KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

Development of Cost-Effective and Sustainable Polylactic Acid (PLA)

Biodegradable Materials from Corn Starch and Fibre

BY
BYENGABO BRIAN
18/U/EEE/9126/PE

A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO KYAMBOGO DEPARTMENT

OF MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING, FACULTY OF
ENGINEERING, KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY, IN PARTIAL
FULLFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELORS DEGREE OF
ENGINEERING IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND
MANAGEMENT

March 2023
 DECLARATION

This research Titled “Development of Cost-Effective and Sustainable Polylactic Acid (PLA)
Biodegradable Materials from Corn Starch and Fibre”, contains factual information that has
not been previously submitted to any other institution for the purpose of obtaining any academic
award.

Signature……………………. Date ………/………/…........

BYENGABO BRIAN

APPROVAL

This research “Development of Cost-Effective and Sustainable Polylactic Acid (PLA)

Biodegradable Materials from Corn Starch and Fibre”, has received the necessary review
and approval from,

……………………………………...................... .................................
Mr. Okwang Ojok Boniface Date
Supervisor

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 DEDICATION

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and dedication to my parents, who have
consistently encouraged me to strive for excellence and have supported me throughout my
academic journey. Without their unwavering love and guidance, I would not have been able to
pursue my dreams and achieve the success I have today.

I also want to dedicate this research to my brother and sister, who have always challenged me to
be the best version of myself and have played a crucial role in shaping my character. I am
grateful for their constant motivation and encouragement.

I would also like to thank my friends at Kyambogo University, who have been an invaluable
source of support and guidance throughout my time at school. Their friendship and camaraderie
have made my academic experience all the more enriching.

Lastly, I want to express my appreciation and dedication to all my relatives, who have always
wished me well and supported me in every step of my journey. Their love and care have been a
constant source of strength and inspiration.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank God for giving me the physical and mental strength to complete this
research project, and for the good health that allowed me to do so. I am also thankful to Mr.
Okwang Ojok Boniface for his helpful guidance and support throughout the research process, as
well as my family, friends, and fellow students for their encouragement and support throughout
my education. Additionally, I am grateful to the Department of Mechanical and Production
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kyambogo University for the opportunity to conduct this
research as part of my engineering course and for the resources and support provided by the
University. I hope to continue taking advantage of these opportunities in the future.

iii
 ABSTRACT

This research aims to develop cost-effective and sustainable polylactic acid (PLA) biodegradable
materials from corn starch and fibre through the use of biodegradable materials made from a
mixture of water, vinegar, glycerin, and corn starch itself. The study involves online research and
experimental research to determine the properties of the corn starch and fibre as raw materials,
the composability of the corn starch-based plastic material and develop a plastic bag using the
PLA biodegradable plastic material. The results of an experiment investigating the effects of
varying the amounts of corn starch, water, vinegar, and glycerin on the transparency and
flexibility of a solution are presented, with batch number 2 identified as the optimal batch for
incorporating cotton gauze reinforcement. The study also introduces a novel approach to creating
a strong seal on the bioplastic sheet using a burning candle, which could have practical
implications for small-scale production of bioplastic bags.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION......................................................................................................................... i

APPROVAL................................................................................................................................ i

DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................... iii

ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................ v

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. viii

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... ix

ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................. x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ....................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem statement ............................................................................................................. 2

1.3 Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 2

1.3.1 General objective ........................................................................................................ 2

1.3.2 Specific objectives ...................................................................................................... 2

1.4 Research questions ............................................................................................................ 2

1.5 Significance of the study ................................................................................................... 3

1.6 Justification ....................................................................................................................... 3

1.7 Scope of the study ............................................................................................................. 4

1.8 Conceptual framework ...................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................. 5

2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 5

2.2 Overview of Corn Starch ................................................................................................... 5

2.3 Properties of corn starch .................................................................................................... 5

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 2.4 Types of Fibers That Can Be Used as Reinforcement in Bioplastics .................................. 6

2.5 Properties of Fibers ........................................................................................................... 6

2.6 Common Packaging materials properties ........................................................................... 7

2.7 Polylactic acid biodegradable materials for packaging ....................................................... 9

2.8 Chemical reactions involved when making PLA Biodegradable Plastics ........................... 9

2.9 Different Procedures for Producing Biodegradable Plastic ............................................... 10

2.10 Effects of ingredients on biodegradable plastics properties ............................................ 11

2.11 Improving bioplastic properties ..................................................................................... 11

2.12 Methods for Testing the Biodegradability of Plastics ..................................................... 12

2.13 Design of improved biodegradable packaging materials ................................................ 13

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. 16

3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 16

3.2 Research design .............................................................................................................. 16

3.3 Data Collection Methods ................................................................................................. 16

3.4 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................. 17

3.5 Finding Current packaging materials properties ............................................................... 17

3.6 Materials ......................................................................................................................... 17

3.7 Tools and Equipment ...................................................................................................... 20

3.8 The procedure for creating the Bioplastic: ....................................................................... 22

3.9 The composting test on the PLA biodegradable packaging material ................................. 23

3.10 Determining the Melting Point of PLA Biodegradable Material..................................... 24

3.11 Shaping and sizing the bioplastic with Reinforcement ................................................... 26

3.11.1 Knife Coating and Reinforcement Process for Bioplastic Bag Material ................... 26

3.11.2 Turning the sheet into a bag .................................................................................... 28

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS .............................................................. 29

4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 29

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 4.2 Presentation of Findings .................................................................................................. 29

4.2.1 Findings on the Properties of corn starch and Fibers ................................................. 29

4.2.2 Findings on the properties of the bioplastic ............................................................... 30

4.2.3 Findings on the Final Shapes and Sizes of Improved Packaging Material .................. 31

4.3 Discussion of Finding...................................................................................................... 31

4.3.1 Discussions on the Properties of Corn starch and Fiber ............................................. 31

4.3.2 Discussions on the PLA Biodegradable Plastic Properties ......................................... 32

4.3.3 Discussions on the Final Shapes and Sizes of Improved Packaging Material ............. 34

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................... 35

5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 35

5.2 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 35

5.3 Recommendation ............................................................................................................ 35

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 37

APPENDICES........................................................................................................................... A

APPENDIX A: WORK PLAN ............................................................................................... A

APPENDIX B: BUDGET .......................................................................................................B

APPENDIX C: PLASTIC PRODUCTION PROCESS RESULTS ..........................................C

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Conceptual framework................................................................................................. 4

Figure 2: Molecular Structure of Polyethylene ............................................................................ 7
Figure 3: Molded plastic ........................................................................................................... 13
Figure 4: Blow molding ............................................................................................................ 14
Figure 5: The Cradle to Grave concept for the Bio-plastics. ...................................................... 15
Figure 6: Corn starch ................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 7: Tools and equipment ................................................................................................. 20
Figure 8: Flexible bioplastic material ........................................................................................ 23
Figure 9: Composting test ......................................................................................................... 24
Figure 10: Melting Point ........................................................................................................... 26
Figure 11: Reinforcing with cotton gauze ................................................................................. 27
Figure 12: A chart of comparing Melting points of Plastic Packaging materials ........................ 33
Figure 13: Plastic production Process Results .............................................................................C

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Table of melting and biodegradability/Composting of common packaging material ...... 8

Table 2: The table of results of transparency and flexibility ...................................................... 30
Table 3: Budget ..........................................................................................................................B

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 ACRONYMS

NEMA National Environment Management Authority

HDPE High Density Polyethylene
LDPE Low Density Polyethylene
PLA Polylactic Acid
PS Polystyrene
PHA Polyhydroxyalkanoates
PP Polypropylene
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
PET Polyethylene terephthalate

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 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Plastic is a commonly used material in many industries due to its low production energy
requirements, low maintenance, corrosion resistance, light weight, and durability (Filiciotto &
Rothenberg, 2021). In addition, plastic materials can significantly improve the energy efficiency
of buildings when used as insulators, and play a significant role in food packaging (Filiciotto &
Rothenberg, 2021). They are also used in a wide variety of industries and applications due to
their unique properties. In the construction industry, plastics are often used for insulation, pipes,
and siding. In the automotive industry, plastics are used for a variety of purposes, including in
car interiors, exteriors, and engine parts. Plastics are also commonly used in the medical field for
a variety of tools and equipment, such as syringes, needles, tubing, and protective gear and many
other uses.

However, the widespread use of plastic, particularly single-use packaging, has resulted in
significant environmental pollution, with plastic waste often ending up in drainage channels,
wetlands, natural watercourses, manholes, undeveloped plots, and on the roadside (Habati,
2022). This plastic pollution can have negative impacts on wildlife and the aquatic environment,
and there are limited options for removing plastic waste.

However there is an option of using biodegradable plastics. They are made from renewable
resources such as corn starch, potato starch, and sugarcane, rather than fossil fuels like traditional
plastics. When biodegradable plastics are disposed of, they can be broken down by natural
processes, such as the action of microorganisms, into water, carbon dioxide, and biomass
(Mastrolia et al., 2022). This process is much faster and more environmentally friendly than the
decades it takes for traditional plastics to decompose. The adoption of biodegradable plastics as a
replacement for traditional plastics in packaging materials has the potential to greatly reduce
pollution and improve the environment in a number of ways. For one, biodegradable plastics do
not release harmful chemicals into the environment during their decomposition process. They
also do not contribute to the growing problem of plastic pollution in the world's oceans, as
traditional plastics do. In addition, the use of biodegradable plastics can reduce the reliance on
fossil fuels and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. More so the environment can be improved and
pollution, reduced. It is an important step in the direction of sustainability and could help to
address the pressing issue of plastic waste (Moshood et al., 2022).

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1.2 Problem statement
Plastic pollution is a global issue that poses a significant threat to public health and the
environment. The city of Kampala in Uganda is no exception has experienced rapid urbanization,
population growth, and economic development in the last 35 years, leading to a significant
increase in plastic waste being released into the environment. This pollution is primarily caused
by the use of plastic for packaging in households and trading centers, as well as issues such as
storm water runoff, sewer overflow, littering, inadequate waste management, industrial activities,
tyre abrasion, construction, and illegal dumping. The accumulation of plastic in the soil can clog
pores, preventing proper aeration and root penetration, and traditional methods of waste
destruction, such as burning and burying, are not effective for plastic. Plastic waste not only
affects the physical environment but also impacts the economy, as it reduces the aesthetic value
of the city and affects tourism. Therefore, finding sustainable ways to manage plastic waste is
crucial for the wellbeing of the city's inhabitants and the environment. The Ugandan government
as some policies for protecting the environment and third National Development Plan is one of
the policy documents that outline the government's goals and strategies for economic and social
development in the country. One of the goals included in the plan is to reduce and reverse
environmental degradation in Uganda. This research provides one of the solutions that can
contribute to the protection of the environment in support of the policies of the country. The
findings can also be applied in practical ways by industries and individuals to reduce their carbon
footprint and promote sustainable practices.

1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 General objective
To develop a cost-effective and sustainable Polylactic Acid (PLA) biodegradable material from
corn starch and fibre

1.3.2 Specific objectives

[Link] determine the properties of the corn starch and fibre as raw materials.
[Link] determine the composability of the corn starch-based plastic material.
[Link] develop a plastic bag using the PLA biodegradable plastic material

1.4 Research questions

[Link] are the properties of corn starch and fibers used as raw materials for making
bioplastics?

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 [Link] are the necessary components and procedures for producing biodegradable plastic
materials?
[Link] can the biodgradability of the plastic produced be determined?
[Link] can we shape and size the bioplastic material produced into a bag?

1.5 Significance of the study

The study on biodegradable plastics made from biomass is significant because it provides
valuable insights on how to address the growing problem of plastic waste in our communities.
By finding alternative ways to manufacture plastics, we can reduce our reliance on fossil fuels
and decrease the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere during incineration.
Additionally, biodegradable plastics decompose much faster than the traditional plastic material,
which helps to mitigate the environmental impact of plastic waste.
The use of biodegradable plastics can also have a positive impact on the quality of our
environment. These plastics are made from natural materials that can be broken down by
microorganisms, releasing nutrients back into the soil. This can help to improve soil quality and
reduce the negative effects of plastic waste on the air and water.
Overall, the knowledge generated by this study is important because it provides a potential
solution to the environmental problems caused by plastic waste. By finding ways to make and
use biodegradable plastics, we can work towards a cleaner and healthier planet for all.

1.6 Justification
The production of plastic has significantly increased over the past few decades, with global
production reaching 311 million tonnes in 2014 and expected to double within the next 20 years
and possibly even quadruple by 2050. This increase in plastic production has led to the
proliferation of microplastics and synthetic polymer fibers, which have been shown to remain
detectable in sewage sludge and soil for up to five years after application. Additionally, certain
types of chlorinated plastics are known to leach toxic chemicals into the soil, which can then
seep into underground water sources and pollute nearby aquatic ecosystems. If we do not
properly manage plastic waste, it can have negative impacts on both the environment and human
health. To mitigate these risks, it is important to use biodegradable plastics in order to reduce the
amount of plastic pollution in the environment.

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1.7 Scope of the study
The scope of the study is focused on identifying the specific properties of corn starch and fibers,
understanding biodegradability of the plastics produced, and identifying the most promising
approaches for producing improved biodegradable packaging products using polylactic acid
(PLA) biodegradable materials. This study will determine the properties of the corn starch and
fibres as raw materials, the composability of the corn starch-based plastic material and then
develop a plastic bag using the PLA biodegradable plastic material. It will also investigate the
impact of different ingredients and their proportions on the properties of biodegradable plastics,
with a focus on PLA-based materials. The findings of this study will be useful for packaging
industry professionals, researchers, and policymakers working to develop more sustainable and
effective packaging solutions.

1.8 Conceptual framework

In this study, the researcher is exploring the idea that improving biodegradable packaging
material can help improve sanitation in Kampala. The ingredients being used in the production
process are vinegar, starch, water, and glycerin, which are the independent variables. The
resulting biodegradable film is being evaluated based on its melting point, transparency,
biodegradability and flexibility, which are the dependent variables. To see how well the
biodegradable film performs, experiments are being conducted comparing it to other materials
such as paper and polythene films. The dependent variables are being measured for each material
and the results are being compared to determine if the biodegradable film is suitable for various
applications.

Figure 1: Conceptual framework

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 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a thorough review of the existing literature on the use of biomass for the
production of enhanced biodegradable packing material that aims to improve sanitation in
Kampala. By examining the current research on this topic, we can gain a deeper understanding of
the potential benefits and challenges of utilizing biomass as a sustainable alternative to
traditional packing materials. Ultimately, the goal is to identify potential strategies and solutions
that can contribute to the overall improvement of sanitation in the city of Kampala.

2.2 Overview of Corn Starch

Corn starch is a renewable, biodegradable, and abundant material that has gained attention as a
potential alternative to petroleum-based plastics (Amalia et al., 2020). Bioplastics made from
corn starch are usually referred to as thermoplastic starch (TPS) or starch-based
bioplastics(Stepto, 2009). Corn starch is a polysaccharide that can be plasticized by the addition
of water and glycerol or other plasticizers (Stepto, 2009). The resulting material can be molded
into various shapes and used in many applications.

2.3 Properties of corn starch

i. Chemical structure: Corn starch is composed of two polymers, amylose, and amylopectin.
Amylose is a linear polymer of glucose, while amylopectin is a branched polymer of
glucose (Rapoport, 1975). The ratio of amylose to amylopectin determines the physical
and chemical properties of corn starch (Taghvaei et al., 2010).
ii. Biodegradability: Corn starch is biodegradable and can be easily degraded by
microorganisms in the environment, making it an environmentally friendly alternative to
traditional plastics (Vasiliki et al., 2022).
iii. Renewable source: Corn starch is a renewable source of raw material for bioplastics
production. It is abundantly available and can be easily cultivated, making it a sustainable
alternative to petroleum-based plastics (Corbion, 2016).
iv. Mechanical properties: Corn starch-based bioplastics have lower mechanical strength and
toughness compared to traditional plastics. However, the mechanical properties can be
improved by blending corn starch with other biodegradable polymers, such as polylactic
acid (PLA) or polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) (Naser et al., 2021).

5
 v. Water sensitivity: Corn starch is sensitive to water and tends to absorb moisture, which
can affect its mechanical properties. Therefore, it is essential to store corn starch-based
bioplastics in a dry environment (Nasir & Othman, 2021).
vi. Thermal properties: Corn starch has a low melting point, which can limit its use in high-
temperature applications. However, the thermal properties can be improved by blending
corn starch with other biodegradable polymers, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG)
(Zarski et al., 2021;Ulbricht et al., 2014).

2.4 Types of Fibers That Can Be Used as Reinforcement in Bioplastics

Bioplastics can be reinforced with natural fibers, such as cellulose, lignocellulose, and protein
fibers (Bari et al., 2021). Cotton gauze, bamboo fibers, and jute fibers are examples of natural
fibers that have been used as reinforcement in bioplastics (Ilyas et al., 2022). Natural fibers have
advantages such as low cost, low density, and biodegradability, which make them an attractive
alternative to synthetic fibers (Ilyas et al., 2022).

2.5 Properties of Fibers

Fibers used for reinforcing bioplastics can have a significant impact on the mechanical and
physical properties of the resulting material. Some common properties of fibers used for
reinforcing bioplastics include:

i. Strength: Fibers that are strong and stiff, such as carbon fibers, can significantly improve
the strength of bioplastics. However, carbon fiber are harmful when released in the
environment (Coppola et al., 2021).
ii. Biodegradability: In order to maintain the sustainability of bioplastics, it is often
desirable to use fibers that are biodegradable, such as natural fibers (Thyavihalli
Girijappa et al., 2019).
iii. Compatibility: The fibers should be compatible with the bioplastic matrix to ensure good
adhesion and bonding between the two components (Yang et al., 2019).
iv. Aspect ratio: The aspect ratio of the fibers, which is the ratio of their length to diameter,
can have an impact on the mechanical properties of the material. Long fibers with a high
aspect ratio can improve stiffness and strength, while shorter fibers with a lower aspect
ratio can improve toughness (Ryu & Lee, 2001).

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 v. Chemical resistance: Depending on the intended use of the bioplastic, fibers with good
chemical resistance may be required to ensure the material can withstand exposure to
various substances (Ibrahim et al., 2020).

2.6 Common Packaging materials properties

Current packaging materials, such as plastics, often have low biodegradability, resulting in long-
term environmental impacts(Altaf et al., 2017). In addition, traditional packaging materials are
not always suitable for recycling due to their complex chemical compositions and the presence of
additives(Outters & (SPO/RAC), 2020). Therefore, improving the biodegradability of packaging
materials is essential for reducing waste and preserving the environment(Rujnić-Sokele &
Pilipović, 2017). However, this should not be the only focus when it comes to improving
packaging materials. Melting point, Transparency and Flexibility are also important
characteristics that need to be considered(Sofiah et al., 2019). Packaging materials should be able
to withstand various external factors without breaking or losing their structure. Therefore, it is
necessary to improve the overall quality of packaging materials in order to meet the demands of
different applications and environments.
There are many different types of plastics, each with their own unique properties and
characteristics. Here's a brief review of some of the most common plastics:
i. Polyethylene (PE): This is the most common plastic and is used in a wide range of
applications, including food packaging, trash bags, and milk jugs. It is a lightweight,
durable, and flexible material that is resistant to moisture and chemicals(Polyethylene
(PE) - Properties, Uses & Application, 2022).

Figure 2: Molecular Structure of Polyethylene

ii. Polypropylene (PP): PP is similar to PE in terms of its properties but is stronger, stiffer,
and more heat-resistant. It is commonly used in food packaging, medical devices, and
automotive parts(Polypropylene (PP), 2018).

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 iii. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): PVC is a versatile plastic that can be made into rigid or
flexible forms. It is used in a variety of applications, including pipes, window frames, and
electrical insulation. However, it is also associated with environmental concerns due to its
production process and use of additives like phthalates(Ramboll, 2022).
iv. Polystyrene (PS): PS is a lightweight and rigid plastic that is commonly used in food
packaging, disposable cups and plates, and insulation. It is also used in the production of
foam products like packing peanuts and insulation(Ramboll, 2022).
v. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET): PET is a clear and lightweight plastic that is commonly
used in beverage bottles, food packaging, and clothing. It is strong, flexible, and resistant
to moisture and chemicals(Ramboll, 2022).
vi. Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS): ABS is a tough and impact-resistant plastic that is
commonly used in automotive parts, toys, and electronic housings. It is also used in the
production of 3D printing filaments(Ramboll, 2022).

These are just a few examples of the most common plastics, and there are many others with their
own unique properties and applications. It's important to note that while plastics are useful, they
can also have negative environmental impacts if not properly disposed of or recycled.

Table 1: Table of melting and biodegradability/Composting of common packaging material

Material Melting Point (°C) Biodegradability/Compostibility

polyethylene 260-280 Not biodegradable/compostable

terephthalate
high-density 120-160 Not biodegradable/compostable
polyethylene
Low-density 105-115 Not biodegradable/compostable
polyethylene
polyvinyl 80-220 Not biodegradable/compostable
chloride
polystyrene 80-220 Not biodegradable/compostable
polypropylene 80-220 Not biodegradable/compostable

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2.7 Polylactic acid biodegradable materials for packaging
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable and biobased polymer that has a number of attractive
properties, including good mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and high compostability(Balla
et al., 2021). It is derived from lactic acid, which can be sourced from plants, animals, or waste
materials like cellulose, starch, corn, fish waste, and kitchen waste. PLA has been synthesized
since the 1930s and has been patented by DuPont for use in products with a higher molecular
weight(Balla et al., 2021). It is considered to be the "polymer of the 21st century" due to its
potential widespread use in various industries, including food packaging, automotive, and
medical applications. It is seen as an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional
petroleum-based polymers and demand for its production is increasing(Balla et al., 2021).

2.8 Chemical reactions involved when making PLA Biodegradable Plastics

Making PLA biodegradable plastics from corn starch, water, vinegar, and glycerin involves
several chemical reactions.

i. Hydrolysis of corn starch: Corn starch is made up of glucose polymers. Hydrolysis is a

chemical reaction where water is used to break down the bonds between glucose
molecule(Hw et al., 2019).

Equation: Starch + H2O → Glucose

ii. Addition of vinegar (acetic acid): The vinegar (acetic acid) reacts with the glucose to
form maltose and acetic anhydride.

Equation: Glucose + CH3COOH → Maltose + CH3COO-CH3

iii. Addition of glycerin: Glycerin is added to the mixture to act as a plasticizer. It helps to
make the plastic softer and more flexible(Polymerization, 2021).

Equation: CH3COO-CH3 + CH2OH-CHOH-CH2OH → CH3COO-CH2OH-CHOH-CH2OH

iv. Polymerization: The reaction mixture is then subjected to high heat and pressure to form
a polymer chain. This is called polymerization. The polymer chains are then cooled and
molded into the desired shape(Polymerization, 2021).

Equation: CH3COO-CH2OH-CHOH-CH2OH → (CH3COO-CH2OH-CHOH-CH2OH)n

v. Biodegradation: Over time, the bonds in the polymer chain break down due to exposure
to sunlight, heat, and microorganisms. This process is called biodegradation. The
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 breakdown products are simple organic molecules that can be reused by
microorganisms(Ramboll, 2022).

Equation: (CH3COO-CH2OH-CHOH-CH2OH)n → CH2O + CO2 + H2O

In summary, the chemical reactions involved in making PLA biodegradable plastics from corn
starch, water, vinegar, and glycerin involve hydrolysis, addition of vinegar, addition of glycerin,
polymerization, and biodegradation.

2.9 Different Procedures for Producing Biodegradable Plastic

There are different procedures for producing biodegradable plastic material, but some common
methods are:

i. Starch-based plastic: Starch is extracted from plants like corn, wheat, and potatoes, and
mixed with a biodegradable polymer like polylactic acid (PLA) or polyhydroxyalkanoate
(PHA). The mixture is then melted and extruded into the desired shape(Soomaree, 2016).

ii. Cellulose-based plastic: Cellulose is a natural polymer found in plant cell walls. It can be
extracted from wood, cotton, or other plant sources and chemically modified to form a
biodegradable plastic(Tajeddin, 2014).

iii. Biodegradable synthetic polymers: Some synthetic polymers can be modified to become
biodegradable. For example, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) can be modified by adding
a biodegradable copolymer to make it biodegradable(Gunatillake et al., 2003).

iv. Microbial fermentation: Microorganisms can be used to produce biodegradable plastic.

For example, bacteria can be genetically modified to produce PHA, which can be
extracted and processed into biodegradable plastic(Luengo et al., 2003).

v. Blending: Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers can be blended to produce a

material that is partially biodegradable(Luengo et al., 2003).

It is important to note that the production process of biodegradable plastic depends on the type of
polymer used and the intended application of the material. Therefore, it is essential to choose the
appropriate production method and use the right materials to produce biodegradable plastic with
desired properties.

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2.10 Effects of ingredients on biodegradable plastics properties
Starch, glycerin, vinegar, and water are all common ingredients that can be used in the
production of biodegradable plastics(Londres, 2022). Each of these ingredients can have a
significant impact on the physical and mechanical properties of the resulting biodegradable
plastic.

Starch: Starch is often used as a replacement for petroleum-based polymers in biodegradable

plastics(Encalada et al., 2018). It can improve the biodegradability and strength of the plastic, as
well as reduce its cost. However, it can also reduce the plastic's transparency and thermal
stability.

Vinegar: Vinegar can improve the flexibility and toughness of biodegradable plastics, but it may
also weaken their strength and stability(Suparyanto dan Rosad (2015, 2020). The acetic acid in
vinegar releases acetate and hydrogen ions when dissolved in water and these ions can interact
with starch polymers, causing them to become disordered more easily. This disorder, caused by
the combination of water and ionization from the vinegar, leads to a more uniform cast
film(Schon & Schwartz, 2020).

Water: Water is crucial in the manufacturing of bioplastic in two ways. It dissolves starch to
facilitate the production process, and it also maintains the disruption of starch molecules after
heating(Schon & Schwartz, 2020).

Glycerin: Glycerin is a common plasticizer in biodegradable plastics. It can improve the plastic's
flexibility(Schon & Schwartz, 2020), but it can also reduce its strength and stability.

Overall, the effects of starch, glycerin, vinegar, and water on biodegradable plastics can be
complex and varied. The right balance of these ingredients is essential to achieving the desired
physical and mechanical properties of the final product.

2.11 Improving bioplastic properties

Improving the strength of bioplastic bags during production can be achieved through several
methods:

i. Increasing the polymer concentration and typeused: The characteristics of biodegradable

plastic can primarily be enhanced through the combination of starch with various
synthetic polymers and through various chemical and physical modifications (Santana et
al., 2018). These modifications involve the alteration of the properties of the
11
 biodegradable plastic, making it more durable, resistant to various conditions, and longer-
lasting. By combining starch with other synthetic polymers, the biodegradable plastic can
be strengthened and given improved functionality.

ii. Adding reinforcing agents: The mechanical performance of bioplastics that have been
strengthened with fibers is a crucial aspect of the properties of these materials. The
effectiveness of the reinforcement is determined by factors such as the type of filler used,
the amount of filler present, and the shape of the fibers (Boey et al., 2022). The process
of reinforcing the fibers involves altering their physical, chemical, thermal, and
mechanical characteristics to enhance their bond with the bioplastic matrix.

iii. Controlling the degree of crystallinity: The degree of crystallinity of the bioplastic affects
its strength and stiffness. By controlling the degree of crystallinity through processes
such as heating and cooling, the strength of the bioplastic can be optimized (Boey et al.,
2022).

By implementing one or more of these methods, the strength of bioplastic bags can be improved
during production.

2.12 Methods for Testing the Biodegradability of Plastics

There are several methods for testing the biodegradability of plastics, but the most commonly
used ones are:
i. Composting test: In this method, the plastic material is placed in a composting
environment under controlled conditions of temperature, humidity, and oxygen levels,
and the rate and extent of biodegradation are monitored(Kim et al., 2006).

ii. Soil burial test: In this method, the plastic material is buried in soil, and the rate and
extent of biodegradation are monitored over time(Kim et al., 2006).

iii. Marine biodegradation test: In this method, the plastic material is placed in a simulated
marine environment, and the rate and extent of biodegradation are monitored(Weber et
al., 2018).

iv. Enzymatic degradation test: In this method, the plastic material is exposed to enzymes
that are known to degrade plastics, and the rate and extent of biodegradation are
measured(Kaushal et al., 2021).

12
It is important to note that the biodegradability of plastics depends on various factors such as the
type of plastic, its chemical composition, and the environmental conditions in which it is exposed
to. Therefore, it is essential to choose the appropriate testing method that is relevant to the
intended application of the plastic.

2.13 Design of improved biodegradable packaging materials

Effective shaping and sizing of biodegradable packaging materials is crucial for optimizing their
performance and biodegradability. There are several methods that can be used to shape and size
biodegradable packaging materials, including the following:

i. Molding: This method involves using heat and pressure to shape the material into a
desired form. Molding can be used to create packaging with complex shapes and features,
such as handles or locking mechanisms. (CDI, 2021).

Figure 3: Molded plastic

ii. Extrusion: This method involves pushing the material through a die to create a
continuous shape, such as a film or sheet. Extrusion can be used to create packaging with
a consistent thickness and width(Goff et al., 2015).

13
 iii. Blow molding: This method involves injecting air into a heated, molten material to create
a hollow shape, such as a bottle or container. Blow molding can be used to create
packaging with a consistent shape and thickness(Belcher, 2011).

Figure 4: Blow molding

iv. Calendering: This method involves passing the material through a series of rollers to
create a thin, flat sheet. Calendering can be used to create packaging with a consistent
thickness and width(Used et al., 2022).

v. Knife coating: Knife coating is a traditional method of coating materials and is also
referred to as spread coating. It involves the use of a knife, also known as a doctor blade,
and a dry, smooth fabric that is fed over the bearer roll. The coating material is poured
onto the fabric in front of the knife, either by a ladle or pump, and covers the entire width
of the web. The combination of the forward motion of the fabric and the fixed knife
barrier creates a rotatory motion in the viscous mass of the coating material. This method
of coating has been in use for many years and has proven to be effective in achieving a
uniform coating on the fabric(Features, 2008).

There are also several factors to consider when shaping and sizing biodegradable packaging
materials to optimize their performance and biodegradability. These include the material's
physical properties (such as strength, flexibility, and barrier properties), the intended use of the
packaging (such as whether it will be used for food or non-food items), and the environmental
conditions in which the packaging will be used (such as temperature and humidity).

14
In conclusion, molding, extrusion, blow molding, and calendering are some of the most effective
methods for shaping and sizing biodegradable packaging materials. Careful consideration of the
material's properties, intended use, and environmental conditions can help to optimize the
performance and biodegradability of these materials.

2.14 The Bioplastic Cradle to Grave concept

The Cradle to Grave concept for Bio-plastics refers to the entire lifecycle of a bio-plastic
product, from its production to its disposal(Vaidya et al., 2005). Bio-plastics are made from
renewable resources, such as corn or sugarcane, rather than fossil fuels, making them a more
environmentally-friendly alternative to traditional plastics. However, the Cradle to Grave
concept highlights the importance of considering the entire lifecycle of a bio-plastic product, as it
can still have negative environmental impacts if not properly disposed of(Moretti et al., 2021).
This includes the energy and resources required for production, transportation, and disposal, as
well as the potential for bio-plastics to release harmful chemicals into the environment during
these processes. It is important to carefully consider the Cradle to Grave implications of using
bio-plastics in order to truly determine their environmental impact.

Figure 5: The Cradle to Grave concept for the Bio-plastics.

15
 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the details of the production process for biodegradable packaging materials made
from corn starch are discussed. This includes a description of the materials used, the methods
employed, and the procedures followed. The research design, as well as the tools and instruments
used for data collection and analysis, are also be outlined.

3.2 Research design

This study employed a combination of experimental and online research methods to gather data.
The online research involved searching for information on corn starch and fibers from various
academic journals and databases, while the experimental research involved producing
biodegradable packaging material and testing it for its properties using a temperature gun,
observations, and data collection sheets. The data collected was analyzed using MS Excel
software, and the findings were presented in tables and charts. The study found that
biodegradable plastics like PLA could potentially replace traditional packaging materials due to
their biodegradability and compostability. The study also determined the correct measurements
needed to create a bioplastic that can effectively incorporate cotton gauze reinforcement while
maintaining the desired properties of transparency and flexibility. Additionally, a novel approach
to creating a strong seal on bioplastic bags using a burning candle was proposed. The study
emphasizes the importance of informed decision-making in reducing waste and minimizing
environmental impact. The tools and equipment used in the study included a hot plate, a
temperature gun, a candle, and data collection sheets. The materials used included water,
vinegar, glycerin, and corn starch, which were added in specific measurements to produce the
biodegradable material.

3.3 Data Collection Methods

Data collection for this study involved both online research and experimental research. The
online research involved searching for information on the properties of corn starch and fibers
from various academic journals and databases. The experimental research, on the other hand,
involved producing biodegradable packaging material using a specific recipe and conducting
tests to determine the material's properties by using a temperature gun, observations and data
collection sheets as the tools.

16
The data collection process for the online research involved searching for relevant information
on the raw materials' properties using online databases such as Science Direct, Elsevier, and
JSTOR. The information obtained was analyzed to provide a comparative analysis of the
properties of traditional packaging materials and the biodegradable materials produced in this
study.

In conclusion, this study employed a combination of experimental research and online research
methods to gather data. The experimental research involved producing biodegradable packaging
materials and testing them for their properties by using a temperature gun, observations and data
collection sheets as the tools, while the online research involved searching for relevant
information on the properties of traditional packaging materials. The data collected was analyzed
using appropriate MS Excel software to obtain relevant results.

3.4 Data Analysis

The data analysis section of the research methodology involved using MS Excel software to
create tables and charts to present the findings. The study discussed the properties of corn starh
and fiber and the importance of understanding their impact on the environment.. Biodegradable
plastics like PLA were found to be potential alternatives to traditional packaging materials. The
study also determined the correct measurements needed to create a bioplastic that can effectively
incorporate cotton gauze reinforcement while maintaining the desired properties of transparency
and flexibility. Additionally, a novel approach to creating a strong seal on bioplastic bags using a
burning candle was proposed. The study highlights the importance of informed decision-making
in reducing waste and minimizing environmental impact.

3.5 Finding Current packaging materials properties

Online research: To find the properties of corn starch and fibers, an online research approach
was taken. The researcher conducted a thorough search on online databases and academic
journals to gather information on the properties of the raw materials. This involved exploring
various websites such as Science Direct, Elsevier, and JSTOR to obtain the necessary data.

During the online search, the researcher utilized different search terms and keywords related to
the properties of corn starch and fiber to ensure that comprehensive information was obtained.

3.6 Materials
i. Water

17
 Tap water was utilized in the experiment to produce biodegradable material. The water played a
critical role in the process as it assisted in dissolving other components that were incorporated
into the mixture. To attain the ideal consistency and binding, precise measurements of 60ml,
50ml, 40ml, 30ml and 20ml of water were added to the mixture. These measurements were vital
to ensure that the final product would have the required texture and strength. The tap water acted
as the solvent, aiding the other ingredients in blending together and forming a unified mixture.
The lack of water would have prevented the formation of the biodegradable material and resulted
in the failure of the experiment.

ii. Vinegar
In the production process of bioplastics, vinegar was used as a key ingredient. The measurements
of vinegar used were 2ml, 5ml, 10ml, 15ml, and 20ml. The purpose of using vinegar in the
production process was to bring about the desired level of acidity to the mixture.

Vinegar has a high acidic content and this property was utilized in the bioplastic production
process. The acidity of vinegar was important in breaking down the other ingredients in the
mixture, such as the polymers and starches. This helped to create a more stable end product, with
a uniform consistency and texture.

By adding different measurements of vinegar, the production process was able to determine the
optimal amount needed to achieve the desired level of acidity. This was important in ensuring
that the end product would have the desired properties and be of a high quality.

As the production process continued, the different measurements of vinegar were slowly added
and mixed into the other ingredients. This was done under controlled conditions, with precise
measurements and strict monitoring. The aim was to create a homogeneous mixture that would
have the right properties to produce the desired bioplastic.

iii. Glycerine
Glycerin was added to the mixture in varying measurements of 2ml, 5ml, 8ml, 11ml and 13ml to
provide flexibility and strength to the biodegradable material. This was deemed necessary due to
the material's tendency to crack without the addition of glycerin, and its lack of durability for
practical use.

After the addition of glycerin, the material was observed to have become more flexible and
resistant to cracking. This helped enhance its overall strength and made it more suitable for
18
various applications. As the amount of glycerin increased, so did the material's flexibility and
strength, leading to the discovery of the optimal amount of glycerin needed for the desired
outcome.

iv. Corn starch

Corn starch was included in the recipe for bioplastic production, with measurements of 0.5ml,
1ml, 1.5ml, 2ml, and 2.5ml. Corn starch was selected for its ability to offer structure and stability
to the mixture, as it helps hold the ingredients together and gives the final product a solid form.
The purpose of incorporating corn starch was to improve the structure and texture of the
bioplastic. The addition of the specified amount of corn starch was observed to effectively fulfill
its purpose, resulting in the desired consistency and form in the final product.

Figure 6: Corn starch

19
3.7 Tools and Equipment

Figure 7: Tools and equipment

The following are the tools for preparing the bioplastic;

i. The hot plate
The hot plate was crucial in the bioplastics making process as it was used to heat the ingredients
while mixing them together. The hot plate was made of high-quality materials that could
withstand high temperatures and was equipped with accurate temperature control settings.

ii. Mixing bowls

Mixing bowls played a significant role in ensuring that the bioplastics mixture was thoroughly
mixed and free of any lumps or clumps. These bowls were made of durable materials that were
20
resistant to heat and chemicals. They were also of ample size to accommodate the entire mixture,
with enough room for easy mixing and stirring.

iii. Aluminium foil

Aluminium foil was crucial for spreading the hot plastic mixture. It was important to use high-
quality foil that was resistant to tearing and had good heat conductivity. The foil was placed on a
flat surface, and the hot plastic was evenly spread onto it, making sure it was thin and of
consistent thickness.

iv. Spoons
Spoons were used to stir the mixture during the heating process. They were also used for
measuring the corn starch. They were made of heat-resistant materials and had a comfortable
grip for easy handling.

v. The liquid measuring cup

The liquid measuring cup was an essential tool in ensuring that the exact amounts of ingredients
was used in the bioplastics mixture. It was made of transparent materials and had clear markings
for accurate measurement.

vi. Sauspan
The sauspan and metallic containers were used to heat the ingredients. They were made of heat-
resistant materials and had a tight-fitting lid to prevent any spills or contamination. The
containers were also of ample size to accommodate the entire mixture, with enough room for
easy mixing and stirring.

To carry out the melting point test of the biodegradable plastic, the following tools were
used:
i. Test tube
A test tube was a small cylindrical glass tube with a round bottom, used to hold small amounts of
liquid or solid materials for experimental purposes. In this case, the test tube was used to hold a
small amount of the biodegradable plastic to be tested.

ii. Bunsen burner

A Bunsen burner was a gas burner commonly used in laboratories for heating purposes. To carry
out the melting point test, the Bunsen burner was used to heat the biodegradable plastic in the
test tube.
21
 iii. Tongs
Tongs were a tool used to grip and hold objects safely. In this case, the tongs were used to hold
the test tube containing the biodegradable plastic over the Bunsen burner flame.

iv. Temperature gun

A temperature gun was a handheld device that used infrared technology to measure the
temperature of an object from a distance. In this case, the temperature gun was used to measure
the temperature of the biodegradable plastic as it melted.

To carry out the composting test of the biodegradable plastic, the following tools were
used:
i. Beaker
A beaker was a cylindrical glass container with a flat bottom, used for holding liquids or other
substances in a laboratory setting. In this case, the beaker was used to hold the biodegradable
plastic as it underwent the composting process.

ii. Bunsen burner

The Bunsen burner was also used in this test to heat up the composting mixture.

iii. Tongs
The tongs were used to handle the beaker during the composting process.

3.8 The procedure for creating the Bioplastic:

i. To create bioplastics with different levels of transparency and flexibility, corn starch,
vinegar, water, glycerin, a stove, aluminum foil, a mixing bowl, a liquid measuring cup,
pots, and a saucepan were used.
ii. The required amounts of corn starch, water, vinegar, and glycerin were measured out using
a liquid measuring cup and a tablespoon. The corn starch and water were combined in a
mixing bowl until the mixture was smooth. Vinegar and glycerin were added to the mixture
and stirred thoroughly.
iii. The mixture was then heated on a stove using a saucepan, stirring continuously to prevent
burning or sticking to the pan, until it thickened and became translucent. Once the desired
thickness was achieved, the mixture was removed from heat and allowed to cool slightly. It
was then poured onto a sheet of aluminum foil and spread out evenly.

22
iv. The bioplastic was left to dry completely, taking several hours. Once dry, it was peeled off
the aluminum foil and cut into desired shapes and sizes.
v. Observations were made after several batches, which showed that increasing the amount of
corn starch made the bioplastic more opaque while adding more water and glycerin
increased its flexibility.
vi. Bioplastics with different levels of transparency and flexibility were successfully made
using corn starch, vinegar, water, and glycerin, along with basic kitchen equipment.

Figure 8: Flexible bioplastic material

3.9 The composting test on the PLA biodegradable packaging material

i. The composting test on the PLA biodegradable packaging material was designed to
determine whether the material could break down and decompose under certain conditions.
ii. In this case, boiling water was used as a simulation for the high temperatures and moisture
levels found in composting environments.
iii. To conduct the test, a beaker was filled with water and heated on a Bunsen burner until it
reached boiling point.
23
iv. A small piece of the PLA biodegradable packaging material was then added to the boiling
water using tongs, and left to boil for a few minutes.
v. The material was then removed from the beaker and observed for any changes that may
have occurred.

Figure 9: Composting test

3.10 Determining the Melting Point of PLA Biodegradable Material

i. To determine the melting point of PLA biodegradable material, the experiment started by
attaching a tong to the test tube.
ii. A small amount of the PLA sample was carefully added into the test tube using a spatula.

24
iii. Next, the test tube was placed onto the tongs and heated at the bottom using a Bunsen
burner flame.
iv. The test tube was continuously moved over the flame until the PLA started to melt. While
the PLA was melting, a temperature gun was used to monitor the temperature of the test
tube.
v. The temperature at which the PLA completely melted was noted down. After noting
down the melting point, the test tube was removed from the flame and allowed to cool
down to room temperature.
vi. Once it had cooled down, the same steps were repeated to determine the melting point of
PLA biodegradable material two more times, and then the average melting point was
calculated.
vii. Overall, using a test tube, tongs, a Bunsen burner, and a temperature gun, the melting
point of PLA biodegradable material was determined accurately.

25
Figure 10: Melting Point

3.11 Shaping and sizing the bioplastic with Reinforcement

3.11.1 Knife Coating and Reinforcement Process for Bioplastic Bag Material
i. I took a flat surface and placed the bioplastic bag material on it. I then took a sharp knife
and made sure it was clean and free of any debris.
ii. I held the knife with my dominant hand and used the other hand to apply pressure on the
bioplastic bag material. I started from one corner of the material and used a sweeping
motion to spread the material evenly over the surface.

26
 iii. I continued to spread the material until it was of a uniform thickness. I took care to make
sure there were no air bubbles or uneven areas.
iv. I then repeated the process several times, until the bioplastic bag material was
completely covered and had a smooth surface.
v. Finally, I checked the surface again for any missed spots or air bubbles and corrected
them. The knife coating method was now complete and I was ready to use the bioplastic
bag material for my desired application.
vi. The reinforcement agent (cotton gauze) was then incorporated into the process to
improve the strength of the final bioplastic material. It was placed on top of the
bioplastic layer on the aluminum foil and pressed down firmly to ensure that it was
embedded into the bioplastic material.
vii. Additional coating: A second layer of the bioplastic material was then applied on top of
the cotton gauze using the knife coating method. This ensured that the reinforcement
agent was fully embedded and covered by the bioplastic material.
viii. The coated aluminum foil was then dried for two days under direct sunshine to ensure
that the bioplastic material solidified and formed a strong, cohesive sheet.
ix. Once the sheet was dry, it was the removed from the aluminium foil.

Figure 11: Reinforcing with cotton gauze

27
3.11.2 Turning the sheet into a bag
To size and shape a rectangular plastic bag of dimensions 17cm by 14.5cm from an available
plastic sheet using a hot long metal plate (a candle was used for some others), the following
methodology was adopted:
i. First, the available plastic sheet was measured and marked to ensure that it was large
enough to create a rectangular bag of the desired dimensions.
ii. Once it was determined that the plastic sheet was of sufficient size, a template was
created using a piece of cardboard to outline the dimensions of the bag. The template was
used to ensure that the bag was cut to the correct size.
iii. Next, the plastic sheet was cut to the dimensions of the template using a sharp pair of
scissors or a cutting tool.
iv. Once the plastic sheet was cut to size, a hot long metal plate (a candle was used for some
others) was used to create the seams. The plate was heated to the appropriate temperature
and the edges of the plastic sheet were placed on top of it. The plate was then used to
melt the edges of the plastic sheet together, forming a strong seam.
v. The seams were created on the two shorter edges and one longer edge of the plastic sheet,
leaving one longer edge open to form the top of the bag.
vi. After the seams were created, the bag was turned inside out to ensure that the seams were
strong and secure. Any weak points were reinforced by reapplying heat and pressure to
the seam.
vii. Finally, the bag was checked to ensure that it met the desired dimensions.

By following these steps, a rectangular plastic bag of dimensions 17cm by 14.5cm was
successfully sized and shaped from the available plastic sheet using a hot long metal plate (a
candle was used for some others).

28
 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the key findings of our study were presented, using a combination of figures,
graphs, and detailed discussions. These findings were organized according to the research
objectives that we set out at the beginning of the study. By presenting and interpreting these
findings in this way, the purpose was to provide a clear and comprehensive understanding of the
results of our research. Through this analysis, the aim was to contribute to a deeper
understanding of the topic at hand and to highlight any potential implications or
recommendations for future research.

4.2 Presentation of Findings

4.2.1 Findings on the Properties of corn starch and Fibers
The research findings indicated that corn starch was a renewable and abundant material that had
gained attention as a potential alternative to petroleum-based plastics. It was a polysaccharide
that could be plasticized by the addition of water and glycerol or other plasticizers, and could be
molded into various shapes for use in many applications. Corn starch-based bioplastics had
several properties that made them an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional plastics,
such as biodegradability and renewability. However, they had lower mechanical strength and
toughness than traditional plastics, and were sensitive to water. Blending corn starch with other
biodegradable polymers, such as polylactic acid or polyhydroxyalkanoates, could improve its
mechanical and thermal properties.

Regarding fibers used for reinforcing bioplastics, natural fibers such as cellulose, lignocellulose,
protein fibers, cotton gauze, bamboo fibers, and jute fibers had advantages such as low cost, low
density, and biodegradability, making them an attractive alternative to synthetic fibers. The
properties of fibers used for reinforcing bioplastics included strength, biodegradability,
compatibility, aspect ratio, and chemical resistance, which could have a significant impact on the
mechanical and physical properties of the resulting material. Depending on the intended use of
the bioplastic, fibers with good chemical resistance might be required to ensure the material
could withstand exposure to various substances.

29
4.2.2 Findings on the properties of the bioplastic
[Link] Transparency and Biodegradability
The table below displays the results of an experiment investigating the effects of varying the
amounts of corn starch, water, vinegar, and glycerin on the transparency and flexibility of a
solution.

Table 2: The table of results of transparency and flexibility

Batch Corn Starch Water Vinegar (mL) Glycerin (mL) Transparency Flexibility
Number (Tablespoons) (mL)

1 0.5 60 2 2 High Very high

2 1 50 5 5 High High

3 1.5 40 10 8 High Medium

4 2 30 15 11 Low Low

5 2.5 20 20 13 Extremely Low Very low

The transparency of the solution was observed to be high for all batches except batch 4, where it
was observed to be low. The transparency decreased as the amount of corn starch increased, with
batch 5 having an extremely low transparency.

The flexibility of the solution was found to be very high for batch 1, high for batch 2, medium
for batch 3, and low for batch 4. Batch 5 was observed to have very low flexibility.

[Link] Findings on Melting point of the bioplastic

Using the values M1, M2, and M3, the average melting point was calculated. The formula
employed was:

M1 + M2 + M3
Average melting point = 3

By adding the three melting point values together and dividing the total by 3, the average melting
point was determined.

When the melting point values were M1 = 150°C, M2 = 152°C and M3 = 149°C, the resulting
average melting point was:

150+152 +149
Average melting point = = 150.33°C
3

30
As a result, the PLA biodegradable material had an average melting point of about 150.33°C.

[Link] Findings on Composting Test on the Bioplastic

The results of the test showed that the PLA biodegradable packaging material was able to break
down and become softer and more malleable. This was a positive indication that the material
could be composted, as it demonstrated the ability to decompose under the high temperatures and
moisture levels found in composting environments.

4.2.3 Findings on the Final Shapes and Sizes of Improved Packaging Material
[Link] Transparency and Flexibility
Based on the results in the table, it can be inferred that the optimal batch for making the
bioplastic is likely batch number 2, which used 1 tablespoon of corn starch, 50 mL of water, 5
mL of vinegar, and 5 mL of glycerin. This batch achieved high levels of transparency and
flexibility, making it the most suitable for incorporating the cotton gauze reinforcement.

The purpose of the table was to determine the correct measurements needed to create a bioplastic
that could effectively incorporate cotton gauze reinforcement, while still maintaining the desired
properties of transparency and flexibility.

[Link] Sizing the Plasic Bag

The study also successfully demonstrated a novel approach to creating a strong seal on the
bioplastic sheet using a burning candle. This technique proved to be effective in creating a seal
without causing the plastic to burn or catch fire. The use of a burning candle for sealing the
edges of bioplastic bags could have practical implications for small-scale production, as it
requires minimal equipment and can be easily replicated.

However, further research is necessary to determine the feasibility of this method for large-scale
manufacturing, as well as the cost and environmental impact of producing bioplastics on a larger
scale. While bioplastics have the potential to reduce the environmental impact of plastic waste,
their manufacturing processes and disposal methods need to be considered carefully to ensure
they do not contribute to other environmental issues.

4.3 Discussion of Finding

4.3.1 Discussions on the Properties of Corn starch and Fiber
The findings from the research indicate that corn starch is a promising material for the
development of bioplastics. Its renewability, abundance, and biodegradability make it an
31
attractive alternative to petroleum-based plastics. However, its lower mechanical strength and
toughness, as well as its sensitivity to water, are significant limitations. The addition of other
biodegradable polymers to corn starch could improve its mechanical and thermal properties, and
make it more suitable for a wider range of applications.

In terms of reinforcing bioplastics, the use of natural fibers such as cellulose, lignocellulose,
protein fibers, cotton gauze, bamboo fibers, and jute fibers offer several advantages over
synthetic fibers. These include low cost, low density, and biodegradability. The properties of
fibers used for reinforcement, such as strength, biodegradability, compatibility, aspect ratio, and
chemical resistance, are critical factors that impact the mechanical and physical properties of the
resulting material. Thus, careful consideration of the intended use of the bioplastic is necessary
when selecting fibers for reinforcement. Fibers with good chemical resistance may be required to
ensure the material can withstand exposure to various substances.

Overall, the findings from this study suggest that the development of bioplastics using corn
starch and natural fibers has the potential to offer environmentally friendly alternatives to
traditional plastics. Further research is needed to optimize the properties of these materials for
various applications and to assess their environmental impact over their lifecycle.

4.3.2 Discussions on the PLA Biodegradable Plastic Properties

[Link] Transparency and Flexibility
Based on the results in the table, it can be inferred that the optimal batch for making the
bioplastic is likely batch number 2, which used 1 tablespoon of corn starch, 50 mL of water, 5
mL of vinegar, and 5 mL of glycerin. This batch achieved high levels of transparency and
flexibility, making it the most suitable for incorporating the cotton gauze reinforcement.

Overall, the purpose of the table was to determine the correct measurements needed to create a
bioplastic that could effectively incorporate cotton gauze reinforcement, while still maintaining
the desired properties of transparency and flexibility.

[Link] Melting Point and Biodegradability

The findings on the properties of packaging materials highlight the importance of understanding
the physical and chemical characteristics of materials used in packaging to reduce environmental
impact. The study found that while common packaging materials like PET, PVC, PS, and PP, as
reviewed under the literature review chapter, have high melting points and is not biodegradable

32
or compostable, biodegradable plastics made from materials like PLA can be broken down by
microorganisms or transformed into organic matter under specific conditions.

Regarding the properties of the PLA biodegradable material, the study found that the material
has an average melting point of 150.33°C, which is within a reasonable range compared to other
common packaging materials. This indicates that the PLA biodegradable material can be used for
various packaging applications that require heat resistance.

Melting Point (°C)

300

250

200
polyethylene terephthalate
150
high-density polyethylene
100 polylactic acid
low density polyethylene
50
polyvinyl chloride

0 polystyrene
polypropylene

Figure 12: A chart of comparing Melting points of Plastic Packaging materials

Moreover, the composting test results of the PLA biodegradable material showed that it was able
to decompose and become softer and more malleable under the high temperatures and moisture
levels found in composting environments. This is a positive finding as it demonstrates the
potential of the PLA biodegradable material to reduce waste and environmental impact.

In conclusion, the findings of the study suggest that using biodegradable materials like PLA for
packaging could be a more environmentally friendly alternative to traditional packaging
materials that are not biodegradable or compostable. However, it is important to note that the
production of biodegradable plastics requires careful consideration to ensure that the production

33
process does not have negative environmental impacts. Overall, the study emphasizes the
importance of understanding the properties of packaging materials and making informed
decisions to reduce waste and minimize environmental impact.

4.3.3 Discussions on the Final Shapes and Sizes of Improved Packaging Material
The successful creation of a bioplastic bag using a simple and sustainable method represents a promising
development in the search for alternative materials to traditional plastic bags. Bioplastics, which are
derived from renewable resources, have been identified as a potential solution to the environmental issues
associated with plastic waste.

The use of a burning candle to seal the edges of the bioplastic sheet represents a novel approach
to creating a strong seal without causing the plastic to burn or catch fire. This technique could
have practical implications for small-scale production of bioplastic bags, as it requires minimal
equipment and can be easily replicated.

Further research would be necessary to determine the feasibility of this method for large-scale
manufacturing, as well as the cost and environmental impact of producing bioplastics on a larger
scale.

Overall, this study represents a valuable contribution to the development of sustainable materials
for everyday use. The success of this method for creating bioplastic bags suggests that further
research into bioplastics could have important implications for reducing the environmental
impact of plastic waste.

34
 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the conclusions based on the findings, and the recommendations for future
actions or considerations are drawn. By presenting the conclusions and recommendations
together, the aim is to provide a comprehensive overview of the significance and implications of
our research.

5.2 Conclusion
In conclusion, the research findings presented in this study reveal that corn starch-based
bioplastics have properties that make them an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional
plastics. However, they have lower mechanical strength and toughness than traditional plastics
and are sensitive to water. Blending corn starch with other biodegradable polymers, such as
polylactic acid or polyhydroxyalkanoates, can improve their mechanical and thermal properties.
The properties of fibers used for reinforcing bioplastics, such as strength, biodegradability,
compatibility, aspect ratio, and chemical resistance, can have a significant impact on the
resulting material's mechanical and physical properties.

The optimal batch for creating a bioplastic that incorporates cotton gauze reinforcement while
maintaining transparency and flexibility was found to be batch 2, which used 1 tablespoon of
corn starch, 50 mL of water, 5 mL of vinegar, and 5 mL of glycerin.

Furthermore, the study demonstrated a novel approach to creating a strong seal on bioplastic
sheets using a burning candle, which could have practical implications for small-scale
production. However, further research is necessary to determine the feasibility of this method for
large-scale manufacturing, as well as the cost and environmental impact of producing bioplastics
on a larger scale.

5.3 Recommendation
Based on the research findings, it is recommended that blending corn starch with other
biodegradable polymers, such as polylactic acid or polyhydroxyalkanoates, should be explored to
improve the mechanical and thermal properties of corn starch-based bioplastics.
Natural fibers such as cellulose, lignocellulose, protein fibers, cotton gauze, bamboo fibers, and
jute fibers are recommended for reinforcing bioplastics due to their low cost, low density, and
biodegradability.

35
It is recommended that the optimal batch for making a bioplastic that can effectively incorporate
cotton gauze reinforcement, while still maintaining the desired properties of transparency and
flexibility, is likely batch number 2, which used 1 tablespoon of corn starch, 50 mL of water, 5
mL of vinegar, and 5 mL of glycerin.
The novel approach of using a burning candle to create a strong seal on bioplastic sheets is
recommended to be further explored for small-scale production, but additional research is needed
to determine its feasibility for large-scale manufacturing.
The cost and environmental impact of producing bioplastics on a larger scale should be carefully
recommended to be considered, as their manufacturing processes and disposal methods need to
be evaluated to ensure they do not contribute to other environmental issues.

36
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 APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: WORK PLAN

1-Sep 11-Sep 21-Sep 1-Oct 11-Oct 21-Oct 31-Oct

Introduction writing

Liturature review writing

Methodology writing DAYS TO COMPLETE

Data collection

Data analysis

Report writing

A
APPENDIX B: BUDGET
Table 3: Budget

ITEM QUANTITY UNIT COST(UGX) TOTAL COST(UGX)

Tablespoon 1 1,000 1,000

Aluminum foil 2roll 10,000 20,000

Glycerin 10 small bottle 2,000 20,000

starch 2kg 3,000 6,000

Water 2bottle 1,000 2,000

Transport 1week 10,000 10,000

Report (proposal and 4 20,000 80,000

final)

Research Lab 50,000 50,000

97,000 189000

B
APPENDIX C: PLASTIC PRODUCTION PROCESS RESULTS

Figure 13: Plastic production Process Results