaped curve.

Age and Happiness: Happiness U Curve

Many large scale surveys on age and happiness has reported U-shaped curve in the relationship
between age and happiness. This is also referred to as the happiness U curve. U- shaped curve
basically reflects that the average happiness or life satisfaction is lowest in middle age (between
40-50 years of age) and then begins to recover and move up after that. One of the most
comprehensive study in this direction was conducted by Blanchflower and Oswald (2008), who
combined cross-sectional data over 60 countries and reported a U- shaped relationship between
happiness and age. Many other studies also supported this result(Clark and Oswald,1994;
Gerdtham and Johannesson, 2001). All these studies controlled for potentially confounding
factors such as income, health, employment, and gender.

Possible Explanations

Stress and responsibility of mid-life and may be associated with midlife crisis.
Shifting of focus and values from social competition and comparison to social connections in
old age.
It‘s worth pointing out that the happiness curve is based on averages, that means everybodymay
not go through the same graph.
Gender and Happiness

Some research indicates (mostly in the western context) a possible gender difference in ill-
being and misery. For example, Women are twice more vulnerable and likely to be diagnosed
with depression and anxiety as compared to men, and men are much more (five times)
vulnerable to alcoholism and antisocial personality disorder as compared to women (Robins &
Regier, 1991). It is still not very clear why gender difference exists in depression and anxiety.
Some experts believe that there may not be any actual gender difference. But, women are more
likely to be diagnosed as they talk about their feelings and seek more help as comparedto men.
However, there is not much evidence of gender difference in reports of happiness andwell-
being. Most of the large scale studies and meta-analysis showed a little or no gender difference
in happiness and well-being.

In a meta-analysis of 146 studies, gender accounted for less than 1% of people's global well-
being (Haring, Stock, & Okun, 1984). The finding seems to be generalize worldwide (reported
in Myers & Diener, 1995). In another study on samples of 16 nations indicated equal number
of male and female i.e. 80% of men and 80% of women said that they were at least "fairly
satisfied" with life (Inglehart, 1990). A similar findings were reported in a study on university
students from 39 countries (N=18032) (Michalos, 1991)

Education and Happiness

There is no clear evidence in the direction of relationship between level of education and
happiness. Studies have pointed out all kinds of relationship between education and subjective
well-being such as a positive linear relationship, a positive nonlinear relationship (middle level
educated reported highest levels of SWB), no relationship, and even a negative relationship
(Dolan et al., 2008).

A probable explanation for these findings was provided by Campbell (1981). He suggested
education can contribute as well as be a detriment to SWB. On one hand, education can
positively contribute to SWB by providing resources to accomplish life goals. However, on
theother hand education may negatively impact SWB by raising aspirations too much to the
pointit may be hard to achieve those goals. Therefore, the relationship between education and
happiness may be mediated by subjective factors such as goals and aspirations.

Concluding thoughts

Therefore, it is evident that objective indicators of life such as income and sociodemographic
factors may influence happiness to some extent. However, their influence are not very strong.
The relationship between objective indicators (such as sociodemographic factors) and
subjective indicators (such as happiness) is not very strong. Our happiness ultimately largely
depends on how we think and deal with those life circumstances. Remember ABC model of
Albert Ellis? So, all these factors are outside stimulus. Emotional consequence will depend on
how you think and make use of them.

We will discuss these aspects in more details while talking about sustainable happiness
model
 Lecture 21: Positive Emotions

What are Emotions?

―An emotion is a complex psychological state that involves three distinct components: a
subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response.‖
(Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007).
Emotion is ―any mental experience with high intensity and high hedonic content
(pleasure/displeasure)‖ (Cabanac, 2002).
Many psychologists have claimed that certain emotions are more basic than others. For
example, Eckman (2005) reported six basic emotions which are universal such as fear, disgust,
anger, surprise, happiness and sadness. Later, he expanded the list and included other emotions
such as embarrassment, excitement, contempt, shame, pride, satisfaction, andamusement.

Positive vs Negative Emotions

One of the most common and popular classification of emotions is positive and negative
emotions. Negative emotions are typically unpleasant feelings. They can be defined as ―as an
unpleasant or unhappy emotion which is evoked in individuals to express a negative effect
towards an event or person‖ (Pam, 2013). Example, fear, anger, disgust etc. Positive emotions
are typically pleasant feelings. They can be defined as mental experiences that are both intense
and pleasurable (Cabanac, 2002).

10 Common Positive Emotions

Fredrickson has outlined ten of the most commonly experienced positive emotions
1) Joy: delightful experience that is caused by something good

2) Gratitude: feeling of thankfulness for something or someone in your life.

3) Serenity: Experience of peacefulness and tranquility. It is more like joy but more quieter.

4) Interest: It is a state of intrigue, curiosity, or engagement.

5) Hope: Hope is belief and feeling that things will turn out best. It is a feeling of possibilities
andoptimism.

6) Pride: It is a feeling of accomplishment, achievement and mastery.

7) Amusement: It is the experience of fun, humor and playfulness with others. It is a social
rather than lonely experience.
8) Inspiration: Feeling of upliftment when we see goodness and extraordinary feats. It makes
us strive for great things.
9)
10) Awe: feeling of wonder, amazement and reverence. Awe is experienced when we
seesomething vast and great that we feel small and humbled.

11) Love: it is a combination of all the above feelings. It includes feelings of warmth,
trust,sharing etc. it connects us with others strongly and affectionately.

Positive Emotions are Less Studied Emotions

Compared to positive emotions, negative emotions such as fear, anger etc. has received much
more attention in the field of psychology. Reasons are-

-Focus was more on understanding and treating psychological problems and disorders
(negative emotions are common in most of the psychological disorders).

-There are less number of positive emotions than negative ones. According to Fredrickson
(1998) there seems to be only one positive emotions for every three to four negative emotions.

-Positive emotions are less distinct from one another and more difficult to define them
(Fredrickson, 2003). For example, it is difficult to differentiate between joy and amusement as
compared to fear and anger.
However, with the rise of positive psychology, exploration of positive emotions is gaining
popularity.

Functions/Values of Positive Emotions

The „broaden-and-build‟ theory of positive emotions, developed by Barbara Fredrickson
(1998) proposed many significant functions or values of positive emotions. They are-

Positive emotions broaden our thought–action repertoires

Positive emotions such as joy or interest broaden our attention and thinking and makes us
creative, see more opportunities, to be more flexible and open minded. Negative emotions on
the other hand narrows our attention, thoughts and options.

Positive emotions undo negative emotions

Positive emotions help us to recover from the harmful effects of negative emotions. We
generally do not experience both positive and negative emotions simultaneously. Therefore,
inducing positive emotions when we are experiencing negative emotions such as stress, anxietyor
anger can diminish the intensity and duration of such negative emotions.
 Positive emotions enhance resilience

Positive emotions enhance our ability to cope with adversity and resilience. Positive emotions
by broadening our though action repertoire facilitates problem focused and other adaptive
coping.

Positive emotions build psychological resources

positive emotions help to build important physical, intellectual, social and psychological
resources. For example, positive emotions build intellectual resources through enhanced
learning and performance. Positive emotions associated with play can build physical abilities.
Positive emotions are key to building and maintaining social relationships and thus facilitates
social resources (enjoyable times with friends increase social skills).

Positive emotions can trigger an upward developmental spiral

As negative emotions such as depressed moods can cause downward spiral of negative thoughts
and emotions and lead us to a vicious cycle of negativity, similarly, positive emotionscan also
cause upward spiral of positive thoughts and emotions and lead us to improved emotional well-
being (Fredrickson, 2004).

Positive Emotions May Protect Health

Negative emotions such as distress, anger can cause various physical ailments such as
cardiovascular diseases. As positive emotions can undo the harmful effects of negative
emotions (including physiological effects), it is possible that positive emotions may protect our
physical health as well (Fredrickson, 1998).

Positivity Ratio

According to Fredrickson and Lasoda ( 2005 ), psychological well-being generally requires the
ratio of positive emotions to negative emotions as 2.9: 1 or above (approx. 3:1). People who
reported 3 or more instances of positive emotions for every one instance of negative emotion
were more likely to stimulate upward spiral of positivity and lead to experience of flourish and
resiliency. Various happiness intervention strategies will be discussed in the upcoming
lectures. They will in a way address how to increase this positivity ratio.

Building positive emotions

 Practice gratitude by reflecting on things for which you are thankful.

 Doing activities that you enjoy
 Spending time with loved ones
 Playing with children, pets, and friends
 Doing exercises particularly aerobic exercises
 Listening to uplifting music that you like.
Source: well-being and resilience center (SAHMRI)

Negative Emotions: Not Always Negative

We cannot avoid negative emotions and it is not necessary. Even in positivity ratio (3:1),
negative emotion is present. The problem is that most of us are experiencing too much of
negative emotions. Therefore, there is a need for increasing positive emotions. Excess of
anything including positive emotions could be dysfunctional and can have negative
consequences (such as mania).

Ilona Boniwell (2012) proposed following positive impacts of negative

emotions-It can instigate fundamental personality changes (such as PTG)
It can self reflection and put us in touch with our deeper selves.

Sufferings may make us wise and facilitate learning and understanding of ourselves and the
world.

Coping with negative emotions may cause positive social consequences such as care,empathy,
morality and modesty.
 Module 8: Can we become happier? Sources of pessimism and optimism

Lecture 22: Genetic Set Point and Hedonic Adaptation

Can We Become Happier?

We all want to become happier. Thousands of self-help books seems to be talking about
various strategies to increase our happiness. But the question is it possible to increase our
happiness level?

There are sources of both optimism and pessimism for this questions.

Sources Of Pessimism: Genetic Set-point and Hedonic Adaptation

Why is it difficult to become happier?

Research indicates some possible reasons such as-Genetic set point and hedonic adaptation.

Genetic set-point

It means our genetics sets a limit on our experiences including emotions and happiness. A
growing literature has accumulated evidence that we all have a baseline level of happiness
which is in part influenced by our genetics (Bartels and Boomsma, 2009; Lykken and Tellegen,
1996; Rietveld et al., 2013). Our happiness level remains relatively stable because of this set
point.

How do we know that there is a genetic set point for happiness?

Several lines of research show a large heritability influence for happiness. Some are as
follows-

Twin studies: Identical twins have been found to report more similar levels of happiness than
fraternal twins, even if they were raised in different households (Bartels and Boomsma, 2009;
Lykkenand & Tellegen, 1996).

Although studies have found varying heritability coefficients (ranging from 0.25 to 0.55),
theoverwhelming conclusion of this research is that happiness has a large genetic
component.

Personality traits and happiness

Personality may underlie the genetic influence on happiness. Subjective well-being is highly
positively correlated with extraversion and negatively correlated with neuroticism (Costa
andMcCrae, 1980; DeNeve,1999;Furnham and Brewin, 1990; Hayes and Joseph, 2003).
Personality has a genetic component as well. Genetics may influence personality which in turn
may influence our happiness. Some research suggest that the genetic influence on extraversion,
neuroticism, and conscientiousness entirely explains the heritability of SWB (Weiss et al.,
2008). Personality traits often predict happiness better than life circumstances, which may at
 least partially explain the stability of our happiness level across time. Self-reportsof subjective
well-being was found to be very stable across a 10-year period for people regardless of whether
their income increased, decreased, or stayed the same (Diener, Sandvik, Seidlitz, & Diener,
1993). These findings suggest that we are disposed to experience certain levels of happiness
irrespective of our life circumstance. This predisposition may be in large part due to genetic and
personality factors.

See video lecture for detailed explanation

Hedonic Adaptation

People experience increases in happiness following positive life events and declines after
negative ones. However, these shifts in happiness do not last. A growing literature has shown
that individuals become habituated to changes in their lives via hedonic adaptation (Frederick
and Loewenstein, 1999).

Hedonic adaptation is the psychological process by which people become accustomed or

habituated to a positive or negative stimulus, such that the emotional effects of that stimulus
are reduced over time (Frederick & Loewenstein, 1999). Hedonic adaptation refers to the
process by which individuals return to baseline levels of happiness following a change in life
circumstances.

It is based on the concept of walking on a hedonic treadmill (Brickman & Campbell, 1971)
where our feet moves but we remain stagnant. It may be caused by genetic or personality
factors.

Functions of Hedonic Adaptation

Adaptation processes serve important functions (Frederick & Loewenstein, 1999)-

-It protect people from potentially dangerous psychological and physiological consequences of
prolonged emotional states.

-It allow unchanging stimuli to fade into the attentional background, so that change in the
environment receives extra attention.

-It allows individuals to disengage from goals that are less likely to be successful by reducing
emotional reactions associated with them.

AREA Model Of Hedonic Adaptation (Wilson & Gilbert, 2008)

People engage in the sequential process of attending, reacting, explaining, and ultimately
adapting to events. When something emotionally-relevant happens, it draws our attention and
we react with some emotions (happiness or sadness). The next step is explaining where we try
to understand and explain why and how of what happened. This step determines the rate of
adaptation. (e.g., ―I didn't qualified in the job interview because I am less qualified and skilled
than other applicants.)

Hedonic Adaptation to Positive and Negative Events

 Hedonic adaptation occurs in response to both positive and negative events.

Negative Events

Evidences are not very consistent in case of negative life events. Some studies have found
that individuals only partially adapt to events such as divorce (Lucas, 2005) and widowhood
(Lucas et al., 2003), whereas others have found evidence for complete adaptation following
these adverse negative events (Clark et al., 2008). Lucas and his colleagues (2007),
conducted two panel studies, one with 40,000 people living in Germany and the other of
27,000 living in Great Britain, were assessed yearly for up to 14 to 21 years. They examined
the extent to which people adapt to the life events such as marriage, widowhood, divorce,
unemployment, disability, and severe disability. They found that the level of adaptation is not
same for all events. People who experienced marriage, widowhood, divorce adapted and
returned to their baseline level of SWB. However, people who experienced unemployment
and disability did not adapt completely (adaptation was less). Further, they observed most
pronounced lack of hedonic adaptation for those with a severe disability. There was no
rebound 7 years after their low point following their life-altering event.

Positive Events

Hedonic adaptation is more likely to be complete and faster in case of positive experiences
than negative experiences (Lyubomirsky, 2011). There is a consistent evidence that people, on
average, adapt completely to major positive life changes such as getting married, acquiringa
new job, and even winning the lottery (Boswell et al., 2005; Brickman et al., 1978; Clark and
Georgellis, 2012).

This may be one of the obstacles in human pursuit of happiness.

Why Hedonic Adaptation is Faster to Positive Experiences?

Lyubomirsky (2011) proposed some possible mechanisms from the existing literature-
Cognitive effects of negative stimuli are stronger than positive stimuli (such as negative
events and words are twice more likely to be recalled as compared to positive events or
words).

People are more likely to monitor, pay attention, remember, and influenced by negative
feedback than positive feedback.

Negative information is stronger than positive information in first impressions,

nonverbalmessages, interpersonal interactions and evaluative categorization.

The impact of everyday negative event is more powerful and long lasting than positive events
(indicated by dairy studies).
 Lecture 23: Sustainable Happiness Model

Is Pursuit of Happiness Futile?

It is clear that there are barriers in our pursuit of happiness such as genetic set point,
personality and hedonic adaptation. Additionally, hedonic adaptation seems to be more
complete and faster in case of positive experiences. Is our pursuits of happiness futile?

Sources Of Optimism

Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, and Schkade (2005) suggested following sources of optimism for our
pursuit of happiness-
Some interventions for increasing happiness seems to work such as practicing virtues such
as gratitude, forgiveness etc.

Many motivational and attitudinal factors have been found to facilitate happiness and well-
being such as pursuing intrinsically motivated goals and optimism.

Many research (both cross-sectional and longitudinal) indicate that older people tend to be
happier than younger ones. This at least indirectly indicate that people can enhance their
happiness using their attitudinal and volitional factors.

One set of research indicate that we are doomed in our pursuit of happiness because of some
strong barriers in the path. However, another set of research indicate otherwise. Why this
paradox?

Sustainable Happiness Model

Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, and Schkade (2005) proposed a sustainable model of happiness. They
proposed three major determinants or causal factors of happiness: Genetic set-point, life
circumstances, and intentional activities. Based on the past research, they proposed
approximate percentages of contribution each factor makes in our life. Existing evidence
indicate that approximate 50% of variance in happiness is accounted by genetic set-point, about
10% by life circumstances (Diener et al., 1999) and they proposed remaining 40% can be
accounted by intentional activities. They used a pie chart to show that (See video lecture).

Sustainable Happiness Model Pie Chart

Set-point
Set-point ‗‗is genetically determined and assumed to be fixed, stable over time, and immune to
the influence of control‘‘ (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005). Evidences from twin studies and
personalitytraits provide support for this stable component of happiness. Although studies have
found varying heritability coefficients, approximately 50% variance can be attributed to
genetics.

Life circumstances
Circumstances are the secure and stable elements of a person‘s life, that is, the incidental but
relatively stable facts of an individual‘s life.
 According to Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, and Schkade (2005), happiness relevant circumstances
may include-
National, geographic, and cultural region of residence

Demographic factors such as age, gender, and ethnicity

Individual personal history such as experience of past trauma, accidents, etc.

Life status variables such as marital status, income, health, religious affiliations etc.

The circumstances that most consistently predict high SWB are-

-Being married (Diener et al. 2000; Lucas et al. 2003; Myers 2000),

-Religious (Lazar and Bjorck 2008; Myers 2000),

-Employed (Haring et al. 1984; Lucas et al. 2003),

-Healthy (Diener and Seligman 2004; Lyubomrisky et al. 2006)

-Sufficiently wealthy to meet basic needs (Diener and Biswas-Diener 2002; Diener et al. 1993,
1995, 2010).

All circumstances combined account for a very small percentage of variance in happiness
levels (only 8% to 15%) (Diener et al., 1999). This is a counterintuitive and paradoxical
findings as we presume happiness depends largely on our life circumstances. The reason

could be hedonic adaptation and people seems to adapt rapidly to life circumstances and
events (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, and Schkade, 2005).

Both genetic set-point and life circumstances are largely not in our control and does not
provide fruitful avenues for increasing our happiness levels. Although, some circumstances
can be changed but such changes may not lead to chronic changes in happiness due to
hedonic adaptation. However, the last component, that is, intentional activities provide the
fruitful avenues for our pursuit of happiness.

Intentional activities
Intentional activities are effortful actions or practices that include the variety of things people
think and do (Lyubomirsky et al. 2011; Lyubomirsky et al. 2005). Intentional means effortful or
people choose to engage. Intentional activities does not happen by itself. It needs conscious
efforts. Lyubomirsky et al. (2005) posited that life circumstances happen to people, and
intentional activities are ways that people act on their circumstances. Activities are more
controllable than genetic factors, personality and most circumstances and offer the greatest
potential to sustainably increase happiness (Lyubomirsky et al. 2011; Sheldon and Lyubomirsky
2007).

Types of intentional activities

Lyubomirsky et al. (2005) describe three types of intentional activity-behavioral, cognitive

andvolitional.
 Behavioral activity reflects a person‘s actions such as physical activities, meditation and
mindfulness and social activities such as deliberate acts of kindness and gratitude. All these
activities have been found to increase happiness or SWB.

Cognitive activity includes a person‘s attitudes such as cultivating gratitude, forgiveness, and
cognitive approaches to coping with adversity. They have been found to increase SWB.

Volitional Activity includes motivation towards achieving goals such as pursuing goals that
are concordant with one‘s values and interests, maintaining hope and meaning in life etc. They
have been found to increase SWB.

Some Criticism Of Happiness Pie Chart

Brown and Rohrer (2019) in a critical evaluation of happiness pie model suggested following-

Between subject variance vs within subject variance

Happiness pie model mixed up between subject variance with the within subject variance.
Variation within a population can not be translated into individual level variation. For example,
10% of the between-subject variance in happiness can be explained by life circumstances is not
same as ―10% of a person‘s variance in happiness can be explained by that person‘s life
circumstances‖ unless established by within subject level of analysis.

Considering all the three factors as independent

Conceptualization of all the three factors of happiness pie as independent additive factors is not
accurate. In real life all the three factors will interact and covary to influence happiness. For
example, genetic factors may interact with circumstantial and volitional activities to influence
ourhappiness.

Estimates from different sources

Happiness pie model took the estimates of the variance explained by genetic factors and life
circumstances from different sources, and different populations. Therefore, combining estimates
from different sources and adding them to 100% may be erroneous.

What Can We Learn From the Sustainable Happiness Model?

Sheldon and Lyubomirsky (2019) suggested that they accept these criticisms and cautioned in
their original article that the percentages are only approximate and indicative. They are not
exact. However, the basic idea of the model (determinants of happiness) is correct and is
supported by ample evidences. The basic idea is that-It is possible for people to influence their
own happiness by their intentional activities. As it is clear that our happiness is not completely
determined by our genetics and/or life circumstances and it fluctuates from time to time. Our
volitional activities are one such logical source of influence in the fluctuations of our happiness
levels
 Lecture 24: Sustainable Happiness with Intentional Activities

Intentional Activities as the Basis of Sustainable Happiness

Sustainable happiness model indicates that intentional activities offer the greatest potential to
sustainably increase happiness as it is under our control unlike genetic and circumstantial
factors. Intentional activities are effortful actions or practices that include the variety of things
people think and do (Lyubomirsky et al. 2011; Lyubomirsky et al. 2005). Intentional means
effortful or people choose to engage. For example, gratitude, optimistic thinking, prosocial
behavior. However, one significant question is what about hedonic adaptation of intentional
activities? Do we get adapted to intentional activities also? How are they then different from
life circumstances?

Hedonic Adaptation to Intentional Activities?

Lyubomirsky et al. (2005) suggested that hedonic adaptation undoubtedly can constrains the
happiness-inducing effects of intentional activities, just as it does for circumstances, however,
this effect seems to be much weaker in case of intentional activities.

Why?

Advantages Of Intentional Activities

Lyubomirsky et al. (2005) suggested following advantages of intentional activities-

Episodic nature: Intentional activities are transient and episodic. It is not a chronic or
permanent aspect of ones life. People engages in them only in certain time. Therefore, we areless
likely to adapt to a transient episodic activities. For example, we experience or practice gratitude
sometimes.

Varied nature: People can vary intentional activities according to their wish. This nature
reduces adaptation as we are less likely to adapt to a variable or changeable stimuli or activity.
For example, we can vary ways of expressing gratitude such by writing, or speaking.

How Can We Use Intentional Activities For Increasing Happiness?

If happiness is rooted in our intentional activities, what activities we should do?

According to Lyubomirsky et al. (2005), for the best result of intervention, diagnosis of
person-activity fitness is essential.

Person-activity fit

Any one particular activity may not be suitable for all person. People have different strengths,
interests, values, that will predispose to benefit more from some activities than others. For
example, extraverts may benefit more from outgoing activities and connecting with others as
compared to an introvert.
Ways To Do Person-activity Fit

Acccording to Lyubomirsky (2008), some ways to do person-activity fitness include-

Fit with the source of your unhappiness: People may be unhappy for a variety of reasons.
Find the source of unhappiness and match it with activity that addresses the specific source.
For example, a pessimist may benefit from cultivating optimism.

Fit with your strengths: Person-activity fitness can also be done by identifying strengths and
talents. For example, a creative person may express love, gratitude through painting or writing.

Fit with your lifestyle: Choose activities that can be adapted and fit with your lifestyle. For
example, if you have a hectic lifestyle, choose activities that can be done in short duration. If
you are a spiritual person, choose activities associated with it (such as meditation).

Positive Activity Interventions (PAIs)

Positive activities are simple, intentional, and regular practices that mimic the healthy thoughts
and behaviors associated with naturally happy people such as gratitude, optimistic thinking,
prosocial behavior (Lyubomirsky and Layous, 2013). A varieties of PAIs have been found to be
effective in increasing well-being and reducing negative symptoms in randomized controlled
interventions-
writing letters of gratitude (Boehm, Lyubomirsky, & Sheldon, 2011; Layous, Lee, Choi,
&Lyubomirsky, 2012)
counting one‟s blessings (Chancellor & Lyubomirsky, 2012)
practicing optimism (Boehm et al., 2011; Layous, Nelson, & Lyubomirsky, 2012)
performing acts of kindness (Della Porta, Jacobs Bao, & Lyubomirsky, 2012)
using one‟s strengths in a new way (Seligman et al., 2005)
affirming one‟s most important values (Nelson & Lyubomirsky, 2012)
meditation (Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, 2008).

All of these practices are brief, self-administered, and cost-effective. All these PAI exercises
works by promoting positive feelings, positive thoughts, and positive behaviors, rather than
directly aiming to fix negative or pathological feelings, thoughts, and behaviors (Layous, &
Lyubomirsky, 2012). A meta-analysis of 51 randomized controlled interventions studies found
that people who engaged in positive intentional activities, such as thinking gratefully,
optimistically, or mindfully, became significantly happier (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).

Factors Affecting Success Of Positive Activities

According to Lyubomirsky & Layous (2013) Positive activities may work best under
certainconditions. It may include-
Characteristics of the activity: Frequency, variety

Characteristics of the person: Motivation, efforts, beliefs, personality traits

Person-activity fit: Certain types of activities are better for certain types of people.
Mechanisms of Positive Activities

―Positive activities are positive for an individual only to the extent that they stimulate increases
in positive emotions, positive thoughts, positive behaviors, and need satisfaction, which in turn
increase happiness‖(Lyubomirsky & Layous, 2013; P. 60). Some studies reported positive
emotions experienced as a result of a meditation activity nurtured personal resources such as
social relationships and physical health, which, in turn, increased life satisfaction (Fredrickson
et al., 2008). Studies also show that expressing gratitude and optimism increased self-reported
autonomy and relatedness which in turn increased life satisfaction (Boehm, Lyubomirsky, &
Sheldon, 2012).

Specific positive intentional activities for enhancing happiness will be discussed in the
next module
 Module 9: Happiness Activities 1

Lecture 25: Cultivating Happiness with Gratitude

What is Gratitude?

Gratitude is derived from the Latin word ‖gratia”, which means grace or gratefulness.
Gratitudehas been conceptualized in many ways depending on the context. It has been
conceptualized as a moral virtue, an attitude, an emotion, a habit, a personality trait, and a
coping response (Sansone & Sansone, 2010). Gratitude is an acknowledgment that we have
received something of value from others. It arises from a posture of openness to others, where
we are able to gladly recognize their benevolence (Emmons & Mishra, 2011).
A broader and context free definition is-
Gratitude is the appreciation of what is valuable and meaningful to oneself and represents a
general state of thankfulness and/or appreciation (Sansone & Sansone, 2010).

One may feel grateful by many ways such as noticing how fortunate one‘s life circumstances
are (it could have been much worse), by thanking someone who has contributed in one‘s life,
recalling good things in one‘s life (Lyubomirsky, 2007).
The practice of gratitude involves a focus on the present moment, on appreciating your life as it
is today and what has made it so (Lyubomirsky, 2007). People acknowledge the goodness in
their lives by becoming grateful.

Gratitude and Well-being/Happiness

Gratitude is foundational to well-being and mental health throughout the lifespan (Emmons &
Mishra, 2011).

Gratitude has been shown to contribute to diverse well-being measures-

 Increases positive affect and decreases negative affect (Emmons & Mishra, 2011)
 Negatively associated with depression, anxiety, loneliness, envy, or neuroticism
(McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002)
 Positively associated with prosocial traits such as empathy, forgiveness, and willingness to
help others (McCullough et al., 2002 ) and overall social well-being (Emmons &
McCullough,
2003 ).
 Overall improved well-being, including fewer health complaints and a more positive
outlooktoward life (Emmons & Mishra, 2011)

Why Gratitude Promotes Well-being?

Emmons and Mishra (2011) provided following possible mechanisms-

(1) Gratitude facilitates coping with stress
It promotes healthy and adaptive coping styles and strategies such as seeking social support,
positive reframing, approach-oriented problem solving, and active coping (Wood, Joseph, &
Linley, 2007). It also associated with PTG (Peterson et al, 2008)

(2) Gratitude reduces toxic emotions resulting from self and social comparisons
It decreases upward social comparison resulting in envy and resentment (Emmons & Mishra,
2011). Gratitude is incompatible to toxic emotions such as envy or resentment.

(3) Gratitude reduces materialistic strivings (excessive concern for money and material
possession)
Excessive materialistic strivings may hinder well-being, happiness, and concern for others.
Gratitude is incompatible to excessive materialistic strivings (Polak & McCullough, 2006).
Therefore, it promotes well-being by reducing materialistic strivings.

(4) Gratitude improves self-esteem

Gratitude has been consistently linked with higher and stable self-esteem (Froh, Wajsblat, &
Ubertini, 2008). However, the direction of this relationship is not clear.

(5) Gratitude enhances accessibility to positive memories

Gratitude facilitates retrieval of positive experiences by increasing elaboration of positive
information (Watkins et al. 2008). Therefore, it boosts well-being by enhancing positive
memories and experiences.

(6) Gratitude builds social resources

Gratitude promotes well-being by building social relations and resources. It also strengthen and
maintain existing relationships (Algoe, Haidt, & Gable, 2008). It promotes many other
characteristics that further build social resources such as extraversion, agreeableness, empathy,
emotional stability, forgiveness, trust, and generosity (McCullough et. al, 2002).
Gratitude is a strength of character that is highly desired in romantic partners (Steen, Kachorek,&
Peterson, 2003 ).

(7) Gratitude motivates moral/prosocial behavior

Gratitude by promoting social bonding and relations facilitates prosocial behavior. Gratitude
promotes both direct reciprocal altruism and ―upstream reciprocity‖ (Nowak & Roch, 2007 ).
Upstream reciprocity involves passing on a benefit to a person uninvolved in the initial exchange
thus promoting prosocial behavior.

(8) Grateful people are spiritually minded

Studies have reported positive relationship between gratitude and spirituality (also religiosity)
(Emmons & Kneezel, 2005). The relationship can be bidirectional. Most of the religious and
spiritual traditions considers gratitude as a major virtue to be cultivated. Therefore, spirituality or
religiosity may promote gratitude.
 Gratitude Exercises

Lyubomirsky (2007) suggested following strategies and pointers for gratitude exercise-

(1) Keep a gratitude journal

With this exercise we remind ourselves of the things for which we are grateful such as gifts,
grace, benefits, loved ones etc. More specifically this can be done by writing about it.

Choose a time in a day when you have some free time and free from distraction. It could be first
thing of the day in the morning or the last thing of the day at night or sometime in between such
as during commuting. Reflect on the three to five things for which you are currently grateful,
from the mundane (electric appliance got fixed) to the magnificent (spiritual insights, revelation
etc.). You may focus on some skills or abilities you have, opportunities life has given, goals you
have achieved. You may reflect on good relationships and caring people in your life who have
contributed and sacrificed for you.
This exercise can be done once in a day, once or twice in a week or twice in a month depending
on the lifestyle and personal preference.

(2) Express gratitude directly to others

Expressing gratitude is best and most effective when done directly to the concerned person
such as by writing letters, by phone or face to face.

Seligman et al. (2005) conducted a study on gratitude visit.

Condition 1: The participants were given one week to write and then hand deliver a letter of
gratitude to someone who had been especially kind and caring to them but whom they had never
properly thanked.

Condition 2: The participants were given self guided happiness exercises.

The result showed largest boost of happiness by the gratitude visit participants.

Keep the strategy fresh

Even intentional activities such as expressing gratitude can become boring and come under
influence of hedonic adaptation. Therefore, it is necessary to include variety to keep the strategy
fresh. For example, Lyubomirsky (2007) suggested sometime one may vary the gratitude
practice in a number of ways-
-express gratitude only after particular triggers (such as after enduring a hardship or when you
are most needful of a boost).

-choose to write in a journal some weeks, talk to a friend other weeks, and express gratitude
through art (photography, collage, watercolor) during other weeks.

“When the strategy loses its freshness or meaningfulness, don‟t hesitate to make a
change in how, when, and how often you express yourself” (Lyubomirsky, 2007).
 Obstacles in Promoting Gratitude

All people may not experience gratitude in same amounts and some individuals may be more
responsive to gratitude exercises than others. Cultural and attitudinal factors likely to moderate
gratitude‘s effects on well-being (Bono & Emmons, 2017).

Culture

One study found that gratitude interventions focusing on family and others to be more effective
in collectivist samples, whereas those focusing on oneself were more effective with
individualistic samples (Boehm, Lyubomirsky, & Sheldon, 2011). More research is needed to
better understand how the experience, expression, and consequences of gratitude differ across
cultures. Future research need to understand universal versus distinctive patterns in these areas
would advance basic knowledge about gratitude in society (Bono & Emmons, 2017)

Attitudes
A number of attitudes are incompatible with gratitude-
 perceptions of victimhood (Seligman, 2002)
 inability to admit to one‘s shortcomings (Solomon, 2002)
 envy and resentment (Etchegoyen & Nemas, 2003), and
 an overemphasis on materialistic values (Kasser, 2002).

It may be necessary to confront these attitudes by such individuals on their own terms prior to
initiating a gratitude focus (Bono & Emmons, 2017)..

Personality factors

A major personality variable that is likely to be an obstacle in gratitude is narcissism (Watkins

et al., 2003).

In this direction Bono and Emmons (2017) reported-

―People with narcissistic tendencies erroneously believe they are deserving of special rights and
privileges without assuming reciprocal responsibilities. The sense of entitlement combined with
insensitivity to the needs of others engenders interpersonal exploitation. They might be reluctant
to express gratitude in response to benefactors whose generosity or kindness they summarily
dismiss as little more than attempts to curry favor...........In short, if one feels entitled to
everything, then one is thankful for nothing‖ (P. 565).
 Lecture 26: Cultivating Happiness with Acts of Kindness

Acts of Kindness

Kindness refers to actions intended to benefit others (Curry et al. 2018). Kindness has a strong
moral dimension just like gratitude. All religions prescribe practice of kindness as a holy virtue
and the basis of our happiness. Kindness includes a combination of emotional, behavioural, and
motivational components (Otake et al. 2006). At the emotional level it is compassion, at the
motivational level it is urge to help others and at the behavioral level it includes actual helping
behavior (Kerr et al., 2015).

What Counts as Kindness?

Acts of kindness need not be some great work of charity or help. It can be as simple as a smile,
or saying thank you or a word of encouragement. What's important is that it's an act coming
from genuine care and concern for another person. Acts of kindness can come from aspur of
the moment (noticing someone in need) or it can be thought and planned in advance (planning
to do something for a friend). Kindness require us to be aware of the people aroundus - and to
notice their needs and feelings.

Evolutionary mechanisms of kindness

Kindness may have strong evolutionary basis as it promotes social connections, cooperation
and flourishing of communities and societies. Evolutionary mechanisms favors kindness in a
varieties of ways. Curry et al. (2018) reported following mechanisms explaining kindness-

(1) Kindness to families (Kin altruism): Natural selection promotes kindness to genetic
relatives, such as family members (Hamilton, 1964). For example, love and kindness for off-
springs, siblings, parents etc.

(2) Kindness to members of one‟s community (Mutualism)

Natural selection favours the tendency to be kind, to coordinate and collaborate with others who
shares a common interest such as team mates and group members.

This tendency led humans to form clubs, gangs, sects etc. This form of kindness can explain
loyalty, solidarity, camaraderie, civic-mindedness, community spirit, and commitment to a cause
greater than oneself (Curry et al. 2018).

(3) Kindness to those who will meet again and return favor (Reciprocal altruism).
Natural selection favors kindness to those who might return a favor later (Axelrod, 1984;
Trivers, 1971). Reciprocal altruism can explain kindness in the form of sympathy, trust, returning
favours, gratitude, forgiveness and friendship (Curry et al. 2018). Reciprocal altruism predicts
that these tendencies will most likely to be shown in interactions where individuals expect to
meet again(Kraft-Todd, Yoeli, Bhanot, & Rand, 2015) and may include kindness to strangers as
it may be a way of making a new friend (Delton et al., 2011).

(4) Kindness to others when it enhances one‟s status (competitive altruism)

Natural selection favours kindness that impresses peers and attracts mates (Gintis, Smith, &
Bowles, 2001). Competitive altruism can explain kindness in the form of generosity, bravery,
heroism, chivalry, magnanimity and public service (Curry et al. 2018) and these are elicited
specially in the presence of rivals and potential mates as it may enhance one‘s status (Raihani&
Smith, 2015).

Kindness and Happiness

There is a saying ―What goes around comes around‖. With kindness we give happiness to
others and it returns to us. Apart from strict evolutionary reasons, one psychological reason
why people may engage in kindness is happiness. People show kindness as it gives them
happiness. This may explain a wide varieties of kindness behavior of human beings including
donations and charity works.

Many research supports this proposition that acts of kindness increases happiness and well-
being. An interesting study of kindness (Schwartz & Sendor, 1999; reported in Lyubomirsky,
2008) indicated the connection with happiness. This study followed 5 women with multiple
sclerosis (MS) over the 3 years. They were given the task of peer supporter for 67 other MS
patients by training them to compassionate and active listening. They were suppose to call
each patient 15 minutes per month. After 3 years, these 5 women reported-
experienced increased satisfaction, self-efficacy, and feelings of mastery.
engaging in more social activities and less depression
shifted their focus away from themselves and their problems to toward others
stronger sense of self-esteem and self-acceptance
Acts of kindness has many positive effects such as-
Increase in happiness and well-being (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005)

-Decrease in symptoms of depression or anxiety and increasing positive emotions (Sin &
Lyubomirsky, 2009)

-Increase in social well-being and the quality of relationships (Otake et al. 2006).

Why Kindness Makes People Happy?

Lyubomirsky (2007) suggested following possible mechanisms of kindness-

-Kindness leads you to perceive others more positively and more charitably.

-Kindness changes self perception. Acts of kindness may help you to view yourself as a
compassionate altruistic person which may promote higher self-esteem, confidence and
optimism.
-Acts of kindness to others may distraction people from their own troubles and ruminations and
shifts the focus from the egoistic self to others.
-Acts of kindness for a worthy cause may give you a sense of your abilities, resources, and
expertise and feeling of control over your life.
-Through acts of kindness you may learn new skills or discover hidden talents and promote
self-efficacy and accomplishment.

-Acts of kindness may promote a sense of meaningfulness and value in one‘s life.

-kindness can lead to a cascade of positive social consequences such as others liking you,
showing gratitude or reciprocating favors.
-Kindness satisfies basic human need for connecting with others and satisfying the need for
relatedness.

How to Practice Kindness?

There cannot be techniques for practicing kindness. It flows when we are sensitive to the
needs of others and a caring attitude. As the Dalai Lama says "Be kind whenever [Link]
is always possible". Sometimes one can plan for acts of kindness such consciously deciding
and planning to help or support some people or organization by donating resourcesor labor.
One can do random acts of kindness which are spontaneous and non-premediated.

When Kindness May Take a Toll?

Research show that certain types of helping behavior may be detrimental to physical and mental
health. This include full-time caregiving of chronically ill or disabled loved ones. In suchcases
caregivers may experience depression, fatigue, anger, resentment.
Caregivers of spouses with Alzheimer‘s disease show depression levels three times greater than
the average person (Esterling et al. 1994). Caregivers of spouses with spinal cord injuriesreport
severe physical and emotional stress, burnout, fatigue, anger, and resentment (Weitzenkamp et
al. 1997). Here the problem is not kindness but accompanying grieving for the loved ones and
impending loss of life. Furthermore, such caregiving may interfere with daily goals and
functioning of the caregiver which may increase stress and frustrations (Lyubomirsky, 2007).

At the emotional level such caregiving may have detrimental effect, but, it may increase certain
dimensions of eudaimonic well-being such as purpose and meaning of life as this is an
appropriate and honorable work and one sacrifices pleasures of life for the duty.
A true acts of kindness should be done freely and autonomously and only such acts bring the
maximum improvement in well-being (Lyubomirsky, 2007). A forced help may not bring
aboutthe benefits of kindness as it is not truly an act of kindness.
Kindness should not be forced on someone. Other people may not always welcome your
kindness and may put others in an uncomfortable and disadvantaged position (Lyubomirsky,
2007). Therefore, one should be sensitive to others need and preferences.
 Lecture 27: Social Comparisons and Happiness

Social Comparisons

Social comparison refers to the tendency of people to compare themselves to others on a wide
variety of dimensions. Social comparisons provides us useful guides for our behavior, and they
may also have emotional consequences, affecting our self-esteem and happiness (Herman et al.
2019).
From the psychological perspective, the social comparison theory was first proposed in 1954
by psychologist Leon Festinger. He suggested that we have an innate drive to evaluate
ourselves in comparison to others i.e. self evaluation in relation to others. Social comparison
helps us to determine how we are doing compared to others (ability comparison), or how we
should behave, think, and feel (opinion comparison) (Festinger, 1954; in Verduyn et al. 2020).
Social comparison is universal across cultures and is evident in young children and is a core
feature of social evolution (Verduyn et al. 2020).

Functions of social comparison

Social comparison seems to be a fundamental human drive. It serves a variety of functions (in
Vogel et al., 2014)-
-fulfilling affiliation needs (Schachter, 1959),

-evaluating the self (Festinger, 1954),

-making decisions (Camerer & Lovallo, 1999),

-being inspired (Lockwood & Kunda, 1997),

-regulating emotions and well-being (Taylor & Brown, 1988)

Social Comparison Process

Central to the social comparison process are-

(1) Upward versus downward social comparison and

(2) Assimilative versus contrastive social comparison.

Upward vs Downward Social Comparisons

There are generally two types of social comparisons: Upward and downward social
comparisons. Upward social comparison occurs when comparing oneself with someone better
or superior and have positive characteristics (Vogel et al., 2014). Downward social comparison
occurs when comparing oneself with someone inferior and have negative characteristics (Vogel
et al., 2014). Upward social comparison generally causes people to feel inadequate, have poorer
self-evaluations, and experience negative affect (Marsh & Parker, 1984).
However, sometimes it may inspire people to become like the target (Lockwood & Kunda,
1997).
Downward social comparison generally causes improvements in affect and self-evaluation
(Wills, 1981). However, sometimes it may make people feel negative because it reveals how
things could be worse (Aspinwall, 1997). Both upward and downward social comparison can
result in negative and positive effects on self-evaluation depending on contrastive and
assimilative comparisons.

Assimilation vs Contrast

Assimilation: It refers to the comparer‘s self-evaluation changing towards the comparison

target (Verduyn et al. 2020).
Contrast: It refers to the comparer‘s self-evaluation changing away from the comparison
target (Verduyn et al. 2020).

Social Comparison and Self-evaluations

Upward comparison Downward comparison

Assimilation Positive self-evaluation Negative self-evaluation

Contrast Negative self-evaluation Positive self-evaluation

See video lecture for detailed explanations

Studies indicate that social comparisons are more likely when the comparison dimension is
relevant to the self, and when the comparison target is similar to the self (Verduyn et al. 2020).
However, people may also compare sometime with irrelevant targets (Gilbert, Giesler &
Morris, 1995). A recent meta-analysis showed that in offline contexts, individuals mostly tend
to compare to someone who outperforms them (upward comparison) in a contrasting manner,
resulting in lowered self-evaluations, envy and overall worsened mood (Gerber, Wheeler, &
Suls, 2018).

Social Comparison and Happiness

Research indicates that happiness depends on the relative income (how much earning in
comparison to a reference group) rather than absolute income. This reflects the influence of
social comparison on happiness. A meta-analysis revealed that people tend to engage in
contrasting upward social comparisons in offline social comparison which also have negative
 impact of SWB (Gerber, Wheeler, & Suls, 2018). People with excessive tendency for social
comparison are more likely to encounter unfavorable comparisons and suffer negative
consequences (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Seeking happiness from social comparison is particularly
difficult task as no matter what you achieve, there will be someone better than you.

Social Comparison, Social Media, and Happiness

In todays world, social media such as social networking sites provides a fertile ground for
social comparison (Verduyn et al. 2017) as people have enormous amount of information
about comparison targets on such sites. Users of SNSs such as Facebook are more likely to
portray their successes (and not failures), achievements and rosy images of their life.
Consequently, upward social comparison is more likely to take place on such sites (Verduyn et
al. 2020). In SNS, people are more often exposed to idealized images of others and share more
often self-enhancing information themselves (Verduyn et al. 2020). .
Diverse research studies including cross-sectional (Sherlock & Wagstaff, 2018), longitudinal
and experimental (Verduyn et al. 2015) studies on social comparison on SNSs indicate that
these comparisons typically result in decreases in SWB or happiness. A recent meta-analyses
(Yoon, Kleinman, Mertz, & Brannick, 2019) indicated that social comparison on SNSs in
general (non-directional i.e. collapsing across social comparison types) predicts a decrease in
SWB with a small- to medium-sized effect, while upward social comparisons predicted
decreased SWB with a medium-sized effect. However, some studies also revealed that social
comparisons in SNSs may not always decrease happiness or SWB. Social comparison on SNSs
is not associated with negative emotional consequences when-
-comparison is focused on opinions rather than ability (Yang, Holden, & Carter, 2018)
-there is a downward social comparison (Feltman, & Szymanski, 2018)
-assimilation (rather than contrast) to an upward comparison target (increases SWB and leads to
feelings of inspiration) (Park & Baek, 2018).

Verduyn et al. (2020) noted that the positive consequences of social comparison on SNSs are
exceptions rather than the rule. Online social comparison have a general negative impact of
SWB as revealed by meta-analysis (Yoon et al., 2019).

How to Avoid Social Comparison?

Be aware of the negative consequences of unnecessary social comparison and avoid it. Too
much social comparison makes people highly insecure and vulnerable.

Practice gratitude and be grateful to what you have and resist envy (happiness and envycannot
stay together).

Use social comparison as inspiration and motivation

Use self-evaluations using self-set internal standards (I should improve public speaking skills
and become better in future) rather than others performances influencing your feelings.
 Module 10: happiness activities 2 (lecture 1)
Lecture 28: Cultivating Happiness With Signature
Strengths

What are Strengths?

Psychological strengths are built-in capacities for certain thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
For example, courage, optimism, perseverance, gratitude etc. The study of strengths are
foundational agenda of positive psychology, because they reflect positive side of human
functioning.

Benefits Of Understanding and Using Psychological Strengths

Boniwell (2012) summarized following values and functions of
strengths-
 encourages insight and perspective in life
 makes one less sensitive to stress
 generates optimism and resilience
 provides a sense of direction
 helps to develop confidence and self-esteem
 generates a sense of vitality and energy
 stimulates a sense of happiness and fulfilment
 helps to achieve one‘s goals
 enables one to be more engaged at work and perform better
Development and following one‘s strengths can build resilience and prevent psychological
illnesses. For example, developing optimism may buffers against depression

Strengths approach underlies most successful psychological therapies such as instilling hope,
optimism, courage etc. in clients (Boniwell, 2012).

Different Approaches To The Concept Of Strengths

There are two major approaches to the concept of strengths and their measurement:
VIA Classification of Strengths and Virtues,

Gallup‘s StrengthsFinder

The VIA Classification Of Strengths And Virtues

Peterson & Seligman (2004) developed a classification system of strengths and virtues taking
cue from DSM called value in action (VIA) classification. As DSM classifies mental
disorders, VIA tries to classify character strengths and virtues.
 Character strengths are those aspects of personality that are morally valued (Park & Peterson,
2009). We look for good characters as a desirable quality in all people including leaders,
teachers, students. Academic skills and abilities such as thinking critically help people to
achieve goals but without good character, individuals may lack the desire to do the right thing
(Park & Peterson, 2009).

According to Park and Peterson (2009), exercising character strengths-

-Prevent undesirable life outcomes

-specific strengths of character (hope, kindness, social intelligence, self-control, and

perspective) buffer against the negative effects of stress and trauma.

-Help people to thrive and are associated with desired outcomes such as school success,
leadership, tolerance and valuing of diversity, ability to delay gratification, kindness, and altruism

Peterson & Seligman (2004) used certain criteria to select a list of major universal strengths.
Some of these are-
 A strength contributes to fulfilment of the good life for a person and others around him
orher.
 A strength is morally valued in its own right, irrespective of whether or not it leads
tobeneficial outcomes.
 Displaying the strength does not diminish others, but may rather benefit them, causing
admiration rather than jealousy
 A strength must be manifest in a range of a person‘s behaviours, thoughts, feelings and
actions. It should be generalizable across situations and times.

VIA Classification

Using these criteria, Peterson and Seligman (2004) identified 24 character strengths which are
organized into 6 major virtues.
Virtues are the core universal characteristics valued by moral philosophers and religious
thinkers such as wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence (Park &
Peterson, 2009). Character strengths are the specific psychological processes or mechanisms
that define the virtues such as kindness and love are aspects of virtue of humanity.
Virtues and their corresponding character strengths are as follows-

1. WISDOM AND KNOWLEDGE (this virtue incorporates strengths related to the

acquisitionand use of knowledge)
• creativity: thinking of novel and productive ways to do things
• curiosity: taking an interest in all of ongoing experience
• open-mindedness: thinking things through and examining them from all sides
• love of learning: mastering new skills, topics, and bodies of knowledge
• perspective: being able to provide wise counsel to others

2. COURAGE (involve the exercise of will to accomplish goals in the face of

opposition,whether external or internal)
• honesty: speaking the truth and presenting oneself in a genuine way
• bravery: not shrinking from threat, challenge, difficulty, or pain
• persistence: finishing what one starts
• zest: approaching life with excitement and energy

3. HUMANITY (includes interpersonal strengths)

• kindness: doing favors and good deeds for others
• love: valuing close relations with others
• social intelligence: being aware of the motives and feelings of self and others
4. JUSTICE (includes civic strengths)
• fairness: treating all people the same according to notions of fairness and justice
• leadership: organizing group activities and seeing that they happen
• teamwork: working well as member of a group or team

5. TEMPERANCE (Moderation and self-restraint; includes strengths that buffer us

againstexcesses.)
• forgiveness: forgiving those who have done wrong
• modesty: letting one‘s accomplishments speak for themselves
• prudence: being careful about one‘s choices; not saying or doing things that might later be
regretted
• self-regulation: Regulating what one feels and does

6. TRANSCENDENCE (Includes strengths that connect us to the larger universe)

• appreciation of beauty and excellence: noticing and appreciating beauty, excellence, and/or
skilled performance in all domains of life
• gratitude: being aware of and thankful for the good things that happen
• hope: expecting the best and working to achieve it
• humor: liking to laugh and joke; bringing smiles to other people
• religiousness: having coherent beliefs about the higher purpose and meaning of life

Character Strengths and Well-being

Character strengths have been consistently linked to various measures of happiness and well-
being. Identifying and using signature strengths (The VIA Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS)) in
everyday life can lead to psychological fulfillment (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005).
Certain strengths are more strongly related to well-being and flourishing such as gratitude,
hope, zest, curiosity, and love have been consistently related to life satisfaction (Park &
Peterson, 2006). Research also indicate that strengths of heart such as love and gratitude which
connect people are more strongly related to well-being as compared to strengths of head such
as creativity and critical thinking (Park & Peterson, 2008) which are mostly individual in
nature. Therefore, formal education should encourage both the types of strengthsfor holistic
development (Park & Peterson, 2009).

The character strengths of perseverance, love, gratitude, hope, and perspective have been
linked to academic achievement (Park & Peterson, 2009).The strengths of bravery and
appreciation of beauty is connected with the successful recovery from illness (Park &
Peterson, 2009). Spirituality/religiousness is associated with a life of meaning and purpose
(Park & Peterson, 2009).
Can We Cultivate Character Strengths?

Everybody has signature strengths regardless of where he or she may stand compared to others
(Park & Peterson, 2009). Signature strengths can be cultivated as we already possessthem and
easier to enhance them by exercising them in our daily life. It is much more difficult to work
on weakness as people lose interest and defensive about them.

In a study, it was observed that people who used their signature strengths for a week in novel
ways increased happiness and decreased depression at six months follow up as compared tothe
control group (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). Character strengths are relatively
stable and trait like. However, they can be influenced by both genetic and environment
factors.

Dramatic events can increase character strengths. For example-

-character strengths of faith (religiousness), hope, and love were elevated among US
respondents after 9/11 attack (Peterson & Seligman, 2003).

-increase in the strengths of bravery, kindness, and humor after recovery from physical illness
(Peterson, Park, & Seligman, 2006)

-increases in the character strengths of religiousness, gratitude, kindness, hope, and bravery(akin
to PTG dimensions) after exposure to trauma (Peterson et al. 2008).

These various notions about virtue imply that character can be cultivated by good parenting,
schooling, and socialization (Park & Peterson, 2009).

Positive role models may promote development of good character (Bandura, 1977).

People should be taught specific activities of strengths and encourage them to keep using
them in their daily lives (Park & Peterson, 2008, 2009).

An individualized program for cultivating character based on an individual‘s character

strengthprofile may be more effective than a general for everyone (Park & Peterson, 2009).
 Lecture 29: Cultivating Happiness With Signature Strengths 2

Gallup‟s Strengths Finder/Clifton Strength Finder

Two research scientists from Gallup‘s organization Clifton & Anderson (2001) attempted to
understand what makes people excel in what they do through interviewing thousands of top
performers across the globe. Out of this exercise, they came up with thirty-four most prevalent
talents/strengths displayed specifically in the work setting.

They have conceptualized strengths in different ways than VIA classification.

Talents Vs Strengths
According to Clifton and Anderson (2002), the basis of a strength is a talent. Talent is a
naturally recurring pattern of thought, feeling or behaviour that can be productively applied to
multiple areas (Clifton and Anderson, 2002). It‘s a capacity to do something. A strength on the
other hand is the ability to provide a consistent, high-level performance in a given activity.
Thus strengths are produced when talents are refined with knowledge and skills (Clifton and
Anderson, 2002). They further said, talents are like rough diamond and strengths are like
polished diamonds. For example, ability to make instant connection with people can be a
talent but the ability to consistently build a network of supporters who know you and are
prepared to help you is a strength.

Talents, Skills, Knowledge, and Strengths

According to Clifton and Anderson (2002)-

Knowledge consists of facts and lessons that we learn whereas skills are basic abilities that we
acquire to perform activities. Talents exists naturally within each of us. However, skills and
knowledge needs to be acquired.

Skills and knowledge are combined with talent to create a strength.

As rough diamond are naturally found in the earth, talents are naturally found within us. As
rough diamonds are refined and polished with blades and other instruments, strengths are
produced when talents are refined with knowledge and skills.

Six Principles Of Human Nature And Behavior In Strength Based Approach

According to Anderson (2004), there are six principles of human nature and behavior-
• You have a group of talents within you.
• Your greatest talents hold the key to high achievement, success, and progress at levelsof
personal excellence.
• Becoming aware of your talents builds confidence and provides a basis for achievement.
• Learning how to develop and apply strengths will improve your levels of achievement.
• Each of your talents can be applied in many areas including relationships, learning,
academics, leadership, service, and careers.
• As you develop and apply strengths, your achievements will increase and you will
experience greater and more frequent successes.

Benefits of Developing Strengths

According to Clifton and Anderson (2002), with the development of strengths-

 Achievement will follow

 Lead to a sense of fulfillment and satisfaction
 Enhance quality of life
 Increases confidence and optimism
 Individuals gain more when they expend effort to build their best talents as compared to
when they spend comparable amount of efforts to remediate their weakness.

Gallup‟s Study Of Top Achievers

Clifton and Anderson (2002) reported following main findings of top achievers-
Top achievers fully recognize their talents and build on them to develop strengths.
Underachievers often fail to recognize their talents and develop strengths.
Top achievers apply their greatest talents in roles that best suit them. For achievement, it is
necessary to apply ones talents and strengths in roles and tasks that are best suited for those
talents. A proper fit between the talent and the task is essential.
Top achievers invent ways to apply their greatest talents to their achievement tasks. It is
essential to consciously invent newer ways of applying talents in various tasks one performs ina
role or position for greater achievement.

Strengthfinder Themes of Talents/Strengths

Gallup has categorized 34 talents/strengths into four main domains-

(1) Executing

(2) Influencing

(3) Relationship Building

(4) Strategic Thinking

See video lecture for the detail strengths within each of these categories
 How to Develop Strengths?

Clifton and Anderson (2002) provided following strategies for developing strengths-

(1) Know your talents

 To develop strengths we need to first identify our greatest talents.
 talents can be identified, by spontaneous reactions, yearnings, rapid learning, and
satisfaction (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001).
 spontaneous reactions are subconscious spontaneous reactions to a given situation.
Yearnings are passions for some activities and hobbies. Rapid learning in an area reflects
talents. Satisfaction and enjoyment of activities also reflects possible talents in an area.
 The StrengthFinder questionnaire, can be used to identify talents.
 Self reflection on thoughts and behaviours can give insights into talents.

(2) You must value your talents and assume responsibility for using them in strength
development.

One needs to invest time, energy and resources for developing strengths. This will happen only
when you value your talents.

(3) Talents are most powerful when inspired by a personal mission.

The use of talents are used towards the mission, purpose and meaning of your life will energize
and motivate to develop and refine talents into strengths.

Without mission and purpose in life, one may not have enough motivation to develop talents into
strengths.

(4) Healthy, caring relationship facilitate the development of strengths.

Having few healthy, positive and empowering relationships facilitates development of strengths.
They may inspire to develop your strengths. You are more likely to-
-Talk about your talents

-Express about your experiences and plans to develop talents,

-Receive feedback

-Work together to form expectations about talents, where to apply and how to develop them.

(5) Reliving your success helps you develop strengths

Success generally comes with the use of our talents. Therefore, reliving them helps you to
recognize your talents and give confidence in using and building them.
(6) Practice your talents
There is no alternative to practice when we want to develop strengths.
(7) Teaching leads to learning
Teaching others about talents and sharing your experiences and insights will facilitate
developing your strengths. You will be forced gain insights by reflecting and explaining about
them.
 Lecture 30: Cultivating Happiness With “Flow”

Background

Flow states was first discovered by a psychologists named Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi who
popularized the concept through his best seller ―Flow: The Psychology of Optimal
Experience‖.Csikszentmihalyi (1975) began his research on flow with the rather simple
question of why people are often highly committed to activities without obvious external
rewards. He found that such activities share a common aspect, which he labeled ‗‗flow state‘‘ or
‗‗flow experience‘‘.

He was fascinated with artists and their unwavering concentration and wanted to understand
the subjective experience (how they feel?) when people are in such state.

What is “Flow”?

According to Csikszentmihalyi, Flow can be defined as

―The intense experiential involvement in moment-to-moment activity, which can be
either physical or mental. Attention is fully invested in the task at hand and the person
functions at her/his fullest capacity.‖

He further said that

―it is state of concentration so focused that it amounts to absolute absorption in an activity.
Everyone experiences flow from time to time and will recognize its characteristics: people
typically feel strong, alert, in effortless control, unselfconscious, and at the peak of their abilities.
Both a sense of time and emotional problems seem to disappear, and there is an exhilarating
feeling of transcendence‖ (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

Athletes refer to it as "being in the zone," religious mystics as being in "ecstasy," artists and
musicians as "aesthetic rapture.―

It is the full involvement of flow, rather than happiness, that makes for excellence in life. We
can be happy experiencing the passive pleasure of a rested body, warm sunshine, or the
contentment of a serene relationship, but this kind of happiness is dependent on favorable
external circumstances. The happiness that follows flow is of our own making, and it leads to
increasing complexity and growth in consciousness.

There seems to be three common elements in all flow definitions and experiences (Kasa &
Hassan, 2013)-
• Sense of deep involvement and concentration
• feeling of ultimate enjoyment while doing the task

• Intrinsic interest in the task i.e. ding the task for its own sake and not because of external
pressure or demands.
Conditions For Flow To Happen

The state of flow happens under very specific conditions –

when we encounter a challenging task that tests our skills, that is, a task which is high on
challenge and the skills levels, stretching us almost to the limit. We may experience anxiety If
challenges exceed skills, and experience bored if skills exceed challenges, Neither of these two
cases can results in flow.

Quadrant Model of Flow (See Video lecture)

Characteristics Of Flow
Csikszentmihalyi (1992) after interviewing thousands of people from different areas such as
chess players, mountain climbers, tennis players, ballet dancers, surgeons, and so on concluded
that flow is a universal experience. It has following important characteristics:
(1) Intense and focused concentration on what one is doing in the present moment with no
room in one‘s mind for any other information.
(2) Loss of reflective self-consciousness. The loss of self-consciousness can lead to self-
transcending and pushes the boundaries of our being forward. When not preoccupied with our
selves, we experience joy and a chance to expand our sense of self.
(3) The merging of action and awareness. In the state of flow the activity becomes spontaneous
and we merge with the action become almost one with the action. E.g., A paintermerges with
his painting.
(4) Clear goals and immediate feedback. One should have a clear proximate goal and get
immediate feedback how he/she is doing in the task to enjoy and enter into flow.

(5) Sense of control over what one is doing. There is a sense that one can deal with the
situation and respond to whatever happens next.

(6) Distortion of temporal experience especially the sense that time has passed faster than
normal.

(7) Activities are intrinsically rewarding. Doing the activity itself is rewarding and end goal
isoften an excuse for the process.

Activities that are Conducive and Non-conducive to Flow

Activities that can facilitate flow experience are called autotelic (from the Greek: auto = self,
telos = goal), because they are mostly intrinsically motivated and enjoyable and have an end in
themselves (Boniwell, 2012). Many activities can be conducive to flow experience as long as
the activity is able to activate high challenge and high skills (Della Fave & Massimini, 2004).

Activities such as sports, dancing, creative arts and other hobbies, socializing, studying,
reading and, very often, working (Boniwell, 2012). Activities in which flow is less likely to be
experienced include housework, idling and resting, watching TV etc. (Boniwell, 2012).
Consequences of Flow

Consequences of flow include-

improve subjective well-being, happiness, life satisfaction and positive affect (Chen, Wigand,
& Nilan, 1999).

Flow is found to be correlated with increase performance, higher motivation and engagement
and positive mood in organization context (Kasa & Hassan, 2013)

Few research indicated that by developing enriching and challenging working environment that
are conducive for flow may enhance employee productivity while boosting organization
productivity level as a whole (Csikszentmihalyi, 2003).

Accoring to Engeser and Rheinberg (2008), flow is correlated with better performance for two
main reasons-
• Flow is highly functional state which promotes performance by itself.
• A person experiencing flow are more motivated to perform further task to keep on
experiencing flow and will set their own challenging task.

Flow can facilitate positive mood which may further promote creativity and positive thinking but
also encourage helping behavior among employees (George & Brief, 1992)

experiencing flow encourages a person to persist and return to the activity because of the
experiential rewards it promises, and thereby fosters the growth of skills over time (Nakamura
& Csikszentmihalyi, 2009).

Flow was associated with commitment and achievement during the high school years (Carli,
Delle Fave, & Massimini, 1988; Nakamura, 1988).

longitudinal research also suggests that mastering challenges in daily life (flow experiences)
may protect against negative outcomes (Schmidt, 2000). For example, flow experience was
associated with diminished delinquency after two years of high adversity at home/school in a
sample of American adolescents.

Autotelic Personality:
Individual Differences In Flow

There are large individual differences in the frequency and intensity of flow experiences which
may be linked to both personality and situational variables. Csikszentmihalyi
(1990) hypothesized that some may have an increased likelihood of experiencing this state- he
called them as ―autotelic personality‖.
 He suggested that autotelic personality (from the Greek words autos, meaning ―self,‖ and
telos, meaning ―end‖), as exhibited by a person who enjoys life and ―generally does things for
[their] own sake, rather than in order to achieve some later external goal‖ (Csikszentmihalyi,
1997, p. 117). Autotelic individuals have a disposition to be intrinsically motivated in high-
challenge, high-skill situations. They are least happy and motivated in apathy (low-challenge,
low-skill) situations (Hektner, 1996). Nonautotelics (those least motivated in high-challenge,
high-skill situations) on the other hand did not find the apathy condition aversive (Hektner,
1996). Rathunde (1988, 1996) demonstrated that autotelic personality is fostered in what he
has called a ―complex‖ family environment, one that simultaneously provides support and
challenge.

Interventions To Foster Flow

Flow principles have been applied in a variety of contexts. In general two types of intervention
approaches can be applied (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009)-
• To shape activity structures and environments so that they foster flow or obstruct it less
and

• To assist individuals in finding flow.

One of the best application of flow principles took place in Key School in Indianapolis, where
the goal was to foster flow by influencing both environment and individual (Whalen, 1999).
Theschool tried to
(a) create a learning environment that fosters flow experiences and
(b) help students form interests and develop the capacity to experience flow.

In the school‘s Flow Activities Center-

students are given regular opportunities to actively choose and engage in activities of their own
interests and then pursue these activities without demands or distractions, creating what has
been described as ―serious play‖ (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993).

To support students‘ capacity to develop and experience flow, teachers encourage students to
challenge and stretch themselves; teachers also provide new challenges to the children to foster
growth.

Similarly, principles of flow research have been applied in other settings such as organizations
(police, automobile factory, art museums) and psychotherapies (assisting individuals to find
flow)

Dangers of Flow

Flow experience can happen to both morally good as well as bad activities. It can happen to
activities such as gambling games such as bridge and poker games. Some flow activities can
become addictive such as mountain climbing. Addiction to flow can also lead to losing a larger
perspective of life (Boniwell, 2012). In this context, Csikszentmihalyi (1992) wrote-
―enjoyable activities that produce flow have a potentially negative effect: while they are capable
of improving the quality of existence by creating order in the mind, they can become addictive,
at which point the self becomes captive of a certain kind of order, and is then unwilling to cope
with the ambiguities of life.‖ (P. 62)

Therefore, it is important to remember-

―The issue regarding flow is not only how we can make it happen, but also how we can manage
it: using it to enhance life, yet being able to let go when necessary.‖ (Boniwell, 2012, p. 35).

According to Csikszentmihalyi, (1998), flow is a source of mental energy that focuses attention
and motivates action and like other forms of energy, it can be used for constructive or
destructive purpose. Therefore, he suggested that it is not enough to strive for enjoyable goals
only, one must also choose goals that will reduce the sum total of entropy in the world i.e.
constructive goals.
 Module 11: Is happiness sufficient? The concept of eudaimonic well-being

Lecture 31: Humanistic Psychology and Self-actualization

The Concept of Eudaimonic Well-being

The literature of happiness and subjective well-being seems to be concerned with mostly
feeling good. The true value of well-being and quality of life cannot be understood without
considering meaning and purpose in life, realization of inner potentials and fulfillment in
[Link] concept of Eudaimonic well-being tries to look into these ideas. In Lecture 17, we
havediscussed basic ideas of eudaimonic well-being and how it is different from the concept
of hedonic well-being or happiness.
According to Eudaimonic view, well-being consists of more than happiness. It is more about
actualization of human potentials. It is about fulfilling one‘s true nature or daimon.
Eudaimonicwell-being conceptualize well-being in terms of positive functioning, meaning in
life and pursuing worthwhile goals, actualization of inner potentials and so on. The core of
wellness isnot how pleasantly or unpleasantly one feels but how one functions in response to
life challenges (Ryan, 1989). Eudaimonic well-being which is also called as ―psychological
well- being‖ as opposed to ―subjective well-being‖ of hedonic well-being.

Carol Ryff and her colleagues (Ryff & Keyes, 1995; Ryff & Singer, 1998) proposed six
dimensions of psychological well-being. They are-self-acceptance, personal growth, purpose
in life, positive relations with others, environmental mastery and autonomy. There are many
theories that conceptualized human well-being in terms of Eudaimonic well-being. We will
focus on few such concepts and theories specifically, self-actualization theories of humanistic
psychology, self-determination theory, the concept of meaning and purpose in life, and life
goals.

This lecture will address self-actualization theories of humanistic psychology. Other concepts
will be discussed in the upcoming lectures.

Humanistic Psychology and Self-actualization

Humanistic psychologists, such as Maslow and Rogers, were probably the first ‗eudaimonists‘
in the twentieth century (Boniwell, 2012). Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1960s as an
opposition to pessimistic conceptualization of human nature by psychoanalysis and
behaviourism.
The humanistic psychology offered new set of values to approach and study human [Link]
core assumptions include-
-people are motivated to self-actualize their inner hidden potentials.
-They have a free will
-They make active choices that influence their well-being.
-they are basically good intrinsically.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Self-actualization
Maslow noticed that there is a hierarchy among our needs. Some needs take priority over
others. For example, if one is hungry and thirsty, quenching of thirst will be a priority as thirst is
stronger need than hunger. Based on this idea, Maslow created a hierarchy of needs for human
life.

Maslow's hierarchy is most often represented using a pyramid. The lowest levels of the
pyramid include the most basic needs, while more complex social and psychological needs
are at the top of the pyramid.
See video lecture for diagrammatic representation

Physiological Needs
At the bottom of the pyramid is physiological needs. These are most basic physical
requirements including the need for food, water, sleep etc. Our survival depends on the
fulfillment of these physiological needs.

The safety and security needs

When the physiological needs are taken care of, the need for safety comes into play. It may
include finding safe circumstances, stability (financial security), protection (insurance). This
need comes from the desire to have a control and order in life.

The love and belonging needs

When physiological needs and safety needs are largely taken care of, this needs starts to showup.
It may include the need for friends, family, children, affectionate relationships, sense of
community etc.
The esteem needs
When the needs at the bottom three levels are largely satisfied, the esteem needs begin to play a
more prominent role in motivating behavior. It is need for self-esteem which may include need
for feelings of accomplishment and prestige, respect.

Maslow noted that there can be two versions of this esteem needs- a lower esteem need (outer)
and higher esteem need (inner). The lower esteem need includes respect of others, the need for
status, fame, glory, recognition, attention, reputation, appreciation, dignity, even
dominance. The higher esteem involves the need for self-respect, including such feelings as
confidence, competence, achievement, mastery, independence, and freedom.

Self-actualization
At the very peak of Maslow‘s hierarchy are the self-actualization needs. Although self-
actualization is most often linked with Maslow, the term was first coined by Kurt Goldstein.
However, Maslow popularized the concept. Self-actualization needs are met when an individual
engages in self-development and personal growth.

"What a man can be, he must be," Maslow explained, referring to the need people have to achieve
their full potential as human beings."It may be loosely described as the full use andexploitation of
talents, capabilities, potentialities, etc.‖ (Maslow, 1954, p. 150).
Such people seem to be fulfilling themselves and to be doing the best that they are capable of
doing.

Self-actualization is not a static state. It is an ongoing process in which one‘s capacities are
fully, creatively, and joyfully utilized.
―A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately
at peace with himself. What a man can be, he must be. This need we may call self-
actualization ........This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more
what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.‖
— Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality

According to Maslow, Self-actualization need is a growth or being need. All the other needs
are deficit needs. All the other lower needs arises from the lack or deficit of something from the
environment whereas the need for self-actualization don‘t come from any specific lack of
something but the desire to grow as a person.

People with self-actualization need are more concerned with their growth and less concerned
with the opinions of others-they enjoy autonomy and less susceptible to social pressure to ―fit-
in‖

Obstacles in Achieving Self-actualization

Maslow posited that each level of needs must be taken care of before the next one can be
met. So, fulfilling one‘s physiological needs is a prerequisite to their safety needs being met;
one‘s safety needs must be met before one‘s love needs take priority, and so on.
Self-actualization is the highest level, meaning that it can only be fulfilled when one‘s
physiological, safety, love, and esteem needs are already met.

The basic idea is that if we are stuck in fulfilling lower needs particularly physiological and
safety needs, we will be spending all our time and energy at that level only without thinking
about other higher needs.

While it was later acknowledged that there is some flexibility in the order in which these needs
can be met (e.g., Someone who is homeless may have their esteem or self-actualization needs
met without fulfilling physiological and safety needs)

Carl Rogers Theory Of Actualizing Tendency

According to Rogers, all organisms are motivated by a single force of life, which he called
actualizing tendency. It can be defined as the built-in motivation present in every life-form to
develop its potentials to the fullest extent possible (Boeree, 1998). All organisms not only try to
survive but strive to make very best of their existence. This desire is due to actualizing
tendency. They may fail to do so despite the desire.
 Rogers tried to capture and explain all other motives such as seeking food, shelter, love, self -
esteem etc. using this meta-need or motive of actualizing tendency. We seek food, shelter,
relationship, competence etc. to make very best of our existence which is actualizing tendency
(Boeree, 1998). According Rogers, people however, in the course of actualizing their
potentials, created society and culture (in itself they are not a problem) which in long run
developed life of its own and turned out of sync with actualizing tendencies of many and may
interfere in self-actualization.

Real Self vs Ideal Self

Rogers divided self concepts into two categories: the ideal self and the real self. The ideal self
is the person that you would like to be (I should) and the real self is the person you actually
are (I am). Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency betweenthese two
selves. The inconsistencies between the real self and ideal self creates sufferings and neurosis.

The inconsistency is created especially when we form a ideal self based on the societal
conditionings that are out of sync with ones actualizing tendencies. Let us see the details of
this process.

How To Promote Growth And Self-actualization?

Rogers (1959) added that for a person to "grow", they need an environment that provides
them with-

Genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), Unconditional

positive regard and acceptance andEmpathy (being listened
to and understood).

Without these qualities (psychological nutrients), relationships and healthy personalities will
not develop as they should, much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water.
 Lecture 32: Self-determination, Motivation, and Well-being

What Is Motivation?
Motivation refers to any force that energizes and directs behavior (Reeve, 2009). Energy gives
behavior its strength, intensity, and persistence. Direction gives behavior its purpose and goal-
directedness.

To be motivated means to be moved to do something. A person who feels no impetus or

inspiration to act is thus characterized as unmotivated, whereas someone who is energized or
activated toward an end is considered motivated. While motivation arises from many different
sources (e.g., needs, cognitions, emotions, environmental events), it is viewed in the present
context from a needs-based perspective within the self-determination theory framework.

Self-determination Theory (SDT)

Self-determination theory is a motivational theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000,
2002, 2017), which posits that people have basic psychological needs for autonomy,
relatedness, and competence. Fulfillment of psychological needs is essential for people‘s
psychological health and growth, autonomous motivation, optimal functioning, and self-
actualization (Deci and Ryan, 2008).

Basic Psychological Needs

SDT proposes that understanding motivation requires taking into account three basic human
needs:

autonomy—the need to feel free of external constraints on behaviorcompetence—the

need to feel capable or skilled
relatedness—the need to feel connected or involved with others

Autonomy satisfaction is experienced when the individual feels a sense of choice and volition
when carrying out an activity. In contrast, autonomy frustration occurs when the individual
feels controlled through internal or external pressures.

Competence satisfaction occurs when the individual feels effective and capable of achieving
desired outcomes. When competence is frustrated, the individual feels a sense of failure and
has doubt about one‘s ability.

Relatedness is satisfied when the individual feels a sense of connectedness with others. When
relatedness is frustrated, the individual feels a sense of isolation and loneliness.
Autonomy, competence and relatedness are universal psychological needs of human beingsand
when satisfied will conduce toward well-being; and when frustrated will lead to ill-being.
Basic psychological needs can be described as the psychological nutriments that facilitate
psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. These needs are also about personal growth or
development, not about deficits that a person tries to reduce or eliminate. People will seek to
enhance these continually throughout life.

Types of Motivation

Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) distinguishes between different types of
motivation based on the different reasons or goals that give rise to an action. The most basic
distinction is between intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it is
inherently interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something
because it leads to a separable outcome. Over three decades of research has shown that the
quality of experience and performance can be very different when one is behaving for intrinsic
versus extrinsic reasons.

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather
than for some separable consequence. When intrinsically motivated a person is moved to act
for the fun or challenge entailed rather than because of external prods, pressures, or rewards.
People are intrinsically motivated for some activities and not others, and not everyone is
intrinsically motivated for any particular task.

Research has shown many benefits of intrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated people show
more engagement, sustained efforts, achievement, positive self-esteem, well-being and so on.

Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation

Until the 1970s, most psychologists agreed with B. F. Skinner that rewards increase the
probability of behavior. But then research began to show otherwise. Traditional incentives
don‘t always work. And the fact is, they never work when the task requires any amount of
creative problem solving. Why? Rewards narrow our focus—which, when a creative solution
is wanted, is exactly the wrong thing to do.

In one of the first experiments on intrinsic motivation, children were given a period of time
during which they could draw. Some of them were given a certificate as a reward for having
drawn. When given a subsequent chance to draw, students who had been rewarded for
drawing spent less time at it than did students who had not been rewarded (Leeper, Green, &
Nisbett, 1973). Therefore, extrinsic reward may not work in all situations.
Possible Reasons
Over justification theory: It assumes that an extrinsic reward decreases intrinsic motivation
when a person attributes his/her performance to the extrinsic reward. It may occur in case of
high intrinsic interest and the reward is perceived as more than adequate justification for
performing the act.

Cognitive evaluation theory: Rewards perceived as providing information about a persons

competence in an activity will increase his/her intrinsic motivation. But, reward perceived as an
attempt to control a person‘s behavior will decrease his/her intrinsic motivation to perform that
activity. (E. Deci).

Basic Needs and Intrinsic Motivation

SDT proposes that intrinsically motivated activities were said to be ones that provided
satisfaction of innate psychological needs-namely, the innate needs for competence, autonomy,
and relatedness. Various ways of psychological need satisfaction will be discussedin more
details in the upcoming slides.

Is intrinsic motivation rare? Yes, intrinsic motivation is rare. ―Pure‖ self-determination

(intrinsic motivation) may be the ideal for human behavior, productivity and efficient, but in
reality such motivations are rare. Most of the human behavior is extrinsically motivated.
Therefore, it is essential to understand various dimensions of the extrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic Motivation

Although intrinsic motivation is very significant type of motivation, most of the activities
people do are not strictly intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). This is especially the
case after early childhood, as the freedom to be intrinsically motivated becomes increasingly
curtailed bysocial demands and roles that require individuals to assume responsibility for non-
intrinsically interesting tasks. In schools, for example, it appears that intrinsic motivation
becomes weakerwith each advancing grade.

Extrinsic motivation is a construct that pertains whenever an activity is done in order to attain
some separable outcome or instrumental values. SDT proposes that extrinsic motivation can
vary greatly in the degree to which it is autonomous. (See Video lecture for different types
of extrinsic motivation based on the degree of autonomous)

Identification and integration are more autonomous and internalized forms of extrinsic
motivation. These are very close to the intrinsic motivation.

Given the clear significance of internalization of extrinsic motivation, the critical applied issue
concerns how to promote the autonomous regulation of extrinsically motivated behaviors?
Research indicates that the basic psychological need fulfillment promotes internalizationof
the extrinsic motivation.

Supporting the Needs: General Suggestions

The need for relatedness can be supported by showing behaviors such as expressing
affection, devoting time and resources, willingness to help, and a non-competitive
environment.

The need for competence can be supported by providing optimal challenges, immediate and
non-evaluative feedback, and assistance in coping with failure (Connell, 1990).

The need for autonomy can be supported by showing behaviors such as absence of coercion,
giving opportunities to choose, clarifying the relevance of the task, enabling expression of
negative emotions, encouraging personal initiatives, and recognition of the person‘s
perspective (Assor et al., 2002; Reeve, 2006).
 Module 12: Meaning and purpose in life
Lecture 33: Meaning In Life and Well-
being

Meaning of Life Vs Meaning In Life

It is important to distinguish between ―meaning of life‖ from ―meaning in life‖.

Meaning of life: It is more a philosophical quest to find answer to metaphysical questions

such as why life and universe exists? What is its purpose? Such questions cannot be
investigated by scientific methodology and hence not in the domain of psychological inquiry.

Meaning in life: It is more about subjective experiences of human beings and asks what
makes them experience meaningfulness in their lives. Psychologists are more interested inthis
concept.

What is Meaning in Life?

Both psychologists and philosophers emphasized meaning in life as crucial dimension of

human life. Many psychological scholars have posited that all humans strive toward meaning
in terms of need to understand the world, to know our place in it, and to have purposes and
goals (e.g., Frank & Frank, 1991; Frankl, 1963; Klinger, 1977; Reker, Peacock, & Wong,
1987;Yalom, 1980).

Philosophers such as Descartes and Camus have suggested that humans have a fundamental
motive to make sense of their experiences. Frankl (1978) even proposed that seeking meaning
is crucial not only to well-being but also to survival.

Viktor Frankl (1963) is commonly cited in meaning in life research as one of the central figure
and founding inspiration (Steger, 2012).

Frankl argued that people function best when they perceive a sense of meaning and possessa
life purpose, a unique mission to strive for throughout their lives (Steger, 2012). He developed
a school of psychotherapy called ―logotherapy‖ which is aimed at helping people tofind
meaning in their life.

Definition Of Meaning In Life

Despite consensus regarding the importance of meaning in life, definitions and
operationalizations of meaning in life have varied across theoretical and empirical works
(Steger, 2009).

Researchers have defined meaning in life in diverse ways. For example-

 meaning is making sense of life (Battista & Almond, 1973),
 meaning in primarily nurtured by goal-directed behavior (Klinger, 1977; Ryff & Singer,
1998);

 meaning is linked to transcendent or spiritual concerns (Emmons, 2003; Mascarro, Rosen, &
Morey, 2004; Reker, 2000);

 meaning comes from a sense of self-worth, efficacy, self-justification, and purpose

(Baumeister, 1991).

Three core dimensions of Meaning

Recent research indicates that meaning in life can have three dimensions (Martela & Steger,
2016).

(1) Coherence

(2) Purpose

(3) Significance

Coherence as meaning in life

Life is coherent when one is able to understand patterns in it to make the wholeness
comprehensible (Martela & Steger, 2016) .

It is about ‗the feeling that one‘s experiences or life itself makes sense‘ (Heintzelman &
King,2014b, p. 154).

It is about making sense of one‘s life, to make it comprehensible and coherent.

It is the cognitive component of meaning in life, which is about ‗making sense of one‘s
experiences in life‘ (Reker & Wong, 1988, p. 220).

Some researchers made an assumption that humans have an inherent need to make sense oftheir
environment, and we experience distress in situations where meaning is disrupted, stimulating
our innate capacity to construct meaning to become activated (Heine et al., 2006).
Purpose as meaning in life

In many cases purpose has been used synonymously with meaning (e.g. Reker & Peacock,
1981). However, more specifically, purpose is a dimension of meaning and refers to
specifically to having direction and future-oriented goals in life (Martela & Steger, 2016).

Victor Frankl specifically used purpose to connote meaning in life.

Some definitions include-

purpose in life is about having ‗goals in life and a sense of directedness.‘ (Ryff, 1989, p. 1072)

‗a sense of core goals, direction in life, and enthusiasm regarding the future‘ (George & Park,
2013, p. 371).

Despite some differences in definition, researchers on purpose in life seem to agree that ―it is
essentially about some future-oriented aims and goals that give direction to life. These
overarching goals then lend significance to one‘s present actions‖ (Martela & Steger, 2016, p.
534).

This is the motivational component of the meaning.

Significance/mattering as meaning in life

Significance has been understood to be about the worthwhileness and value of one‘s life
(Martela & Steger, 2016). Some researchers such as George & Park (2014) used the term
―mattering‖ for this aspect of meaning. Significance or mattering is mostly defined as a value-
laden evaluation of one‘s life as a whole regarding how important, worthwhile, and inherently
valuable it feels (George & Park, 2014). To experience mattering is to feel that one‘s life has
some profound and lasting importance (Baumeister, 1991). An individual with a low sense of
mattering may feel that his/her existence carries little significance and that one‘s nonexistence
would make no impact on the world.

This aspect of meaning received less empirical attention as compared to other as it is more
speculative and philosophical.

Mattering is more connected bigger existential question whether human life has any inherent
value in the larger scheme of things?

It is possible that many cases of depression and suicide may be connected to low sense of
mattering or significance. However, on a positive note, most people do not go through life with
the sense that their lives do not matter; neither do they continuously question whether their
lives matter. Rather, most people assume their lives matter (Baumeister, 1991). In fact things
and close people in our life give us a sense of specialness and uniqueness and permanence
(George & Park, 2014).
A sense of significance or mattering may be particularly adaptive during the crisis or traumatic
situation (George & Park, 2016) .

Trauma literature indicate that people often do not consider traumatic events as pointless or
without significance while coping with (Janoff-Bulman & Yopyk, 2004). people often look
for asense of significance and positive value in the event in order to better cope with it (Davis,
Nolen-Hoeksema, & Larson, 1998). Literature also suggests that maintaining a sense of
mattering or even positive illusions such as exaggerated sense of control and optimism
facilitate coping and mental health (Korn, Sharot, Walter, Heekeren, & Dolan, 2014; Taylor
&Armor, 1996; Taylor & Brown, 1988).

Separating Coherence, Purpose and Significance

―Coherence is value-neutral and descriptive whereas purpose and significance are inherently
evaluative and normative. Coherence is about describing the world as it appears to the
individual, while significance and purpose aim to find value in the world in the present, as well
as in the world that might arise from the pursuit of one‘s purpose….Human effort to find
coherence is thus an attempt to create accurate mental models of the world to facilitate
predictability and consistency. Human effort to find significance and purpose, in turn, is an
attempt to find justification for one‘s actions, an enduring foundation for self-worth, and
worthwhile pursuits and ways of living that extend into the future‖ (Martela & Steger, 2016, p
536).

Inter-relationship between Comprehension, Purpose, And Significance

The dimensions of comprehension, purpose, and mattering are distinct but closely related
constructs and constitute overall meaning in life (George & Park, 2016). The experiencing of
comprehension, purpose, and mattering may mutually influence one another (Steger, 2012) ina
way that low level of one may lead to low levels in other and high level of one may lead to high
levels in other (George & Park, 2016). For example, a low sense of comprehension dimension
would make it difficult to experience a sense of direction and purpose which in turnmay make
it difficult to experience a sense of significance or mattering. Similarly, a high senseof
significance will make it easier to experience a life as making sense and having a direction.

Meaning in Life and Well-being

Frankl (1963) argued that humans are characterized by a ―will to meaning,‖ an innate drive to
find meaning and significance in their lives, and that failure to achieve meaning results in
psychological distress. Research has supported this relationship between lack of meaning and
psychological distress. For example, having less meaning in life has been associated with-

-greater need for therapy (Battista & Almond, 1973),

-depression and anxiety (e.g., Debats, van der Lubbe, & Wezeman, 1993), and
 -suicidal ideation and substance abuse (e.g., Harlow, Newcomb, & Bentler, 1986), as well as
other forms of distress.

On the other hand having more meaning has been positively related to-
-work enjoyment (Bonebright, Clay, & Ankenmann, 2000),

-life satisfaction (e.g., Chamberlain & Zika, 1988b), and

-happiness (Debats et al., 1993), among other measures of healthy psychological functioning.

According to George & Park (2016), each dimensions of meaning in life may be associatedwith
well-being in specific ways.

Comprehension and well-being: High comprehension may be related to better well-being

through the following ways or mechanisms-
Minimizing uncertainty: Uncertainty in life may be detrimental to well-being. A higher sense
ofcomprehension minimizes the sense of uncertainty by providing a better sense of
understanding of life on a day-to-day basis.

Greater sense of clarity: Higher sense of comprehension may lead to greater clarity in making
choices, decision making and smooth navigation in life.

Better ability to make sense and cope with life crisis: higher comprehension may facilitate
making sense of life crisis and traumas and deal with them.

Purpose and well-being

Higher purpose may impact well-being through the following:

Greater day-to-day pursuit of valued goals: Pursuit and commitment to valued goalsassociated
with purpose can lead to higher well-being

Greater positive emotions: identifying and making progress towards achieving those goals are
associated with increase in positive emotions.

Greater concordance between pursued goals and core values: Higher purpose is generally
associated with pursuing goals that are congruent with inner core values and identity. Such
goal pursuits enhance well-being.
Significance/mattering and well-being

Mattering may be related to well-being in the following ways-

Buffered death (or existential) anxiety: Research indicates that higher self-esteem or a senseof
significance may diminish death/existential anxiety (Greenberg et al., 1986, 2008).

Greater equanimity and security in the face of threat or crisis: Higher mattering may protect
people from life crisis and threatening situations by providing resources (such as self -esteem,
optimism) to maintain equanimity and cope at the face of adversity.

Where Does Meaning Come From?

From the discussion of dimensions of meaning in life, It can be surmised that, meaning in life
should arise from comprehending one‘s existence, identifying and achieving valued goals,
feeling significant and fulfilled by life, or combinations of these three. Beyond this, several
ideas have been forwarded regarding the elements essential to finding meaning in life. We will
look specifically the ideas of Victor Frankl.

Discovering Meaning and Logotherapy

Victor Frankl was an Austrian Neurologists and Psychiatrists. He is a holocaust survivor and
founder of logotherapy (healing through meaning)- a meaning centered school of psychotherapy.

The basic principles of logotherapy include-

(1) Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable ones.

(2) Our main motivation for living is our will to find meaning in life.

(3) Humanity has the freedom of attitudinal choice, even in situations of unchangeable
affliction (Frankl, 1959).

According to Frankl, we can discover this meaning in life in three different ways (Hatt, 1965):
(1) by creating a work or doing a deed such as painting a picture or making music or any other
achievement of tasks. For Frankl, his passion for writing book on psychotherapy and helping
people gave meaning and will to survive

(2) by experiencing something such as natural beauty or encountering someone such as loved
one. It may include connections with spouse, family, friends, God or sacred. For Frankl,
memories of his wife and connection to God helped him to survive and find meaning in the
concentration camp.
(3) by the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering. We have the potential to make
meaningful choices and attitudes even at the face of unbearable and unavoidable sufferings
and adversity. In the concentration camps, Frankl observed that some people would give up
and soon die, whereas others bore their suffering with courage and grace as they had some
meaning to their life. In this direction Frankl (1959) said-

“Everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms-to choose
one's attitude in any given set of circumstances”.

Frankl believed that suffering is a part of life and life has meaning in all circumstances, eventhe
most miserable ones. We only need to reflect and find.

He further argued that in all circumstances, individuals have the freedom to access that will to
find meaning even in unbearable pain and sufferings.

This can be done by choosing attitude (a freedom that no one can take away) about that situation
and find meaning. Our ultimate freedom is the ability to choose how to respond to anyset of
given circumstances, even the most painful ones. In this context he said-
“When we are no longer able to change a situation, we are challenged to change ourselves.”

“Between stimulus and response there is a space. In that space is our power to choose our
response. In our response lies our growth and our freedom”.

Additionally, people can also find meaning in their life by identifying the unique roles that they
need to fulfill. Frankl believed that the search for meaning even amidst suffering can constitutea
potential solution to human suffering. He said-

“In some ways suffering ceases to be suffering at the moment it finds a meaning, such as the
meaning of a sacrifice.”

For example, when a man consulted with Frankl due to severe depression following the death
of his wife. Frankl asked him to consider what would have happened if he had died first and
his wife had been forced to mourn his death. Frankl helped the elderly man to see that his
purpose had been to spare his wife the pain of losing him first. The man was able to recognize
that his own suffering spared his wife from having that experience. This helped relieve his
depression.

Frankl notes that meaning in life differs from person to person and from situation to situation.
Hence he asserts that there is not a general meaning in life for all of humanity but rather an
idiosyncratic meaning that varies at any given moment (Frankl, 1959).
 Lecture 34: Life goals and Well-being

What are Life Goals?

Goals can be defined as internal representations of desired outcomes (Austin & Vancouver,
1996). People generally associate happy and meaningful life with their life goals and wishes
for the future as they give meaning and structure to our lives (Ingrid, Majda, & Dubravka,
2009).

Goals indicate a person‘s future orientation and meaning of life. Therefore, knowing one's
goals help us better understand his/her present and future behavior (Ingrid, Majda, &
Dubravka, 2009). Life goals are core goals, personal strivings, personal projects, life tasksand
future aspirations by which we direct our lives (Boniwell, 2012).

Life goals are different from short term goals as they direct our life for an extended period.

Life Goals and Well-being

Psychologists generally see goal striving as vital to the well-being and good life (Frisch, 1998)
as we feel happiness when "we think we are making reasonable progress toward the realisation
of our goals" (Lazarus, 1991, p. 267). People who set significant and important goals are
happier as compared to those who do not have such goals and it is also possible that happy
people place more importance to their goals and believe they are likely to attain them
(Emmons, 1996).

Setting important goals and making progress in achieving them enhances our chances of long
term well-being (Brunstein, 1993; Emmons, 1986).

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Life Goals

Kasser and Ryan (2001) distinguish between two types of life goals-Intrinsic and extrinsic.

Intrinsic life goals: Involves goals such as personal growth, emotional intimacy, community
service. Here contents of goals are naturally consistent with our nature and needs. Intrinsic
goals emerge from natural growth tendencies to expand self-knowledge and deeper
connections with others.

Extrinsic life goals: Involves goals such as financial success, physical attractiveness, and
social fame and/or popularity. Here contents of goals are less consistent with nature and
intrinsic needs. Extrinsic goals are strongly shaped by cultural and societal beliefs and norms.

Intrinsic/Extrinsic goals and well-being

Research indicates intrinsic and extrinsic goals differ in their relationship to well-being
(Kasserand Ryan, 2001; Ryan et al., 1999).
 It appears that the investment in, or success at intrinsic goals is associated with enhanced
well-being. People primarily concerned with intrinsic goals report higher life satisfaction and
happiness, higher levels of self-actualization and vitality, higher self-esteem and mind
openness, and fewer experiences of depression, anxiety, and general health problems (Kasser
& Ryan, 1993, 1996; Sheldon & Kasser, 1995). These results seems to generalize invarious
countries (Kimet al., 2000; Rijavec et al., 2006; Ryan et al., 1999).

Investment in or success at extrinsic goals does not seem to enhance well-being and in some
cases may actually detracts from well-being (Ingrid, Majda, & Dubravka, 2009). Extrinsic goals
are also associated with lower self-esteem, more drug use, more television watching, more
difficult and less satisfying relationships, and acting in a narcissistic and competitive manner
(Boniwell, 2012).

However, some research indicates that the contents of the goals (intrinsic or extrinsic) is not
that important, but the congruence between the values a person holds and their goals seems to
be more important. Some research indicated that intrinsic or extrinsic goals were not
associated with well-being directly, but only value-congruent goals provided satisfaction
(Oishiet al., 1999). For example, if people value extrinsic materialistic things such as money,
physical attractiveness, they will feel satisfied when they obtain them as compared to those
who don‘t value them (Diener & Fujita, 1995).

It is possible that satisfaction from extrinsic goals may not last as people get adapted to them
quickly. Therefore, while the content of goals may be important, the congruence or how well
one‘s goals match one‘s values is also important (Boniwell, 2012).
According to Lyubomirsky (2012), well-being is enhanced when people choose to pursuegoals
that are-
 feasible, realistic and attainable
 being progressed towards
 personally meaningful
 highly committed to
 Intrinsic
 concerned with community, intimacy and growth
 self-concordant and congruent with people‘s motives and needs
 valued by one‘s culture
 not conflicting
Why intrinsic and extrinsic goals are related to well-being differently?

This differential relationship of intrinsic and extrinsic goals to well-being may be explained in
terms of getting in touch with the deeper nature and inner happiness while pursuing intrinsic
goals. However, people who focus excessively on extrinsic goals become dependent on
outside circumstances of the time and society and may become victims of fashion, status
symbols and attractiveness (e.g., plastic surgery) and ignore their inner needs (Ingrid, Majda,
& Dubravka, 2009). Therefore, extrinsic goals may deteriorate well-being as it makes people
too dependent on outside circumstances for becoming happy.

What are SMART Goals?

In 1981, George T. Doran, a consultant and former director of corporate planning for
Washington Water Power Company introduced the idea of S.M.A.R.T. goals as a way to write
Management‘s Goals and Objectives. He introduces S.M.A.R.T. goals as a tool to create
guideline to help improve the chances of succeeding in accomplishing a goal.

S.M.A.R.T Acronym Stand For goals that are-

S=Specific; M=Measurable; A=Achievable; R=Relevant; T=Time-bound

S – Specific

When setting a goal, one should be specific about what you want to accomplish. It shouldinclude
an answer to the popular ‗w‘ questions such as-

Who –Who needs to be involved to achieve the goal if it is a group project?

What – Details about what is to accomplish.
When – Specific time frame?
Where – Specific location?
Which – any obstacles or requirements?
Why –Reason for the goal?

M – Measurable

What metrics are you going to use to determine if you meet the goal?

Make a goal more tangible by providing a way to measure progress.

Set some milestones by considering specific tasks to accomplish.
A – Achievable
This focuses on how important a goal is to you and what you can do to make it attainable.

It may require developing new skills, resources, or changing attitudes to make a goal
achievable. The goal is meant to inspire motivation, not discouragement.

Think about how to accomplish the goal and if you have the tools/skills needed. If you don‘t
currently possess those tools/skills, consider what it would take to attain them.

R – Relevant

Relevance refers focusing on something that makes sense with the broader life or a business
goals.

For example, if the goal is to launch a new product, it should be something that‘s in alignment
with the overall business objectives.

T – Time-Bound

If your goals lack realistic timing, chances are you‘re not going to [Link]
a target date for deliverables is imperative.
Ask specific questions about the goal deadline and what can be accomplished within that time
period. If the goal will take three months to complete, it‘s useful to define what should be
achieved half-way through the process.

Providing time constraints also creates a sense of urgency.