NE 3203

Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution

Lectures for [Link]. Students

Semester: L/T - 3/2

Md. Minarul Islam, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
University of Dhaka
Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
Contents
❑ Power factor,

❑ Power triangle,

❑ Disadvantage of low power factor,

❑ Causes of low power factor,

❑ Power factor improvement,

❑ Power factor improvement equipment,

❑ Calculation of power factor corrections,

❑ Importance of power factor improvement,

❑ most economical power factor.

 Resistive Load
Power Factor

Source

Load
Inductive Load

The cosine of angle between

voltage and current in an a.c.
circuit is known as power
factor. Capacitive Load
𝜃 = Phase difference
voltage and current
wave forms

Power factor = cos (𝜃)

 Resistive Load
Power Factor

Source

Load
Inductive Load

Power factor = cos (𝜃)

▪ Resistive load
→power factor is unity,
Capacitive Load
▪ Inductive load
→power factor is lagging,

▪ Capacitive load
→power factor is leading,
Power Factor
I cos (𝜃)
𝜃 V

I sin (𝜃)
Source
I

Load
Phasor representation of voltage and
current of an inductive load.

Current I can be resolved into

I cos (𝜃) ➔ In phase with V → called active or wattful component.
I sin (𝜃) ➔ 900 out of phase with V → called reactive component.

❖ The reactive component is a measure of the power factor.

❖ If the phase angle 𝜃 is small, power factor is large and reactive component
is small, and vise versa.

❖ The maximum power factor is unity. Sometimes power factor is expressed in

percentage, i.e., 80% lagging or leading.
Contents
❑ Power factor,

❑Power triangle,
❑ Disadvantage of low power factor,

❑ Causes of low power factor,

❑ Power factor improvement,

❑ Power factor improvement equipment,

❑ Calculation of power factor corrections,

❑ Importance of power factor improvement,

❑ most economical power factor.

Power Triangle
VI cos (𝜃)
O A
𝜃

VI sin (𝜃)
The triangle OAB is called a power triangle.
VI
Where
B
OA = VI cos (𝜃) → Active power in Watt, kW, MW
AB = VI sin (𝜃) → Reactive power in Var, kVar, MVar
OB = VI → Apparent power in VA, kVA, MVA

𝑂𝐴 𝑘𝑊
Power factor, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = =
𝑂𝐵 𝑘𝑉𝐴
Contents
❑ Power factor,

❑ Power triangle,

❑Disadvantage of low power factor,

❑ Causes of low power factor,

❑ Power factor improvement,

❑ Power factor improvement equipment,

❑ Calculation of power factor corrections,

❑ Importance of power factor improvement,

❑ most economical power factor.

Disadvantage of Low Power Factor
For a single-phase load,
𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos(𝜃) 𝐼𝐿 =
𝑉𝐿 cos(𝜃)
For a three-phase load,
𝑃
𝑃 = 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos(𝜃) 𝐼𝐿 =
3𝑉𝐿 cos(𝜃)

❖ P of any load is usually fixed from its rating.

❖ V is maintained constant for the efficient operation of the load.

❖ Therefore,
1
𝐼𝐿 ∞
cos(𝜃)

❖ So, a lower factor results in higher load current

Disadvantage of Low Power Factor
A lower power factor results in the following disadvantages:

Large kVA rating of equipment

❖ The electrical machines such as generators, transformer, motors, are

always rated in kVA. For a fixed amount of kW output / rating,
𝑘𝑊 1
𝑘𝑉𝐴 = So, 𝑘𝑉𝐴∞
cos(𝜃) cos(𝜃)

❖ The smaller the power factor, the larger is the kVA rating.

❖ For a fixed kW, at low power factor, the kVA rating of the machine has to
be made larger, making the machine larger and expensive.
Disadvantage of Low Power Factor
A lower power factor results in the following disadvantages:

Larger conductor size

𝑃 𝑃
𝐼𝐿 = and 𝐼𝐿 =
𝑉𝐿 cos(𝜃) 3𝑉𝐿 cos(𝜃)
❖ In power transmission and distribution, for a fixed voltage, line current
becomes larger at lower power factor. This will demand larger diameter
of the conductor in the transmission and distribution lines.
Large power losses
The larger current at lower power factor will cause large losses in the
transmission, distribution lines and in other equipment in the power
system.
Poor voltage regulation
❖ The large current at low power factor will cause large voltage drops in
generators, transformers, transmission and distribution lines. This will
result in lower voltages at the customer sides. This will cause poor
performance of the customer appliances.
Contents
❑ Power factor,

❑ Power triangle,

❑ Disadvantage of low power factor,

❑Causes of low power factor,

❑ Power factor improvement,

❑ Power factor improvement equipment,

❑ Calculation of power factor corrections,

❑ Importance of power factor improvement,

❑ most economical power factor.

Causes of Low Power Factor
❑ Most of the a.c. motors are of induction type (single-phase and three-
phase induction motors) which have low lagging power factor. These
motors work at a power factor which is extremely small on light load
(0·2 to 0·3) and rises to 0·8 or 0·9 at full load.

❑ Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnaces

operate at low lagging power factor.

❑ When the system is loaded lightly, the voltage increases, increasing the
magnetization current demand of the machine. This causes a poor
power factor in the system.

❑ The presence of harmonic current in the system reduces power factor.

❑ Improper wiring leads to three-phase imbalance causing low power

factor.
Contents
❑ Power factor,

❑ Power triangle,

❑ Disadvantage of low power factor,

❑ Causes of low power factor,

❑Power factor improvement,

❑ Power factor improvement equipment,

❑ Calculation of power factor corrections,

❑ Importance of power factor improvement,

❑ most economical power factor.

Power Factor Improvement

❑ The low power factor is mainly due to the fact that most of the power
loads are inductive and, therefore, take lagging currents.

❑ In order to improve the power factor, some device taking leading

power should be connected in parallel with the load.

❑ One of such devices can be a capacitor. The capacitor draws a

leading current and partly or completely neutralizes the lagging
reactive component of load current.

❑ This raises the power factor of the load.

Power Factor Improvement

❖ Consider a single-phase load taking current I at

a power factor 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 ) as shown in Fig. (a).
(a)
❖ A capacitor is connected in parallel of the load
as shown in Fig. (b). The capacitor draws
current 𝐼𝐶 which leads the supply voltage by
900 .

❖ The resulting line current 𝐼′ is the phasor sum

of I and 𝐼𝐶 and its angle of lag is 𝜃2 as shown
(b)
in phasor diagram (c).

❖ It is clear that 𝜃1 > 𝜃2 , so 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 < 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃2 ),

hence the power factor is improved. 𝜃2
𝜃1

(c)
Power Factor Improvement
❖ 𝐼 ′ < I, power losses in the line reduce.

❖ The active component of current before and after power

factor correction remains same. So, 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 =
𝐼 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃2 ).
(a)
❖ The lagging reactive component of current is reduced
after power factor improvement. The new reactive
lagging component after power factor improvement is
❖ 𝐼 ′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 = 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 − 𝐼𝐶 .

❖ 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 = 𝐼 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 so
❖ V𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 = 𝑉𝐼 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃2 ). The active power remains
(b)
unchanged due to power factor improvement.

❖ 𝐼 ′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 = 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 − 𝐼𝐶 so
❖ 𝑉𝐼 ′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 − 𝑉𝐼𝐶 .
❖ Net kVar after power factor correction = Lagging kVar 𝜃2
𝜃1
before power factor correction- leading kVar of capacitor.
(c)
Contents
❑ Power factor,

❑ Power triangle,

❑ Disadvantage of low power factor,

❑ Causes of low power factor,

❑ Power factor improvement,

❑ Power factor improvement equipment,

❑Calculation of power factor corrections,

❑ Importance of power factor improvement,

❑ most economical power factor.

Calculations of Power Factor Correction

𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 − 𝐼 ′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 .
(a)

Capacitance required to improve

power factor 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 to 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃2 ) can
be calculated by

𝐼𝐶
𝐶=
𝜔𝑉
(b)

𝜃2
𝜃1

(c)
Contents
❑ Power factor,

❑ Power triangle,

❑ Disadvantage of low power factor,

❑ Causes of low power factor,

❑ Power factor improvement,

❑Power factor improvement equipment,

❑ Calculation of power factor corrections,

❑ Importance of power factor improvement,

❑ most economical power factor.

Power Factor Improvement Equipment
❑ Normally, the power factor of the whole load on a large generating
station is in the region of 0·8 to 0·9. However, sometimes it is lower
and in such cases it is generally desirable to take special steps to
improve the power factor. This can be achieved by the following
equipment :

1. Static capacitors.

2. Synchronous condenser.

3. Phase advancers.
Power Factor Improvement Equipment
Static capacitors.
❑ The power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors in parallel with the
equipment operating at lagging power factor.
❑ The capacitor (generally known as static capacitor) draws a leading current and
partly or completely neutralizes the lagging reactive component of load current.
This raises the power factor of the load.
❑ For three-phase loads, the capacitors can be connected in delta or star as shown
in following figures.
❑ Static capacitors are invariably used for power factor improvement in factories.
Power Factor Improvement Equipment
Static capacitors.
Advantages
(i) They have low losses.

(ii) They require little maintenance as there are no rotating parts.

(iii) They can be easily installed as they are light and require no foundation.

(iv) They can work under ordinary atmospheric conditions.

Disadvantages
(i) They have short service life ranging from 8 to 10 years.

(ii) They are easily damaged if the voltage exceeds the rated value.

(iii) Once the capacitors are damaged, their repair is uneconomical.

Power Factor Improvement Equipment
Synchronous Condenser
❑ A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and, therefore,
behaves as a capacitor.

❑ An over-excited synchronous motor running on no load is known as

synchronous condenser.

❑ When such a machine is connected in parallel with the supply, it takes a leading
current which partly neutralizes the lagging reactive component of the load.
Thus, the power factor is improved.
Power Factor Improvement Equipment
Synchronous Condenser
Advantages
(i) By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor
can be changed by any amount. This helps in achieving stepless control of
power factor.
(ii) The motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents.
(iii) The faults can be removed easily.

Disadvantages
(i) There are considerable losses in the motor.
(ii) The maintenance cost is high.
(iii) It produces noise.
(iv) Except in sizes above 500 kVA, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors
of the same rating.
(v) As a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque, therefore, an auxiliary
equipment has to be provided for this purpose.
Power Factor Improvement Equipment
Phase Advancers
❑ Phase advancers are used to improve the power factor of induction motors.

❑ The low power factor of an induction motor is due to the fact that its stator
winding draws exciting current which lags behind the supply voltage by 900

❑ If the exciting ampere turns can be provided from some other a.c. source, then
the stator winding will be relieved of exciting current and the power factor of
the motor can be improved.

❑ This job is accomplished by the phase advancer which is simply an a.c. exciter.

❑ The phase advancer is mounted on the same shaft as the main motor and is
connected in the rotor circuit of the motor.

❑ It provides exciting ampere turns to the rotor circuit at slip frequency.

❑ By providing more ampere turns than required, the induction motor can be made
to operate on leading power factor like an over-excited synchronous motor.
Power Factor Improvement Equipment
Phase Advancers

❑ Phase advancers have two principal advantages. Firstly, as the exciting

ampere turns are supplied at slip frequency, therefore, lagging kVAR
drawn by the motor are considerably reduced.

❑ Secondly, phase advancer can be conveniently used where the use of

synchronous motors is unadmissible.

❑ However, the major disadvantage of phase advancers is that they are not
economical for motors below 200 H.P.
Contents
❑ Power factor,

❑ Power triangle,

❑ Disadvantage of low power factor,

❑ Causes of low power factor,

❑ Power factor improvement,

❑ Power factor improvement equipment,

❑ Calculation of power factor corrections,

❑Importance of power factor improvement,

❑ most economical power factor.
Important of Power Factor Improvement
The improvement of power factor is very important for both consumers and
generating stations as discussed below :

❑ (i) For consumers.

❖ A consumer has to pay electricity charges for his maximum demand in

kVA plus the units consumed.

❖ If the consumer imporves the power factor, then there is a reduction† in

his maximum kVA demand and consequently there will be annual
saving due to maximum demand charges.

❖ Although power factor improvement involves extra annual expenditure

on account of p.f. correction equipment, yet improvement of p.f. to a
proper value results in the net annual saving for the consumer.
Important of Power Factor Improvement
The improvement of power factor is very important for both consumers and
generating stations as discussed below :

❑ (ii) For generating stations.

❖ A generating station is as much concerned with power factor improvement
as the consumer.

❖ The generators in a power station are rated in kVA but the useful output
depends upon kW output.

❖ As station output is kW = kVA  cos , therefore, number of units supplied

by it depends upon the power factor.

❖ The greater the power factor of the generating station, the higher is the
kWh it delivers to the system.

❖ This leads to the conclusion that improved power factor increases the
earning capacity of the power station.
Contents
❑ Power factor,

❑ Power triangle,

❑ Disadvantage of low power factor,

❑ Causes of low power factor,

❑ Power factor improvement,

❑ Power factor improvement equipment,

❑ Calculation of power factor corrections,

❑ Importance of power factor improvement,

❑most economical power factor.

Most Economical Power Factor
Self Study
Solve Numerical Problem from

Book: Principle of Power System by V.K Mehta