Chapter 3

Calculation procedures

AquaCrop
Version 7.1

Reference manual

August 2023
 Chapter 3
Calculation procedures

AquaCrop
Version 7.1

Reference manual

August 2023
By Dirk RAES, Pasquale STEDUTO, Theodore C. HSIAO, and Elias FERERES with the
contribution of the AquaCrop Network

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Rome, 2023
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development
status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The
mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these
have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of
FAO.

© FAO, 2023

FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated,
material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial
products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and copyright holder is given and that FAO’s
endorsement of users’ views, products or services is not implied in any way.

All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights should be made via
[Link]/contact-us/licence-request or addressed to copyright@[Link].

FAO information products are available on the FAO website ([Link]/publications) and can be purchased through publications-
sales@[Link].
Chapter 1. AquaCrop – FAO crop-water productivity model to
simulate yield response to water
Chapter 2. Users guide

Chapter 3. Calculation Procedures

Table of contents
List of principal symbols.......................................................................................... 2
The calculation scheme of AquaCrop .................................................................... 5
3.1 The root zone as a reservoir .............................................................................. 7
3.1.1 Incoming and outgoing water fluxes ........................................................................................ 7
3.1.2 Stored soil water and soil water depletion .............................................................................. 8
▪ Stored soil water expressed as an equivalent depth ............................................................ 8
▪ Soil water depletion .............................................................................................................. 9
▪ Total Available soil Water (TAW) ........................................................................................ 10

3.2 Stresses .............................................................................................................. 11

3.2.1 Stress response functions....................................................................................................... 11
▪ Linear shape ........................................................................................................................ 11
▪ Convex shape....................................................................................................................... 12
▪ Logistic shape ...................................................................................................................... 12
3.2.2 Soil water stress ..................................................................................................................... 13
▪ Soil water stress coefficients ............................................................................................... 13
▪ Determination of soil water stress ...................................................................................... 15
3.2.3 Air temperature stress ........................................................................................................... 16
3.2.4 Soil fertility stress ................................................................................................................... 17
3.2.5 Soil salinity stress.................................................................................................................... 19

3.3 Growing Degree Days ...................................................................................... 21

3.3.1 Method 1 ................................................................................................................................ 21
3.3.2 Method 2 ................................................................................................................................ 22
3.3.3 Method 3 ................................................................................................................................ 22

3.4 Green canopy cover for optimal conditions ................................................... 23

3.4.1 Green canopy cover throughout the crop cycle..................................................................... 23
3.4.2 Canopy development ............................................................................................................. 24

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 iii

 3.4.3 Germination and initial canopy cover at 90% crop emergence ............................................. 25
▪ The initial canopy cover at germination .............................................................................. 25
▪ Required soil water content for triggering germination ..................................................... 25
▪ Delayed germination ........................................................................................................... 25
3.4.4 Maximum canopy cover (CCx) ................................................................................................ 26
3.4.5 Green canopy cover decline ................................................................................................... 26
3.4.6 Green canopy cover for perennial herbaceous forage crops ................................................. 28
▪ Green canopy cover ............................................................................................................ 28
▪ Simulation of the natural self-thinning of the plant population over the seasons ............. 30
▪ Multiple harvests ................................................................................................................. 32
▪ Transfer of assimilates......................................................................................................... 32
3.4.7 Green canopy in weed infested fields .................................................................................... 33
▪ Annual crops ........................................................................................................................ 33
▪ Perennial herbaceous forage crops..................................................................................... 35

3.5 Green canopy cover for stress conditions ...................................................... 36

3.5.1 Period of potential vegetative growth ................................................................................... 37
3.5.2 Adjustment of canopy growth coefficient due to water stress.............................................. 38
▪ Protection at germination: .................................................................................................. 38
▪ After germination: ............................................................................................................... 38
3.5.3 Early canopy senescence under severe water stress conditions ........................................... 40
▪ Protection at germination: .................................................................................................. 40
▪ After germination: ............................................................................................................... 40
▪ Plant recovery upon rewatering:......................................................................................... 42
3.5.4 Canopy development when transpiration is inhibited ........................................................... 43
3.5.5 Canopy development for soil fertility or soil salinity stress ................................................... 44
3.5.6 Total canopy cover for stress conditions in weed infested fields .......................................... 46

3.6 Effective rooting depth..................................................................................... 47

3.6.1 Effective rooting depth at planting (Zn) .................................................................................. 47
3.6.2 Expansion of the root zone in a well-watered soil ................................................................. 48
3.6.3 Rooting depth for perennial herbaceous forage crops .......................................................... 49
3.6.4 Expansion of the root zone when the crop is water stressed ................................................ 50
3.6.5 Expansion of the root zone in a soil profile with restrictive horizon(s) ................................. 51
3.6.6 Limited expansion of the root zone in a dry subsoil .............................................................. 52

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 iv

3.7 Soil water balance............................................................................................. 53
3.7.1 Time - depth grid .................................................................................................................... 53
3.7.2 Calculation scheme................................................................................................................. 54
3.7.3 Redistribution and drainage subroutine ................................................................................ 55
▪ Drainage function ................................................................................................................ 55
▪ Drainage characteristic τ (tau)............................................................................................. 56
▪ Calculation procedure ......................................................................................................... 57
3.7.4 Runoff subroutine .................................................................................................................. 59
3.7.5 Infiltration subroutine ............................................................................................................ 62
3.7.6 Capillary rise ........................................................................................................................... 63
▪ Capillary rise for various depths of the groundwater table ................................................ 63
▪ Generation of the parameters for capillary rise.................................................................. 66
▪ Equilibrium at field capacity ................................................................................................ 66
▪ Calculation procedure ......................................................................................................... 68
3.7.7 Processing of 10-day and monthly climatic data ................................................................... 73
▪ Daily climatic data ............................................................................................................... 73
▪ Estimation of surface runoff ................................................................................................ 74
▪ Estimation of effective rainfall and deep percolation ......................................................... 74
▪ Estimation of soil evaporation ............................................................................................ 76

3.8 Salt balance ....................................................................................................... 77

3.8.1 Movement and accumulation of salts in the soil profile ........................................................ 77
3.8.2 Cells ........................................................................................................................................ 77
3.8.3 Salt diffusion ........................................................................................................................... 79
3.8.4 Vertical salt movement in response to soil evaporation ....................................................... 81
3.8.5 Vertical salt movement as a result of capillary rise................................................................ 82
3.8.6 Soil salinity content ................................................................................................................ 83

3.9 Soil evaporation ................................................................................................ 84

3.9.1 A two stage calculation method ............................................................................................. 85
▪ Stage I - energy limiting stage ............................................................................................. 85
▪ Stage II - falling rate stage ................................................................................................... 85
3.9.2 Readily Evaporable Water (REW) ........................................................................................... 85
3.9.3 Soil evaporation coefficient for wet soil surface (Ke) ............................................................ 86
3.9.4 Adjustment of Ke for withered canopy, mulches and partial wetting by irrigation .............. 88
▪ Sheltering effect of withered canopy cover ........................................................................ 88

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 v

 ▪ Adjustment for mulches ...................................................................................................... 89
▪ Adjustment for partial wetting by irrigation ....................................................................... 89
▪ Adjustment for mulches and partial wetting by irrigation .................................................. 89
3.9.5 Evaporation reduction coefficient (Kr) ................................................................................... 90
3.9.6 Calculation of soil evaporation (E) ......................................................................................... 91
▪ Energy limiting stage (Stage I) ............................................................................................. 91
▪ Falling rate stage (Stage II) .................................................................................................. 91
3.9.7 Calculation of soil evaporation (ETOT) in weed infested fields ................................................ 92

3.10 Crop transpiration ......................................................................................... 93

3.10.1 Crop transpiration coefficient (KcTr) ..................................................................................... 94
3.10.2 Coefficient for maximum crop transpiration (KcTr,x)............................................................. 95
3.10.3 Adjustments of KcTr,x for ageing, senescence and elevated [CO2] ........................................ 95
▪ Adjustment of KcTr,x for ageing effects ................................................................................ 95
▪ Adjustment of KcTr,x once senescence is triggered .............................................................. 96
▪ Adjustment of KcTr,x for elevated [CO2] ............................................................................... 97
3.10.4 Soil water stress coefficient (Ks) .......................................................................................... 98
▪ Water stress coefficient for stomatal closure (Kssto) ........................................................... 98
▪ Effect of soil salinity on the water stress coefficient for stomatal closure ....................... 100
▪ Water stress coefficient for deficient aeration conditions (Ksaer) ..................................... 101
3.10.5 Cold stress coefficient (KsTr) .............................................................................................. 102
3.10.6 Calculation of crop transpiration in weed infested fields (TrW) ................................... 103
3.10.7 Soil water extraction..................................................................................................... 104
▪ Calculation procedure ....................................................................................................... 104
▪ Maximum root extraction rate (Sx) and the total extraction rate (Σ 1000Sxdz) ............... 105
▪ Calculation procedure for maximum root extraction and root distribution when root zone
expands in growing cycle........................................................................................................... 107
▪ Water extraction pattern and root distribution when root zone expansion .................... 108
is restricted ................................................................................................................................ 108
3.10.8 Feedback mechanism of transpiration on canopy development ....................................... 109

3.11 Dry above-ground biomass.......................................................................... 110

▪ Crops that do not transfer assimilates to their below-ground parts (annual crops) ........ 110
▪ Crops transferring assimilates between above and below ground parts ......................... 111
3.11.1 Normalized biomass water productivity (WP*) .................................................................. 112
▪ Normalization for atmospheric CO2 .................................................................................. 112

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 vi

 ▪ Normalization for the climate ........................................................................................... 112
▪ Classes for C3 and C4 groups............................................................................................. 112
3.11.2 WP*adjusted for CO2, products synthesized, and soil fertility .......................................... 114
▪ Adjustment of WP* for atmospheric CO2 (fCO2) ................................................................. 114
▪ Adjustment of WP* for types of products synthesized (fyield) ............................................ 122
▪ Adjustment of WP* for soil fertility (KsWP) ......................................................................... 123
▪ WP*adjusted for CO2, products synthesized, and fertility or salinity stress .................... 124
3.11.3 Dry above-ground biomass of the crop (BW) in weed infested fields ................................ 125
▪ Unlimited soil fertility ........................................................................................................ 125
▪ Limited soil fertility ............................................................................................................ 125
3.11.4 Transfer of assimilates for perennial herbaceous forage crops ......................................... 125
▪ Calibration of the process of the transfer of assimilates .................................................. 126
▪ Transfer of assimilates between above and below-ground plant parts ........................... 127
▪ Storage of assimilates below ground (storage stage) ....................................................... 129
▪ Remobilization of assimilates from below ground (remobilization stage) ....................... 130

3.12 Partition of biomass into yield part (yield formation) .............................. 133
3.12.1 Reference Harvest Index (HIo) ............................................................................................ 134
3.12.2 Building up of Harvest Index .............................................................................................. 134
▪ Building up of Harvest Index for leafy vegetable crops..................................................... 134
▪ Building up of Harvest Index for root/tuber crops ............................................................ 135
▪ Building up of Harvest Index for fruit/grain producing crops ........................................... 136
3.12.3 Adjustment of HIo for inadequate photosynthesis............................................................. 137
3.12.4 Adjustment of HIo for water stress before the start of yield formation............................ 138
3.12.5 Adjustment of HIo for failure of pollination (only for fruit/grain producing crops) ........... 141
▪ Flowering ........................................................................................................................... 141
▪ Failure of pollination ......................................................................................................... 141
3.12.6 Adjustment of HIo for water stress during yield formation................................................ 145
▪ Upward adjustment of HIo................................................................................................. 145
▪ Downward adjustment of HIo ............................................................................................ 147
▪ Combined effect on HIo ..................................................................................................... 148
3.12.7 Total effect of water and temperature stress on the Harvest Index ................................. 149
3.12.8 Crop dry yield (YW) in weed infested fields........................................................................ 151
3.12.9 Dry and Fresh yield ........................................................................................................ 151

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 vii

 3.12.10 ET or Yield water productivity (WPET) ............................................................................. 151

3.13 Schematic outline of the model operation .................................................. 153

3.14 Simulation of the effect of soil fertility stress ............................................ 154
3.14.1 Calibration of the crop response to soil fertility stress ...................................................... 154
3.14.2 Selection of a soil fertility level for simulation ................................................................... 155
3.14.3 Running a simulation .......................................................................................................... 156

3.15 Simulation of the effect of soil salinity stress ............................................. 157

3.15.1 Soil salinity stress coefficient ............................................................................................. 157
3.15.2 Calibration of the crop response to soil salinity stress ...................................................... 158
▪ Well-watered soil .............................................................................................................. 158
▪ Root zone depletion .......................................................................................................... 159
3.15.3 Simulating the effect of soil salinity on biomass production ............................................. 159
▪ Well-watered soil: ............................................................................................................. 159
▪ In presence of water-stress: .............................................................................................. 161

3.16 Simulation of the combined effect of soil fertility and soil salinity stress
................................................................................................................................ 162
References ............................................................................................................. 163

Chapter 4. Calibration guidance

Chapter 5. Training videos

Annexes
I. Crop parameters
II. Indicative values for lengths of crop development stages
III. Indicative values for soil salinity tolerance for some agriculture crops
IV. ETo Calculation procedures

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 viii

 Chapter 3.
Calculation procedures

AquaCrop is a general model, in that it is meant for a wide range of herbaceous crops,
including forage, vegetable, grain, fruit, oil, and root and tuber crops.

Chapter 3 presents the software of AquaCrop for which:

- the concepts and underlying principles are described by Steduto et al. (2009);
- the structure and algorithm are found in Raes et al. (2009), and
- the parameterization for maize (the crop on which the efforts of parameterization were
focused during the early phase of model development) are reported by Hsiao et al.
(2009).

Examples of crop development and production for specific climate and growing conditions
estimated by AquaCrop are given in a lot of papers published in peer reviewed journals. A
digital library of references to all AquaCrop publications can be found on:
[Link]

A set of training videos are posted in an ‘AquaCrop training’ channel of YouTube. The list
of videos is provided in Chapter 5 of the AquaCrop Reference Manuel. For the playlist go
the AquaCrop website of FAO: [Link]

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-1

List of principal symbols

Symbol Description Unit

B Dry (above-ground) biomass Mg ha-1
BW Crop dry (above-ground) biomass in weed infested field Mg ha-1
CC Green Canopy Cover m2 m-2
CC* Green Canopy Cover adjusted for micro advection m2 m-2
CCTOT Total canopy cover of crop and weeds m2 m-2
CCW Green crop Canopy Cover in weed infested field m2 m-2
cco Canopy size of the average seedling at 90% emergence cm2
CCo Canopy Cover at 90% emergence or after transplanting m2 m-2
CCx Maximum green Canopy Cover m2 m-2
CDC Canopy Decline Coefficient d-1 or °C-d -1
CGC Canopy Growth Coefficient d-1 or °C-d -1
CNII Curve Number for antecedent moisture class II -
CR Capillary Rise mm d-1
Dr Soil water depletion in root zone mm
DZtop Soil water depletion in top soil mm
DP Deep percolation mm d-1
E Soil evaporation mm d-1
ETOT Soil evaporation in weed infested field mm d-1
Ex Soil evaporation in Stage I (wet soil surface) mm d-1
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: dS m-1
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to
occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: dS m-1
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached
its maximum effect)
ECw Electrical conductivity of the irrigation water dS m-1
ET Evapotranspiration (soil water evaporation and crop mm d-1
transpiration)
ETo Reference crop evapotranspiration (evaporating power of mm d-1
the atmosphere)
f Adjustment factor -
fage Reduction coefficient describing the effect of ageing, d-1
nitrogen deficiency, etc. on the crop transpiration
coefficient
fsen Reduction coefficient describing the effect of canopy -
senescence on the crop transpiration coefficient
fweed Adjustment factor for canopy cover in a weed infested -
field
fyield Reduction coefficient describing the effect of the products -
synthesized during yield formation on the normalized
water productivity

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-2

FC Field Capacity
GDD Growing Degree Days °C-d
HI Harvest Index %
HIo Reference Harvest Index %
I Irrigation mm d-1
Ksat Saturated hydraulic conductivity mm d-1
KcTr Crop transpiration coefficient -
KcTr,x Crop transpiration coefficient when complete canopy -
cover (CC = 1) but prior to senescence
Ke Soil evaporation coefficient for fully wet soil surface -
Kex Soil evaporation coefficient for fully wet and non-shaded -
soil surface
Kr Evaporation reduction coefficient -
Ks Stress coefficient -
Ksaer Water stress coefficient for water logging (aeration stress) -
KsCCx Soil fertility stress coefficient for maximum Canopy -
Cover
Ksexp,f Soil fertility stress coefficient for canopy expansion -
Ksexp,w Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion -
Kspol,c Cold stress coefficient for pollination -
Kspol,h Heat stress coefficient for pollination -
Kspol,w Water stress coefficient for pollination -
Kssalt Soil salinity stress coefficient -
Kssen Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence -
Kssto Water stress coefficient for stomatal closure -
Kssto,salt Soil salinity stress coefficient for stomatal closure -
KsTr Cold stress coefficient for crop transpiration -
KsWP Soil fertility stress coefficient for crop biomass Water -
Productivity
pexp, lower Fraction of TAW depleted at which CGC becomes 0 -
pexp, upper Fraction of TAW depleted at which CGC starts to be -
reduced
ppol Fraction of TAW depleted at which pollination starts to -
fail
psen Fraction of TAW depleted at which early canopy -
senescence is triggered
psto Fraction of TAW depleted at which stomata start to close -
P Precipitation mm.d-1
PWP Permanent Wilting Point
RAW Readily Available soil Water in the root zone mm
RC Relative cover of weeds
REW Readily Evaporable Water mm
RO Surface runoff mm.d-1
S Root extraction term m3.m-3.d-1
Sx Maximum root extraction term m3.m-3.d-1

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-3

t Time GDD or d
T Air temperature °C
Tavg Average air temperature °C
Tbase Base temperature (below which crop development does °C
not progress)
Tn Daily minimum air temperature °C
Tupper Upper temperature (above which crop development no °C
longer increases with an increase in air temperature)
Tx Daily maximum air temperature °C
Tr Crop transpiration mm.d-1
TrTOT Total transpiration of crop and weeds mm.d-1
TrW Crop transpiration in weed infested field mm.d-1
Trx Maximum crop transpiration (for a well-watered crop) mm.d-1
TAW Total Available soil Water (between FC and PWP) in the mm
root zone
Wr Soil water content in the root zone expressed as an mm
equivalent depth
WP Crop biomass water productivity Mg ha-1mm-1
WP* Crop biomass water productivity normalized for ETo and Mg ha-1
air CO2 concentration
Y Dry crop yield Mg ha-1
YW Dry crop yield in weed infested field Mg ha-1
Ze,surf Evaporating soil surface layer m
Ze,top Top soil layer from which water flows to the evaporating m
surface layer
Ztop Top soil layer for determining soil water stress m
Zr Effective rooting depth m
Zrn Minimum effective rooting depth m
Zrx Maximum effective rooting depth m
z Thickness of soil compartment m
θ Volumetric soil water content m .m-3
3

air dry Soil water content when air dry m3.m-3

FC Soil water content at FC m3.m-3
PWP Soil water content at PWP m3.m-3
sat Soil water content at soil saturation m3.m-3
 Drainage coefficient -

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-4

The calculation scheme of AquaCrop
The calculation approach of AquaCrop consists of the successive simulation of (1) the
green canopy cover, (2) crop transpiration, (3) biomass production and (4) crop yield, all
for each day of the growing cycle, as previously described by Steduto et al., (2009) and
Raes et al., (2009).

atmosphere
air
rainfall
ETo temperature
CO2
(b)
GDD
CC CCpot
CCact
(a) 1
1
time
evapo- irrigation
rainfall
Zr
transpiration
surface
runoff 2 Trans-
piration
soil field capacity (f)
w ater WP*
balance (c)
wilting point

(d) 3 Biomass
capillary deep
rise percolation
(g)
HI

(e)
groundw ater table 4 Yield
Figure 1. – Calculation scheme of AquaCrop with indication of the 4 steps, and the
processes (dotted arrows) affected by water stress (a to e) and temperature stress (f
to g). CC is the green canopy cover; Zr the rooting depth; ETo the reference
evapotranspiration; WP* the normalized biomass water productivity; HI the harvest index;
and GDD the growing degree day.
Water stress: (a) slows canopy expansion, (b) accelerates canopy senescence, (c) decreases root
deepening but only if severe, (d) reduces stomatal opening and transpiration, and (e) affects harvest
index. Cold temperature stress (f) reduces crop transpiration. Hot or cold temperature stress (g)
inhibits pollination and reduces HI. AquaCrop considers also the effect of weed infestation,
soil fertility and soil salinity stress on canopy development, crop transpiration and biomass
production.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-5

1. Development of green canopy cover (CC): In AquaCrop foliage development is
expressed through green canopy cover (CC) and not via Leaf Area Index (LAI). The
green canopy cover (CC) is the fraction of the soil surface covered by the canopy.
Driven by temperature (GDD), CC increases from the canopy cover at germination to
a maximum value which can be 1 if full canopy cover is reached (100 % of the soil
surface covered by the canopy). By adjusting daily the soil water content in the soil
profile, AquaCrop keeps track of the stresses which might develop in the root zone.
Soil water stress might affect the leaf and hence canopy expansion and if severe might
trigger early canopy senescence;
2. Crop transpiration (Tr): For well-watered conditions, Tr is proportional to the
simulate CC at that day. Water stress does not only affect canopy development but
might also induce stomata closure and hence affect, also directly, crop transpiration;
3. Above-ground biomass (B): By using a normalized biomass water productivity factor
(WP*), AquaCrop calculates the daily above-ground biomass from daily transpiration.
The water productivity factor is normalized for the effect of the climatic conditions
which makes the normalized biomass water productivity (WP*) valid for diverse
locations, seasons, and CO2 concentrations;
4. Crop yield (Y): The simulated above ground biomass (B) integrates all photosynthetic
products assimilated by the crop during the growing cycle. By using a Harvest Index
(HI), which is the fraction of B that is the harvestable product, crop yield (Y) is obtained
from B. Water and temperatures stresses adjust daily the HI.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-6

3.1 The root zone as a reservoir
3.1.1 Incoming and outgoing water fluxes
In a schematic way, the root zone can be considered as a reservoir (Fig. 3.1a). By keeping
track of the incoming and outgoing water fluxes at the boundaries of the root zone, the
amount of water retained in the root zone (Wr) and the root zone depletion (Dr) can be
calculated at any moment of the season by means of a soil water balance.

evapo- irrigation (I)

transpiration rainfall (P)
(ET)
runoff (RO)

0.0

Dr: root zone depletion

Wr: stored soil water

field capacity
Dr
(mm)

(mm)
TAW

permanent Wr
wilting point

0.0
capillary (DP)
rise deep
(CR) percolation

Figure 3.1a – The root zone as a reservoir

Water is added to the soil reservoir by rainfall and irrigation. When the rainfall intensity is
too high, part of the precipitation might be lost by surface runoff and only a fraction will
infiltrate. The infiltrated water cannot always be retained in the root zone. When the root
zone is too wet, part of the soil water percolates out of the root zone and is lost as deep
percolation. Water can also be transported upward to the root zone by capillary rise from
a shallow groundwater table. Processes such as soil evaporation and crop transpiration
remove water from the reservoir.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-7

3.1.2 Stored soil water and soil water depletion
When calculating the soil water balance, the amount of water stored in a soil volume (e.g.
top soil or root zone, Fig. 3.1b) can be expressed as stored soil water (W) or as soil water
depletion (D).

Fig. 3.1b – Soil water profile (θ-z) and the top soil and root zone depicted as a
reservoir with indication of the stored water (W) and depletion (D)

▪ Stored soil water expressed as an equivalent depth

Expressing the water content in a particular soil volume as an equivalent depth is useful
when computing the soil water balance of the root zone. It makes the adding and subtracting
of gains and losses of water straightforward since the various parameters of the soil water
balance such as rain and evapotranspiration are usually expressed in terms of water depth.

The stored soil water in the root zone expressed as a depth is given by:
 Vol% gravel 
Wr = 1000  Zr 1 −  (Eq. 3.1a)
 100 
where Wr soil water content of the root zone expressed as a depth [mm];
 average volumetric water content in the fine soil fraction of the
root zone [m3(water)/m3(fine soil)];
Zr effective rooting depth [m];
Vol%gravel volume percentage of the gravel fraction in the root zone.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-8

The stored soil water in the top soil expressed as a depth is given by:
 Vol% gravel 
WZtop = 1000  top Ztop 1 −  (Eq. 3.1b)
 100 

where WZtop soil water content of the top soil expressed as a depth [mm];
θtop average volumetric water content in the fine soil fraction of the top
soil [m3(water)/m3(fine soil)];
Ztop thickness of the top soil [m];
Vol%gravel volume percentage of the gravel fraction in the top soil.

▪ Soil water depletion

Expressing the soil water content in the root zone as a shortage is useful for irrigation
planning and to assess water stresses. The soil water depletion refers to the amount of water
that is required to bring the water amount in the considered soil volume back to the
reference level which is field capacity. Field capacity is selected as the reference since it
expresses the maximum amount of water that can be retained against the gravitational
forces.

The root zone depletion is given by:

 Vol% gravel 
Dr = WrFC − Wr = 1000 ( FC −  ) Zr 1 −  (Eq. 3.1c)
 100 
where Dr root zone depletion [mm];
WrFC soil water content of the root zone at field capacity [mm]: = 1000
FC Zr (1- Vol%gravel/100);
Wr soil water content of the root zone expressed as depth [mm];
FC volumetric water content at field capacity [m3/m3(fine soil)];
 average volumetric water content in the fine fraction of the root zone
[m3(water)/m3(fine soil)].

The soil water depletion in the top soil is given by:

 Vol% gravel 
DZtop = Wtop, FC − WZtop = 1000 ( top, FC −  top ) Ztop 1 −  (Eq. 3.1d)
 100 
where DZtop soil water depletion [mm] in the top soil;
Wtop, FC soil water content of the top soil at field capacity [mm]: = 1000
top,FC Ztop (1- Vol%gravel/100);
WZtop soil water content in the top soil expressed as depth [mm];
top,FC volumetric water content at field capacity [m3/m3(fine soil)];
top average volumetric water content in the fine fraction of the top soil
[m3(water)/m3(fine soil)].

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-9

After heavy rainfall or the application of a large amount of irrigation water, the water
content in the considered soil volume can be temporarily above field capacity. This results
in negative root zone depletion (i.e. excess of water).

▪ Total Available soil Water (TAW)

The total available soil water or plant extractable water is the amount of water a crop can
theoretically extract from the fine soil fraction of the considered soil volume (Fig. 3.1b).
Since (i) the water content above field capacity cannot be retained in the soil and will be
lost by drainage, and (ii) the water content below permanent wilting point is so strongly
attached to the soil matrix that it cannot be extracted by plant roots, the Total Available
soil Water is the amount of water held in the fine soil fraction of the considered soil volume
between field capacity and permanent wilting point:
 Vol % gravel 
TAW = 1000 ( FC − WP ) Z 1 −  = WFC − WPWP (Eq. 3.1e)
 100 
where TAW total available soil water in the considered soil volume [mm];
FC volumetric water content at field capacity [m3/m3(fine soil)];
WP water content at permanent wilting point [m3/m3(fine soil)];
Z depth of the considered soil volume (e.g. top soil or root zone) [m];
WFC soil water content in the soil volume at field capacity [mm];
WPWP water content in the soil volume at permanent wilting point [mm];
Vol%gravel volume percentage of the gravel fraction in the soil volume.
At permanent wilting point the root zone depletion is equal to TAW.
W: stored soil water (mm)

0.0

field capacity

TAW
W FC
TAW
depletion (mm)
D : soil water

permanent
wilting point
W PW P
0.0

considered soil volume

(top soil or root zone)

Figure 3.1c – The soil water content in the considered soil volume at Field Capacity
(WFC) and at Permanent Wilting Point (WPWP), and the Total Available soil Water
(TAW)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-10

3.2 Stresses
Crop growth might be affected by soil water stress, air temperature stress, soil fertility
stress or soil salinity stress.

3.2.1 Stress response functions

Effects of stresses on crop growth are described by stress coefficients Ks. In essence, Ks is
a modifier of its target model parameter, and varies in value from one (no stress) to zero
(full stress). Above the upper threshold of a stress indicator, the stress is non-existent and
Ks is 1. Below the lower threshold, the effect is maximum and Ks is 0 (Fig. 3.2a).

no stress 1.0
co
n ve
x
stress coefficient

0.8

0.6
Ks

0.4 lin
ea
r
log

0.2
ist
i c

full stress 0.0

s tres s
upper lower indicator
threshold threshold

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Srel : relative stress

Figure 3.2a – The stress coefficient (Ks) for various degrees of stress and
for different shapes of the Ks curve

The relative stress level (Srel) and the shape of the Ks curve determines the magnitude of
the effect of the stress on the process between the thresholds. Srel is 0.0 at the upper
threshold and 1.0 at the lower threshold (Fig. 3.2a). The shape can be linear, convex, or
logistic.

▪ Linear shape
If a linear shape is considered, the effect of stress on the process is directly proportional
to the relative stress:

Ks = 1 − S rel (Eq. 3.2a)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-11

▪ Convex shape
Convex curves (curves outwards) make that the process is only strongly affected when the
stress becomes severe. The shape and degree of curvature of the Ks curve are described
by:
e rel shape − 1
S f

Ks = 1 − f shape (Eq. 3.2b)

e −1

where Srel (≤ 1) is the relative stress level and fshape is the shape factor. The shape factor is
positive (fshape > 0) for convex curves.

▪ Logistic shape
For the logistic shape, Ks for various Srel is given by:

Sn S x
Ks = (Eq. 3.2c)
S n + (S x − S n ) exp−r (1− Srel )

where Sn and Sx are the relative stress levels at the lower and upper threshold respectively,
and r the rate factor. Given that Ks is 0.5 midway the lower and upper threshold, the rate
factor can be obtained by solving Eq. 3.2c for Ks = 0.5 and Srel = 0.5. Since Srel is zero at
the lower threshold, a small value for Sn has to be considered. After solving Eq. 3.2c, Ks
has to be corrected for the considered small value.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-12

3.2.2 Soil water stress
▪ Soil water stress coefficients
Soil water stress affects the development of the canopy cover, the expansion of the root
zone, results in stomata closure and a reduction of crop transpiration rate, and alters the
Harvest Index. If the soil water stress is severe it can result in failure of pollination, and
can trigger early canopy senescence. The soil water stress coefficients considered by
AquaCrop and their effects on crop growth are presented in Table 3.2a.

Figure 3.2b – The water stress coefficient (Ks) for various degrees of root zone
depletion (Dr)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-13

The stress indicator for soil water stress is depletion (shortage versus field capacity) which
is expressed as a fraction (p) of TAW depleted. Water stress starts to affect the process
when the soil water depletion (in the root zone or top soil) exceeds pupper TAW. At the
lower threshold, when the depletion is equal to plower TAW, the effect of water stress is at
its full strength (Fig. 3.2b). Each of the processes affected by soil water stress has its own
threshold levels. For leaf and hence canopy growth (Ksexp,w) the lower threshold is above
PWP, whereas for stomata closure (Kssto), senescence (Kssen) and failure of pollination
(Kspol,w) the lower threshold is fixed at PWP. The shape of the Ks curve can be linear or
convex.

Since the stress response curves are defined for an evaporating power of the atmosphere
(ETo) of 5 mm/day, the upper and lower thresholds for water stress (p) needs to be adjusted
for ETo:

0  padj = p given + f adj (0.04 (5 − ET0 ) ) (log10 (10 − 9 p given ))  1 (Eq. 3.2d)

where fadj (default value = 1) is a program parameter which can be varied to increase (> 1)
or decrease (< 1) the adjustment. The log term in the equation makes the adjustment greater
when the soil is wet then when it is dry, based on the likely restriction of transpiration (and
hence less impact of evaporative demand) when the soil is dry.

Table 3.2a – Considered soil water stress coefficients and their effect on crop growth
Soil water stress Direct effect Target
coefficient model
parameter
Ksaer Reduces crop transpiration Trx
Soil water stress coefficient
for water logging (aeration
stress)
Ksexp,w Reduces canopy expansion and (depending CGC and
Soil water stress coefficient on timing and strength of the stress) might HI
for canopy expansion have a positive effect on the Harvest Index
Kspol,w Affects pollination and (depending on HIo
Soil water stress coefficient duration and strength of the stress) might
for pollination have a negative effect on the Harvest Index
Kssen Reduces green canopy cover CC
Soil water stress coefficient
for canopy senescence
Kssto Reduces crop transpiration and the root zone Trx, dZ and
Soil water stress coefficient expansion, and (depending on timing and HI
for stomatal closure strength of the stress) might have a negative
effect on the Harvest Index

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-14

▪ Determination of soil water stress
To allow a light rain to reduce the soil water stress of deep rooted crops, the root zone
depletion (Dr) is compared with the depletion in the top soil (DZtop) at each time step of the
simulation. The comparison determines which part of the soil profile is the wettest and
controls the water stress. To allow comparison between Dr and DZtop, the depletions are
relative and expressed as the fraction of TAW depleted in the root zone or in the top soil
(Fig. 3.2c):
– If Dr (expressed in fraction of TAW depleted) is smaller than DZTop,, then the root zone
is relative wetter than the top soil, and determines the water stresses. By comparing the
soil water content in the root zone (Wr) with the threshold soil water contents, the
degree of soil water stress affecting leaf expansion, inducing stomatal closure and
triggering early senescence is obtained, and the corresponding crop response can be
simulated.
– IF DZtop is smaller than Dr, then the top soil is relative wetter than the whole root zone
(Fig. 3.2c). Consequently, the soil water content in the top soil (WZtop) is considered to
determine if one or more water stresses occur and how severe they are.

Figure 3.2c – Comparison between the root zone depletion (Dr) and the depletion in
the top soil (DZtop) to determine which part of the soil profile is the wettest and
controls the water stress

The thickness of the top soil (Ztop), is a program parameter, which can be altered by the
user.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-15

3.2.3 Air temperature stress
Crop transpiration and pollination of flowers might be affected by air temperature stress.
The air temperature stress coefficients considered by AquaCrop and their effects on crop
growth are presented in Table 3.2b.

Table 3.2b – Considered air temperature stress coefficients and their effect on crop
growth
Air temperature stress Direct effect Target
coefficient model
parameter
KsTr Reduces crop transpiration KcTr,x
Cold stress coefficient for
crop transpiration
Kspol,c Affects pollination and (depending on HIo
Cold stress coefficient for duration and strength of the stress) might
pollination have a negative effect on the Harvest Index
Kspol,h Affects pollination and (depending on HIo
Heat stress coefficient for duration and strength of the stress) might
pollination have a negative effect on the Harvest Index

Stress indicators for air temperature stress are growing degrees (KsTr), minimum air
temperature (Kspol,c) or maximum air temperature (Kspol,h). If it is a cold stress, the process
is completely halted (Ks = 0) at and below the lower threshold, and not affected (Ks = 1)
at and above the upper threshold (Fig. 3.2d). For heat stress it is the other way round: below
the lower threshold of the maximum air temperature Ks is 1, and above the upper threshold
Ks becomes zero. For air temperatures stresses a logistic shape of the Ks curve is
considered.
no stress 1.00
air temperature stress coefficient

0.80

0.60
Ks

0.40

0.20

full stress 0.00

m inim um air te m pe rature (°C)
air temperature limits
process

low er limit upper limit

Figure 3.2d – The cold stress coefficient (Ks) for various air temperatures

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-16

3.2.4 Soil fertility stress
Canopy development and biomass production might be affected by soil fertility stress. The
stress coefficients considered by AquaCrop and their effects on crop growth are presented
in Table 3.2c. Next to the 3 stress coefficients (Ks), AquaCrop considers also a decline
coefficient (fCDecline) which uses the same stress indicator and is also a modifier of a model
parameter.

Table 3.2c – Considered soil fertility stress coefficients and their effect on crop growth
Soil fertility stress coefficient Direct effect Target
model
parameter
KsCCx Reduces canopy cover CCx
Stress coefficient for maximum
Canopy Cover
Ksexp,f Reduces canopy expansion CGC
Stress coefficient for canopy
expansion
KsWP Reduces biomass production WP*
Stress coefficient for Biomass
Water Productivity

fCDecline Decline of the canopy cover once the CC

Decline coefficient of canopy maximum canopy cover is reached
cover

no stress 1.0
soil fertilty stress coefficient

0.8

0.6
Ks

0.4

0.2

f ull stress 0.0

0% 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 %
soil fertiltiy stress

Figure 3.2e – The soil fertility stress coefficient (Ks) for various levels of stress, with
indication of the calibration point (square) determining the shape of the Ks curve

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-17

The stress indicator for soil fertility stress is the degree of soil fertility stress which varies
from 0 %, when soil fertility is non-limiting, to a theoretical 100 % when soil fertility stress
is so severe that crop production is no longer possible (Fig 3.2e). Between the upper and
lower limits for soil fertility, Ks varies from 1 (no stress) to 0 (full stress).

The shape of the Ks curves is determined at calibration by specifying a Ks value between

1 and 0 for the particular soil fertility stress at which the crop response is calibrated (see
Chapter 2, ‘Calibration for soil fertility’). Once a curve is calibrated, the Ks corresponding
to other degrees of soil fertility stress is obtained from the curve.

The simulation of the effect of soil fertility stress is described in section 3.14 (‘Simulation
of the effect of soil fertility stress’) of this chapter.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-18

3.2.5 Soil salinity stress
Crop production might be affected by soil salinity stress. The soil salinity stress coefficient
considered by AquaCrop and its effect is presented in Table 3.2d.

Table 3.2d – Soil salinity stress coefficient and its effect on crop production
Soil salinity stress Direct effect Target
coefficient model
parameter
Kssalt Reduces biomass production CC and
Soil salinity stress coefficient KcTr

The average electrical conductivity of saturation soil-paste extract (ECe) from the root zone
is the indicator for soil salinity stress. At the lower threshold of soil salinity (ECen) the
stress starts to affect biomass production and Kssalt becomes smaller than 1. At and above
the upper threshold for soil salinity (ECex) the stress becomes so severe that biomass
production ceases and Kssalt is zero (Fig. 3.2f). The shape of the Ks curve is linear. Values
for ECen and ECex for many agriculture crops are given by Ayers and Westcot (1985) in
the Irrigation and Drainage Paper Nr. 29 (see Annex III).

no stress 1.0 100 % full

soil salinity stress coefficient

relative biomass production

0.8 80 %
Kssalt

0.6 60 %

Brel
lin
ea
0.4
r
40 %

0.2 20 %

full stress 0.0 0% none

ECe n ECe x
e le ctrical conductivity of the saturate d s oil-pas te e xtract (dS/m )

Figure 3.2f – Soil salinity stress (Kssalt ) and relative biomass production for various
electrical conductivity of the soil-paste extract

To simulate the effect of soil salinity on biomass production (B), AquaCrop considers a set
of stress coefficients which (i) affect canopy development (similar as the effect of soil
fertility stress) and (ii) induces stomatal closure. The stress coefficients considered by

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-19

AquaCrop and their effects on crop growth are presented in Table 3.2e. Next to the 3 stress
coefficients (Ks), AquaCrop considers also a decline coefficient (fCDecline) which uses the
same stress indicator and is also a modifier of a model parameter. To consider the effect of
the concentration of the salts in the remaining soil water when the root zone dries out, the
value for Kssto,salt is further adjusted by considering the average electrical conductivity of
the soil water in the root zone (ECsw).

Table 3.2e – Considered soil salinity stress coefficients and their effect on crop growth
Soil salinity stress coefficient Direct effect Target
model
parameter
KsCCx Reduces canopy cover CCx
Stress coefficient for maximum
Canopy Cover
Ksexp,f Reduces canopy expansion CGC
Stress coefficient for canopy
expansion
Kssto,salt Reduces crop transpiration Kssto
Soil salinity stress coefficient
for stomatal closure

fCDecline Decline of the canopy cover once the CCx

Decline coefficient of canopy maximum canopy cover is reached
cover

The simulation of the effect of soil salinity stress is described in section 3.15 (‘Simulation
of the effect of soil salinity stress’) of this chapter.

The simulation of the effect of soil fertility and soil salinity stress is described in section
3.16 (‘Simulation of the effect of soil fertility and soil salinity stress’) of this chapter.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-20

3.3 Growing Degree Days
Heat units, expressed in growing degree-days (GDD), can be used in AquaCrop to describe
crop development. With this method, the duration of a process or the time required to reach
a particular stage is expressed in GDD (°C day) instead of number of days.

Growing degree days (GDD) are calculated by subtracting the base temperature (Tbase)
from the average air temperature, Tavg (Fig. 3.3):

GDD = Tavg − Tbase (Eq. 3.3a)

The base temperature (Tbase) is the temperature below which crop development does not
progress. In AquaCrop an upper threshold temperature (Tupper) is considered as well. The
upper temperature threshold specifies the temperature above which crop development no
longer increases with an increase in air temperature.

Figure 3.3 – Average temperature (Tavg), base temperature (Tbase) and

corresponding growing degree-days (GDD)

McMaster and Wilhelm (1997) present two methods for calculating Tavg in Eq. 3.3a. The
authors report that Method 1 predominates among researchers and practitioners involved
with small grain cereals such as wheat and barley. Method 2 is the most commonly used in
calculating GDD for corn, but it is used for other crops as well. In AquaCrop a 3rd method
is added.

3.3.1 Method 1
The average air temperature (Tavg) is given by:

Tavg =
(Tx + Tn ) (Eq. 3.3b)
2

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-21

where Tx is the daily maximum air temperature and Tn the daily minimum air temperature.
Once Tavg is calculated, it is checked if the average air temperature is between Tbase and
Tupper. If Tavg is less than Tbase, then Tavg is taken as Tbase (resulting in 0 °C day for that day).
If Tavg is greater than Tupper, then Tavg is taken equal to Tupper and the growing degrees for
that day are at its maximum (Tupper - Tbase).

3.3.2 Method 2
In this method the comparison to Tbase and Tupper occurs before the calculation of the
average temperature. Tn and Tx are adjusted if they drop below Tbase or exceed Tupper before
Tavg is calculated. The average temperature is given by:

Tavg =
(T x
*
+ Tn* ) (Eq. 3.3c)
2
where Tx* and Tn* are the adjusted maximum and/or minimum air temperatures. The
following rules apply:
- Tx* is the maximum air temperature (Tx* = Tx)
If Tx is greater than Tupper, then Tx* = Tupper,
If Tx is smaller than Tbase, then Tx* = Tbase
- Tn* is the minimum air temperature (Tn* = Tn)
If Tn is greater than Tupper, then Tn* = Tupper,
If Tn is smaller than Tbase, then Tn* = Tbase

3.3.3 Method 3
As in method 2, the comparison to Tbase and Tupper occurs before the calculation of the
average temperature. However the check is only on the maximum air temperature. The
average temperature is given by:

Tavg =
(T
x
*
+ Tn ) (Eq. 3.3d)
2
where Tx* is the adjusted maximum air temperature and Tn the minimum air temperature.
The following rules apply:
- Tx* is the maximum air temperature (Tx* = Tx)
If Tx is greater than Tupper, then Tx* = Tupper,
If Tx is smaller than Tbase, then Tx* = Tbase
- Tn is not adjusted. However if Tn exceeds Tupper, Tn will be set equal to Tupper.

Once Tavg is calculated, it is checked if the average air temperature is above the base
temperature. If Tavg is less than Tbase, then Tavg is taken as Tbase (resulting in 0 °C day on
that day).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-22

3.4 Green canopy cover for optimal conditions

3.4.1 Green canopy cover throughout the crop cycle

The development and senescence of the green canopy under optimal conditions (Fig 3.4a)
is described by four parameters:
- CCo : initial canopy cover at the time of 90% crop emergence [fraction or percentage
ground cover]. The initial canopy cover is the product of plant density and the size of
the canopy cover per seedling;
- CGC : canopy growth coefficient [fraction or percentage ground cover increase per day
or growing degree day];
- CCx : maximum canopy cover for that plant density under optimal conditions [fraction
or percentage ground cover];
- CDC: canopy decline coefficient [fraction or percentage ground cover decline per day
or growing degree day];
and the moment when green canopy senescence is triggered (i.e. the start of canopy
senescence counting from sowing or transplanting).

CCo CCx
green canopy cover (CC)

CGC CDC

time to full canopy time

start of canopy senescence
time to maturity

Figure 3.4a – Variation of green canopy cover

throughout the growing cycle under non-stress conditions

CCo, CGC and CCx determine the time required to reach maximum canopy cover. If CCo
and CGC are large, the maximum canopy (CCx) is reached quickly. If crop development
starts with a small CCo, the period to reach maximum canopy cover will be longer. The

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-23

canopy decline coefficient CDC determines the rate of the green canopy decline in the late
season. Often crops will be mature and be ready to harvest before the full canopy decline
is achieved.

1.0
CC = CC x
green canopy cover (CC)

0.8

0.6 Eq. 2
CC = 0.5 CC x
0.4

0.2 Eq. 1

CC = CC o
0.0
sowing time (day)
mid
initial crop development season
stage stage
CC = 0.10 CC = 0.98 CC x
time required to reach full canopy

Figure 3.4b – Schematic representation of canopy development during

the exponential growth (Eq. 1) and the exponential decay (Eq. 2) stages

3.4.2 Canopy development

Canopy development (Figure 3.4b) is simulated by two equations:
▪ Equation 1 (exponential growth) is valid when CC ≤ CCx/2

CC = CC o et CGC (Eq.3.4a)

▪ Equation 2 (exponential decay) is valid when CC > CCx/2

CC = CCx − 0.25
(CCx )2 e −t CGC (Eq. 3.4b)
CCo

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-24

where CC canopy cover at time t [fraction ground cover];
CCo initial canopy size at t=0 [fraction ground cover];
CCx maximum canopy cover [fraction ground cover];
CGC canopy growth coefficient [increase of fraction ground cover per day or
growing degree day];
t time [day or growing degree day].

3.4.3 Germination and initial canopy cover at 90% crop emergence

▪ The initial canopy cover at germination
The initial canopy cover at germination is determined by the sowing or planting density.
CCo is estimated from the sowing or planting density (plants per hectare) and the canopy
cover of the seedling (cm2). Options are available to estimate the planting density from
sowing rate and approximate germination rate, or from plant spacing.

▪ Required soil water content for triggering germination

To trigger germination during a simulation run, the soil water content in the top soil needs
to be above a threshold value. The threshold value for the soil water content is expressed
as a fraction of TAW and is a program parameter. The top soil considered at germination
is the effective rooting depth at planting (Zn) and refers to the soil depth from which the
germinating seed can extract water (see 3.6.1 – Effective rooting depth at planting).

▪ Delayed germination
When the soil water content in the top soil is below the threshold at the moment of the user
specified or generated sowing date, germination is not simulated. The germination is
delayed, as long as the soil water content in the top soil remains below the threshold. During
the period of delayed germination, the time advances and the number of delayed days is
tracked.

When, as a result of rain and/or irrigation, the soil water content raises above the threshold,
the crop will germinate and AquaCrop (Fig. 3.4b/2):
(i) shifts the start of the growing cycle with the number of delayed days, but also
adjusts the length of the growing cycle to the thermal regime of the shifted growing
cycle. If due to the delayed germination, part of the crop development ends up in a
warmer/cooler period than before, the growing cycle becomes shorter/longer than
previously determined, and
(ii) extends the simulation period so that its end coincides with the adjusted date of
maturity.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-25

Figure 3.4b/2 – Adjustment of growing cycle to the required growing degree-days to
reach maturity and expansion of the simulation period provoked by a delayed
germination in AquaCrop.

3.4.4 Maximum canopy cover (CCx)

For no stress conditions, the canopy cover will reach the maximum canopy cover, CCx. For
optimal conditions CCx is determined by crop species and plant density.

3.4.5 Green canopy cover decline

The decline in green crop canopy is described by:

  CC
3.33 CDC
t 

CC = CC x 1 − 0.05 e x + 2.29 − 1
   (Eq. 3.4c)
 

where CC canopy cover at time t [fraction ground cover];

CCx maximum canopy cover at the start of senescence (t=0) [fraction ground
cover];
CDC canopy decline coefficient [day-1 or growing degree day-1];
t time [days or growing degree days].

The Canopy Decline Coefficient (CDC) is a measure for the speed of decline of the green
canopy once it is triggered. A large CDC results in a steep decline of the canopy, while the
canopy senescence will be more gradually by selecting a smaller CDC (Fig. 3.4c).

The constants in the numerator and denominator of the exponent in Eq. 3.4c, makes the
simulation of duration of senescence less divergent for different CCx (Fig. 3.4d).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-26

 1.0

green canopy cover (CC)

0.8
CD
0.6 C
=
0.0

0.0
0.4 50

75
0.10
0.150
0.200
0.2

0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
time (days)

Figure 3.4c – Decline of green canopy cover during senescence for various canopy
decline coefficients (CDC) as described by Eq. 3.4c. All lines have initial green
canopy cover at 0.9 and starting time at 0

100.0
50.0
CC at time of senescence (CCx)

25.0

10.0
log scale

5.0

1.0

0.1
0 20 40 60 80 100
relative time (%)

Figure 3.4d – Relative time for the canopy to reach zero%, for various CCx at the
start of senescence (for CDC = 0.004 per GDD)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-27

3.4.6 Green canopy cover for perennial herbaceous forage crops
▪ Green canopy cover
For the planting/sowing year (1st season), the development and senescence of the green
canopy cover under optimal conditions is the same as for an annual crop (Fig. 3.4a). For a
non-planting/sowing year (not 1st season), the canopy starts as regrowth (Fig. 3.4d/2).

Figure 3.4d/2 – Canopy development for herbaceous forage crops in a 1st

(planting/sowing year) and not a 1st season (non-planting/sowing year).

Procedures have been worked out to guarantee that the length of the season in any year
remain between the (fixed or generated) start and end dates of the season. It consisted in
stretching the length of the mid-season in a non-planting/sowing year, so that the time to
reach senescence and crop maturity remains identical for a ‘1st’ and a ‘not 1st season’ (Fig.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-28

3.4d/2). The mid-season starts when the maximum canopy cover (CCx) is reached till the
start of the natural canopy senescence at the end of the season.

The time ‘t0’ in Figure 3.4d/2, is the time at which the crop germinates (in case of sowing)
or recovers (in case of transplanting) in the 1st season (planting/sowing year). For a ‘not 1st
season’, t0 is still required to simulate the canopy development at the 1st day of regrowth

In AquaCrop, canopy development is simulated by two equations:

- Equation 1 (exponential growth) is valid when CC ≤ CCx/2

CC = CC o et CGC (Eq.3.4a)

- Equation 2 (exponential decay) is valid when CC > CCx/2

CC = CCx − 0.25
(CCx )2 e −t CGC (Eq. 3.4b)
CCo

For a ‘not 1st season’ (non-planting/sowing year),

the time t (days or growing degree days) in
equations 1 and 2 needs to be increased with the
time required to reach CCini (at the 1st day of
regrowth) starting from CCo. This so called elapsed
time (time to reach CCini) is given by:
If CCini ≤ CCx/2 (exponential growth):
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑛𝑖
𝑙𝑛( )
𝐶𝐶0
𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 = (Eq. 3.4c/1)
𝐶𝐺𝐶

If CCini > CCx/2 (exponential decay):

(𝐶𝐶𝑥 −𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑛𝑖 ) 𝐶𝐶0
𝑙𝑛( )
0.25 𝐶𝐶2
𝑥
𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 = − (Eq. 3.4c/2)
𝐶𝐺𝐶

CCini is the canopy cover at the start of regrowth, and given by the plant density (at
planting/sowing year) and the size of the individual plant (cm²) when regrowth starts
(ccini). In the case of regrowth, ccini  cc0.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-29

▪ Simulation of the natural self-thinning of the plant population over the
seasons
The initial plant population of perennials progressively self-thins over the years. In
AquaCrop this natural self-thinning (induced by climatic factors such as killing frost) is
specified in the crop file. The natural self-thinning of the plant population over the years is
described by 2 crop parameter (Table 3.4d/1).

Table 3.4d/1 – Crop parameters describing the natural self-thinning

Symbol Description Type
ny The number of years at which the maximum canopy Dependent on
cover (CCx) declines to 90% of its initial value of the environment
1st year and/or
kn Shape factor describing the decline of the maximum management
canopy cover (CCx) over the years

Figure 3.4d/3 – The correction factor fCCx (Eq. 3.4c/3) adjusting the maximum
canopy cover (line 1) and the correction factor fCCo (Eq. 3.4c/4) adjusting the
minimum canopy cover (line 2) for the successive years with ny = 7 years and kn =
0.1. The arched area gives the range for kn (from 0.05 at the top to 0.80 at the
bottom of the area).

The canopy development over the successive years (with nx = 7 years and kn = 0.1) as
simulated by AquaCrop is plotted in Figure 3.4d/4. To maintain high yielding stands, re-
establishment of the stand might be required after 6 to 7 years.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-30

 Season Canopy cover

10

15

Figure 3.4d/4 – Reduction of canopy cover (CC) of perennial herbaceous forage

crops in various seasons, due to the natural self-thinning of the plant population as
simulated by AquaCrop (with ny = 7 years and kn = 0.45).

The natural self-thinning results in a gradual decrease of the maximum canopy cover (CCx)
that can be reached without water stress over the years. Since initially the self-thinning is
compensated by an increase in the number of shoots per plant, the decrease of CCx does
not decrease from the first year, but becomes only visible in later years when the plant
population becomes smaller (Fig. 3.4d/3). The correction factor to adjust CCx for year i is
given by:
 (n − 1) 
f CCx ,i = 0.9 + 0.1 1 − k n i

 ( )n y − 1 

(Eq. 3.4c/3)

where ni is the year number (from 1 to ny), and ny the number of years at which CCx declines
to 90% of its initial value of the 1st year. Since the decline of the initial canopy cover (CCo)
is directly proportional to the natural self-thinning, its correction factor decreases linear in
time (Fig. 3.4d/3) and is given by:
n −1
fCCo ,i = 1 − i (Eq. 3.4c/4)
no − 1
where ni is the year number (from 1 to ny) and no the year where CCx and CCo both becomes
zero:
( )
no = 1 + n y − 1 10 kn (Eq. 3.4c/5)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-31

The number of years (ny) at which the maximum canopy cover (CCx) declines to 90% of
its initial value of the 1st year, is a crop parameter which is not conservative but mainly
depends on the environment (climate). Its range is set from 3 to a maximum of 127 years.
If not relevant, as for climates where the conditions in dormant season do not result in
natural self-thinning and for non-perennial crops, the self-thinning can be switches off.
The shape factor (kn) can vary between 0.05 (decline becomes only important in years close
to ny) to a maximum of 0.80 (decline approaches a linear decrease and is already significant
from the 2nd year onwards).

▪ Multiple harvests
For crops that are cut several times per season, AquaCrop simulates regrowth after each
cut (Fig. 3.4d/5)

Figure 3.4d/5 – Simulated regrowth after cuts in the season

The canopy cover after cutting (CCini), and the generation or timing of the harvest events
are specified in the field management file. By considering the CCini from the input in the
field management file, the development of the canopy cover is simulated after each cut
(Equation 1 and 2). Soil water, soil fertility, soil salinity stress may slow down the canopy
development (see 3.5 “Green canopy cover for stress conditions”).

▪ Transfer of assimilates
Perennial herbaceous forage crops transfer a considerable fraction of the assimilates to their
below-ground parts after mid-season (Fig. 3.4d/6). At the start of the next season, a fraction
of the stored assimilates are remobilized by transferring them from the below-ground parts
to the above-ground parts of the crop (see Section 3.11.4 “Transfer of assimilates for
perennial herbaceous forage crops”).

Figure 3.4d/6 – Mobilization and storage stage during which assimilates are
transferred between the above and below ground parts of the crop

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-32

3.4.7 Green canopy in weed infested fields

▪ Annual crops
In the presence of unlimited soil fertility, the total canopy cover of crop and weeds (CCTOT)
can be larger than the crop canopy cover in weed free conditions (CCWF) especially when
weeds not only suppress the crop but also expand in the free space between the individual
plants (Fig. 3.4e).

Figure 3.4e – Total canopy cover of crop and weeds (CCTOT), crop canopy cover
under weed-free conditions (CCWF – reference) and crop canopy cover in a weed
infested field (CCW), with indication of the adjustment factor for canopy expansion
(fweed) and the relative cover of the weeds (RC).

CCTOT is simulated by multiplying the initial (CCoWF) and maximum crop canopy cover
(CCxWF) for weed-free conditions, with an adjustment factor fweed:
CCo TOT = f weed CCoWF (Eq. 3.4d)
CCx TOT = f weed CCxWF (Eq. 3.4e)
where CCoTOT and CCxTOT are respectively the total initial and total maximum canopy
cover of crop and weeds. The adjustment factor for canopy cover in a weed infested field
(fweed) is given by:

 1   e f shape RC − 1  1
f weed = 1 − 1 −   f  
 e shape − 1  (Eq. 3.4f)
 CCxWF    CCxWF
where CCxWF (fraction) is the maximum crop canopy cover under weed-free conditions,
RC the relative cover of weeds (fraction) and fshape a shape factor (Fig. 3.4f) expressing the
expansion of the canopy cover due to weed infestation. Given that CCTOT cannot exceed 1,
the maximum value of fweed is (1/CCxWF).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-33

In AquaCrop weed infestation is expressed by the relative cover of weeds (RC), which is
the ratio between the ground area covered by leaves of weeds and the total canopy cover
of weeds and crop:
WC WC
RC = = (Eq. 3.4g)
WC + CCW CCTOT
where WC (m2/m2) is the area covered by weeds per unit ground area, CCW (m2/m2) the
area covered by the crop canopy per unit ground area in the weed infested field, and CCTOT
(m2/m2) the total green canopy cover of crop and weeds per unit ground area.

1
10
=-
Maximum total canopy cover

e
ap
fsh

0.95
(crop and weeds)

)
ult

fshape = + 100
fa
(de
0.9 0 .01
=-
pe
f sha
0.85
10
+
=
e
ap
f sh
0.8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
relative w eed cover (RC)
Figure 3.4f – Maximum total canopy cover of weeds and crop at mid-season
(CCx,TOT) for different relative weed covers (RC) and different shape factors (fshape)
for a field that in weed-free conditions would have a CCx of 0.8.

To assure that the length of the crop cycle is not affected, the Canopy Decline Coefficient
(CDC) needs to be adjusted as well:

CDCTOT = CDCWF
(CCxTOT + 2.29) (Eq. 3.4h)
(CCxWF + 2.29)
where CDCWF is the canopy decline coefficient under weed-free conditions.

The crop canopy development in the weed-infested field (CCW) can be derived at any time
from CCTOT (Fig. 3.4e) by considering the relative cover of weeds (RC):
CCW = CCTOT (1 − RC ) (Eq. 3.4i)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-34

▪ Perennial herbaceous forage crops
As a result of natural self-thinning of perennial herbaceous forage crops in the successive
seasons, the weed cover might increase as weeds take over the empty spots in the field by
unchanged weed management. This correction is automatically applied in AquaCrop when
running a simulation. At run time, AquaCrop uses therefore the particular percentage of
open spots taken over by weeds, as specified in the field management files (Fig. 3.4f/2).

Figure 3.4f/2 – Total canopy cover of crop and weeds (CCTOT) of a perennial
herbaceous forage crop in year 7, where the open spots (as a result of natural self-
thinning) are taken over by weeds by (A) 0 % and (B) 100 %. In both cases the crop
canopy cover under weed-free conditions (CCWF – bold line for reference at year 7)
and crop canopy cover in a weed infested field (CCW) are identical.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-35

3.5 Green canopy cover for stress conditions
The effects of stress on canopy development are manifested through series of stress
coefficients. Stress coefficients (Ks) are indicators of the relative intensity of the effect. In
essence, Ks is a modifier of its target model parameter, and varies in value from one, when
the effect is non-existent, to zero when the effect is maximum (see 3.2 Stresses).
Soil water, soil fertility and soil salinity stress decrease canopy expansion. As a result, the
expected maximum canopy cover CCx might not be achieved or achieved much later in the
season:
- The adjustment on canopy expansion is simulated by multiplying the target model
parameter CGC (canopy growth coefficient) with the corresponding stress coefficient
(Ks < 1);
- Soil fertility and soil salinity stress do not only decrease the growing capacity of the
crop but affect as well the maximum canopy that can be reached (CCx) and result in a
steady decline of the canopy cover once CCx is reached at mid-season. The effect of
stresses on green canopy cover (CC) is schematically presented in Fig. 3.5a;
- Under severe water stress, the canopy development might be brought to a standstill and
canopy senescence might even be triggered;
- When the crop transpiration is fully inhibited CC no longer can increase;
- Weed infestation affects the crop canopy cover.

Figure 3.5a – Stresses affecting green canopy cover (CC)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-36

3.5.1 Period of potential vegetative growth
The achievement of the maximum canopy cover CCx is delayed when stresses affect the
canopy growth coefficient CGC and reduce leaf growth. If the period of potential
vegetative growth is too short, CCx might not be achieved at all.

The period of potential vegetative growth depends on how determinant is the crop’s growth
habit. For determinant crops, once peak flowering is passed and fruits or grain begin to fill,
CC has reached its maximum regardless of whether the CC at that time has or has not been
reduced by stress. For indeterminant crops the canopy development stage is stretched till
canopy senescence (Fig. 3.5b).

Figure 3.5b – Period of potential vegetative growth

for (1) determinant crops and (2) indeterminant crops

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-37

3.5.2 Adjustment of canopy growth coefficient due to water stress
To allow light rain to reduce the soil water stress of deep rooted crops, the root zone
depletion is continuously compared with the depletion in the top in the simulation (Fig.
3.2c). The comparison determines which part of the soil profile is the wettest and controls
the water stress (see section 3.2.2 ‘Soil water stress’).

▪ Protection at germination:
When the crop germinates, the expansion rate of the canopy cover (CC) of the seedling is
not limited by water stress. Thanks to nutrients available in the seed, it is assumed that the
expansion of the canopy cover is its maximum rate (given by the Canopy Growth
Coefficient, CGC). Any reduction of leaf expansion due to water stress, are disregarded till
CC is 25% above the initial canopy cover (i.e. CC > 1.25 CCo).

▪ After germination:
Once CC is above 1.25 of CCo, the protection of the germinating seedling is switched off,
and the leaf growth by area expansion and therefore canopy development is sensitive to
water stress. To simulate the reduction in leaf growth as a result of water stress, the crop
growth coefficient (CGC) is adjusted for the stress effect by multiplying it with the water
stress coefficient for leaf expansion growth (Ksexp,w):
CGC adj = Ks exp,w CGC (Eq. 3.5a)

where Ksexp,w water stress coefficient for leaf expansion growth;

CGC CGC for optimal conditions [fraction or percentage ground cover
increase per day or growing degree day];
CGCadj CGC adjusted for water stress [fraction or percentage ground cover
increase per day or growing degree day].
Between the upper and lower threshold of the considered soil volume (top soil or root
zone), the water stress coefficient decreases gradually from one to zero (Fig 3.5c). Ksexp,w
is zero when depletion is at or exceeds its lower threshold. Canopy development is reduced
as soon as the depletion (D) in the considered soil volume exceeds the upper threshold:
Dexp, upper = pexp, upper TAW (Eq.3.5b)

where Dexp,upper upper threshold expressed as depletion [mm];

pexp,upper fraction of TAW that can be depleted from the considered soil
volume before leaf expansion starts to be limited;
TAW total available soil water in the considered soil volume [mm].

When the depletion (D) reaches its lower limit, leaf expansion is completely halted:
Dexp, lower = pexp, lower TAW (Eq.3.5c)

where Dexp,lower lower threshold expressed as depletion [mm];

pexp,lower depletion fraction of TAW at which there is no longer any leaf
expansion growth.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-38

 W: stored soil water
(mm)
0.0
(p exp,upper) TAW
field capacity
(p exp,lower) TAW

depletion (mm)
threshold

D : soil water
TAW
permanent
wilting point

0.0
conside re d soil v olume
(top soil or root zone)

Figure 3.5c – The upper and lower threshold for soil water depletion in the
considered soil volume affecting leaf growth by area expansion

Between the upper and lower thresholds the shape of the Ks curve determines the
magnitude of the stress (Fig. 3.5d). In AquaCrop the shape of the Ks curve can be selected
as linear or concave (see 3.2 Stresses).

stress coefficient for

high ETo leaf expansion growth
low ETo

no stress 1.0

0.8
water stress coefficient
Ksexp,w

0.6

0.4

0.2

D
full stress 0.0
pexp,upper pexp,lower perm anent
field capacity TAW w ilting point

Figure 3.5d – Water stress coefficient for leaf expansion growth (Ksexp,w)
for various degrees of depletion (D) in the considered soil volume

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-39

When water stress reduces leaf growth, the expected maximum canopy cover CCx might
not be achieved or achieved only much later in the season. Therefore the program will
stretch the canopy development to the time when CCx can be reached with the adjusted
CGC. Once CCx is reached, it is assumed in the model that reduced leaf growth has virtually
no direct effect on canopy cover anymore (and consequently on crop transpiration, soil
evaporation and biomass production).

3.5.3 Early canopy senescence under severe water stress conditions

To allow light rain to reduce the soil water stress of deep rooted crops, the root zone
depletion is compared with the depletion in the top soil at each time of the simulation (Fig.
3.2c). The comparison determines which part of the soil profile is the wettest and controls
the water stress (see section 3.2.2 ‘Soil water stress’).

▪ Protection at germination:
Any inducing of early senescence due to water stress, are disregarded when the crop
germinates. The protection is effective till CC is 25% above the initial canopy cover (i.e.
CC > 1.25 CCo).

▪ After germination:
Once CC is above 1.25 of CCo, the protection of the germinating seedling is switched off.
Under severe water stress conditions, canopy senescence will be triggered. Early canopy
senescence will occur as soon as depletion (D) in the considered soil volume exceeds the
upper threshold:
Dsen , upper = psen TAW (Eq.3.5d)

where Dsen upper threshold expressed as depletion [mm];

psen fraction of TAW that can be depleted from the considered soil
volume before canopy senescence is triggered;
TAW total available soil water in the considered soil volume [mm].

Once the depletion in the considered soil volume reaches the lower limit (which is
permanent wilting point):
Dsen , lower = TAW (Eq. 3.5e)

the canopy decline is at full speed. The upper and lower threshold for the soil water
depletion are plotted in Figure 3.5e. Between the upper and lower threshold the rate of
canopy decline (CDC), which simulates the early canopy senescence, is adjusted to the
degree of water stress.
The canopy decline will be very small when water stress is limited, but increases with
larger water stresses. This is simulated by adjusting the canopy decline coefficient with the
water stress coefficient for senescence (Kssen). To guarantee a fast enough decline at strong
depletion, the 8th power of Kssen is considered:
(
CDCadj = 1− Ks sen
8
)
CDC (Eq. 3.5f)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-40

where CDC reference canopy decline coefficient;
Kssen water stress coefficient for early canopy senescence.

W: stored soil water 0.0

(mm)
field capacity
psen TAW

TAW
TAW

depletion (mm)
D : soil water
permanent
wilting point

0.0
considered soil volume
(top soil or root zone)

Figure 3.5e – The upper and lower threshold for soil water depletion in the
considered soil volume affecting early canopy senescence

stress coefficient for

high ETo canopy senescence
low ETo

no stress 1.0

0.8
water stress coefficient

0.6
Kssen

0.4

0.2

D
full stress 0.0
psen psen,lower
field capacity TAW permanent w ilting point

Figure 3.5f – Water stress coefficient for early canopy senescence (Kssen)
for various degrees of depletion (D) in the considered soil volume

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-41

Between the upper and lower thresholds the shape of the Ks curve determines the
magnitude of the stress (Fig. 3.5f). In AquaCrop the shape of the Ks curve can be selected
as linear or concave (see 3.2 Stresses).

A small amount of rain or a slight expansion of the root zone in a wet subsoil, might reduce
the root zone depletion above Drsen,upper and de-activate as such the canopy senescence. To
avoid such an overreaction of the program, psen is reduced with a few percentages (β) once
early canopy senescence is triggered:

  
psen , adj = psen 1 −  (Eq. 3.5g)
 100 

β is a program parameter, and its value can vary between 0 % (no adjustment) to 25 %.

▪ Plant recovery upon rewatering:

Once early canopy senescence is triggered, and in the absence of rain and/or irrigation
during senescence, the green canopy will continue to decline. Once CC becomes zero, the
crop is permanently wilted, and can no longer recover upon rewatering. Since the moment
of permanent wilting of the crop is uncertain, AquaCrop offers the option to specify a
dormant period. During the dormant period it is assumed that the crop is not yet
permanently wilted, and CC remains above zero to allow the simulation of canopy
expansion as soon as sufficient water becomes available for plant recovery. Since the
dormant period is expressed as a sum of daily ETo, its length (Ldormant) is determined by
the weather conditions. Hot dry weather shortens the dormant period, while cool weather
lengthens the period.

During the dormant period CC gradually decreases from CCdormant (fixed at 0.05 m²/m²) to
CCo (Eq. 3.5g/2). If CCo is greater than 5 % soil cover, CC remains at CCo during the
whole of the dormant period:

IF CCo < CCdormant

1−∑ 𝐸𝑇𝑜𝑖
𝐶𝐶𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶𝑜 + (𝐿 ) (𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑡 − 𝐶𝐶𝑜) (Eq. 3.5g/2)
𝑑𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑡

where CCi the green canopy cover at day i during the dormant period (m²/m²)
CCo canopy cover at 90% emergence or after transplanting (m²/m²)
EToi sum of daily ETo during the dormant period at day i (mm)
Ldormant length of the dormant period expressed as a sum of daily ETo (mm)

If at the end of the dormant period, the crop wasn’t able to recover, CC drops to zero and
the crop is considered as permanently wilted (Fig. 3.5f/2).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-42

 Figure 3.5f/2 – Green canopy decline during early senescence (1) in the absence of
rewatering and (2) green canopy expansion when rewatering occurs during the
dormant period

Once regrowth is activated, the ageing of the canopy (inducing a progressive though small
reduction in crop transpiration and photosynthetic capacity) is reset to zero.

Although the plant will survive upon rewatering during the dormant period, regrowth can
only occur during the period of potential vegetative growth (see 3.5.1 ‘Period of potential
growth’). For determinant crops, once peak flowering is passed and fruits or grains begin
to fill, CC can no longer increase. For indeterminant crops the canopy development stage
is stretched till canopy senescence.

3.5.4 Canopy development when transpiration is inhibited

Severe water stress in the considered soil volume, salinity stress, deficient aeration
conditions in the root zone, and cold stress will affect crop transpiration (see 3.10 ‘Crop
transpiration’). When the transpiration rate plunges to zero as a result of prolonged water
logging, the absence of an evaporative demand, when permanent wilting point is reached,
when the soil salinity exceeds the upper thresholds, or cold stress blocks transpiration, the
development of the canopy will be brought to a standstill as a result of the feedback
mechanism of transpiration on canopy development.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-43

3.5.5 Canopy development for soil fertility or soil salinity stress
The simulation of the effect of soil fertility stress and soil salinity stress are described in
sections 3.14, 3.15 and 3.16.

Limited soil fertility or soil salinity stress decreases the growing capacity of the crop (CGC)
as well as the maximum canopy cover (CCx) that can be reached at mid-season. The
adjustments of CGC and CCx for soil fertility/salinity stress are given by:
CGC adj = Ks exp, f CGC (Eq. 3.5h)

CC x , adj = KsCCx CC x (Eq. 3.5i)

where CGC and CCx are the canopy growth coefficient (fraction or percentage per day)
and the maximum canopy cover (fraction or percentage) in the absence of soil fertility or
soil salinity stress, and Ksexp,f and KsCCx the stress coefficients.

For non-limiting soil fertility (i.e. soil fertility stress is zero) and in the absence of soil
salinity stress the stress coefficients are 1. When the soil fertility/salinity stress is complete,
crop growth is no longer possible and the Ks coefficients reach their theoretical minimum
of zero. Between the upper and lower limits the Ks coefficients vary between 1 and 0 (Fig.
3.5g).

no stress 1.0

0.8
stress coefficient

0.6
Ks

0.4

0.2

full stress 0.0

0% 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 %
soil fertiltiy/salinity stress

Figure 3.5g – Soil fertility stress coefficient for various soil fertility/salinity stresses
(full line) with indication of the Ks and soil fertility/salinity stress used for
calibration (square)

The shape of the Ks curves can be convex, linear or concave and may differ between the 2
Ks curves. The shape of each of the curves is determined at calibration by specifying a
value between 1 and 0 for Ksexp,f and KsCCx for the particular soil fertility and soil salinity
stress at which the crop response is calibrated (see Chapter 2, ‘Calibration for soil fertility’
and ‘Calibration for soil salinity stress’).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-44

Due to the fertility/salinity stress in the soil, the canopy cover (CC) will steadily decline
once CCx is reached at mid-season (Fig. 3.5h). The average daily decline of the canopy
cover is given by fCDecline (fraction per day). Since the decline becomes stronger when time
advances, the adjustment for the Canopy Cover between the time when full canopy cover
is reached (tfull canopy) and the start of canopy senescence at late season (tsen), is simulated
by:

CCadj = CC x , adj − f CDecline

(t − tfull canopy )
2
(Eq. 3.5j)
(t − t
sen full canopy )
where t is the time (days or growing degree days) after full canopy is reached.

In the late season (between the start of canopy senescence and maturity), the declines
continue and is given by Eq. 3.5j. However, since during this period also the natural
senescence kicks in, the green canopy decline is also described by Eq. 3.4c (see 3.4.5
‘Green canopy cover decline’). The CC considered in the simulation during the late season
is the smallest given by one of the two equations.

Figure 3.5h – Canopy cover in the absence (light area) and in the presence (dark
area) of soil fertility/salinity stress

The calibration for the average daily decline of the canopy cover (fCDecline) follows the same
approach as for Ksexp,f and KsCCx. In the absence of soil fertility or soil salinity stress the
decline is zero (see Chapter 2, ‘Calibration for soil fertility stress’ and ‘Calibration for soil
salinity stress’). When the stress is complete (100%), a maximum decline of 1 % per day
is assumed. Between the upper and lower limits fCDecline varies between 0 and 1 % per day.

The values for KsCCx, Ksexp,f and fCDecline are determined by the most important stress (soil
fertility or soil salinity stress) at that moment (see section 3.16 ‘Simulation of the combined
effect of soil fertility and soil salinity stress’).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-45

3.5.6 Total canopy cover for stress conditions in weed infested fields
In AquaCrop weed infestation is expressed by the relative cover of weeds (RC), which is
the ratio between the ground area covered by leaves of weeds and the total canopy cover
of weeds and crop (Eq. 3.4g). It is thereby assumed:
- that weeds and crop are equally sensitive to water, temperature, salinity and fertility
stress. This might be justified since a difference in sensitivity between weeds and crop
will be reflected by a difference in relative cover of weeds (RC). As such, RC also
reflects indirectly the differences in sensitivity to stresses of crop and weeds;
- that weeds and crop have the same growth cycle. This might be justified since weeds
already in the field at sowing will be most likely removed during land preparation.
Weeds germinating much later than the crop will hardly affect RC during the crop cycle
and their competition for the resources will be limited;
- that weeds and crop have a similar root system and soil water extraction. This might be
justified since a difference in root system and water extraction will be reflected by a
difference in relative cover of weeds (RC). As such, the RC also reflect indirectly the
differences in root system and water extraction of crop and weeds.

In the absence of soil fertility stress and soil salinity stress, the described adjustment of the
canopy growth coefficient (section 3.5.2) and early canopy senescence (section 3.5.3)
under water stress conditions remain valid for weed infested fields. It is however required
to replace CCo, CCx and CDC by their corresponding values in weed infested fields
CCoTOT, CCxTOT and CDCTOT.

In case of limited soil fertility or soil salinity stress, CCTOT is entirely determined by the
available soil nutrients or the presence of salts in the absence of water stress (Fig. 3.5i). As
such the expansion of CC by fweed for unlimited soil fertility and the absence of salinity
stress cannot be considered. Given that weeds and crop are assumed to be equally sensitive
to water, temperature, salinity and fertility stress, CCTOT will be the same as the (limited)
crop canopy cover under weed-free conditions (CCWF). The adjustments of CCWF to soil
fertility and soil salinity stress are described in section 3.5.5. In case soil fertility or salinity
stress limits canopy development, CCo, CCx and CDC should not be replaced by their
corresponding values in weed infested fields (since fweed is 1).

The crop canopy development in the weed-infested field (CCW) can be derived at any time
from CCTOT (Fig. 3.5i) by considering the relative cover of weeds (RC):
𝐶𝐶𝑊 = 𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑇 (1 − 𝑅𝐶) (Eq. 3.5k)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-46

Figure 3.5i – Crop canopy cover in the absence of any stress (light area), and in the
presence of soil fertility/salinity stress without and with weed infestation

3.6 Effective rooting depth

The effective rooting depth is defined as the soil depth where root proliferation is sufficient
to extract most of the crop water demand. The expansion of the effective rooting depth (Z)
in a well water soil is simulated by considering an exponential root deepening function till
the maximum rooting depth (Zx) is reached. Since in AquaCrop the time to reach maximum
canopy cover (CCx) is independent from the time to reach Zx, the interdependence between
root and shoot is not tight.

Since root growth is more resistant to water stress than leaf growth, root development is
not affected when canopy expansion starts to be reduced.
Root development is affected:
- if the soil water stress in the root zone starts to affect crop transpiration;
- if the soil water content below the expanding root zone is too dry;
- in soil horizons with low permeability restricting root growth.

3.6.1 Effective rooting depth at planting (Zn)

The rooting depth at planting (Zo) is very small and corresponds with the sowing depth or
the rooting depth of the transplanted seedling. The effective rooting depth at planting, Zn,
is the soil depth from which the germinating seed or the young seedling can extract water
and is larger than the sowing depth. For water balance calculation, a minimum effective
rooting depth of 0.2 to 0.3 meter is generally considered appropriate.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-47

3.6.2 Expansion of the root zone in a well-watered soil
The root deepening rate is a function of crop type and time. In AquaCrop the development
of the rooting depth is simulated by considering the nth root of time. Once half of the time
required for crop emergence (or plant recovery in case of transplanting) is passed by (t0/2),
the rooting depth starts to increase from an initial depth Zo till the maximum effective
rooting depth Zx is reached:

 t0 
t − 
Z = Z o + (Z x − Z o ) n 
2
(Eq. 3.6a)
 t 
 tx − 0 
 2

where Z effective rooting depth at time t [m];

Zo starting depth of the root zone expansion curve [m];
Zx maximum effective rooting depth [m];
to time to reach 90 % crop emergence [days or growing degree days];
tx time after planting when Zrx is reached [days or growing degree days];
t time after planting [days or growing degree days];
n shape factor.

The development of the effective root zone starts when Z exceeds the minimum effective
rooting depth (Zn) and advances till the maximum effective rooting depth (Zx) is reached
(Fig. 3.6a). At any time the effective rooting depth Z is given by

Zn  Z  Z x (Eq. 3.6b)

The shape factor n, which is crop specific, determines the decreasing speed of the root zone
expansion in time. For values larger than 1, the expansion of the root zone is more
important just after planting than later in the season. The larger the value of n, the stronger
the discrepancy between the expansion rates at the beginning and end of the period for root
zone expansion. The expansion of the effective root zone is constant (linear) when n is 1.

The starting depth of the root zone expansion curve Zo is a program parameter and
expressed as a fraction of Zn. The average expansion rate of the effective root zone can
never exceed a maximum value (fixed at 5 cm/day).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-48

 sowing emergence
transplanting
time
Zo
Zn
rooting depth

to/2 Zx
average
expansion rate
to

tx

Figure 3.6a – Development of the effective rooting depth (shaded area)

from sowing till the maximum effective rooting depth (Zx) is reached

3.6.3 Rooting depth for perennial herbaceous forage crops

The rooting depth of perennial forage and pasture crops develops only in the first season
(planting/sowing year). From the second season onwards, the rooting depth is constant and
equal to Zx.

Figure 3.6a/2 – Root deepening for herbaceous forage crops in a 1st

(planting/sowing year) and not a 1st season.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-49

3.6.4 Expansion of the root zone when the crop is water stressed
Water stress affects crop development. Leaf expansion can already be reduced at small root
zone depletions. The development of the root zone starts to be affected when the root zone
depletion exceeds the upper threshold for stomatal closure (Dr > psto TAW). At this
depletion the water stress coefficient for stomatal closure (Kssto) becomes smaller than 1.

The reduction in the expansion of effective rooting depth is determined by the magnitude
of the Kssto and a (negative) shape factor, fshape. The shape factor, fshape, is a program
parameter which can be adjusted by the user. The effect of water stress on the reduction of
the root zone expansion is:
- strong for fshape = 0, and given by the linear relationship:
dZ adj= Ks sto dZ (Eq. 3.6c)

- small to medium for -1 ≤ fshape ≤ -8, and given by an exponential relationship:

−1
Ks sto f shape
e
dZ adj= dZ (Eq. 3.6d)
−1
f shape
e
Making fshape (default is -6.0) more negative minimizes the effect of water stress on root
zone development, whereas root zone development is slowed significant in the early
period of stress development if fshape is close to -1.0 (Fig. 3.6b).

not affected
dZadj = dZ
root zone expansion

8
=-

-4
e)

)=
ap

-1
pe
f(sh

=
e)
ha

ap
f(s

h 0
f(s e)
=
h ap
f(s

completely
halted
dZadj = 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

full stress no stress

(permanent
w ilting point)
Kssto

Figure 3.6b – The effect of water stress on the reduction of root zone expansion for
various shape factors (fshape) and water stress in the root zone (Kssto)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-50

3.6.5 Expansion of the root zone in a soil profile with restrictive horizon(s)
The effective rooting depth cannot reach its maximum value (line 1, in Fig. 3.6c) if
restrictive soil horizons limit root development or when the exploitable soil depth is smaller
than Zx.

The root deepening rate is described by Eq.3.6a as long as the expanding front is in non-
restrictive horizons. In a restrictive soil horizon, the expansion is slowed down (line 2b, in
Fig. 3.6c) or inhibited (line 2a, in Fig 3.6c) depending on its penetrability:

 penetrabilityhorion 
dZ adj = dZ   (Eq. 3.6e)
 100 

where dZadj and dZ are the expanding rates in respectively restrictive and non-restrictive
soil horizons, and penetrabilityhorizon the penetrability (expressed as a percentage) of the
horizon.

Below the restrictive soil layer, the root zone expansion is normal again, and no longer
restricted. However, due to the delay in expanding, the effective rooting depth can no
longer reach its maximum value.

sowin g e m e rge n ce
tran splan tin g
time
Zo
Zn
rooting depth

to/2 Zx

2a
to re strictive soil laye r 2b
1

tx

Figure 3.6c – Development of the effective rooting depth (1) in the absence and (2) in
the presence of a restrictive soil layer (2a) which inhibits the expansion of the root
zone (penetrability = 0 %); and (2b) which slows down the expansion of the root
zone (0% < penetrability < 100%)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-51

3.6.6 Limited expansion of the root zone in a dry subsoil
To avoid root zone expansion in a dry subsoil, an extra restriction on root zone development
is implemented. If the soil water depletion at the front of root zone expansion exceeds a
specific threshold (pZr,exp TAW), the root deepening will slow down, and can even become
inhibited if the soil water content at the front is at permanent wilting point (Fig. 3.6d). To
avoid excessive parametrization and in the absence of published data, pZr,exp is derived from
the root zone depletion at which stomata starts to close (psto):
1 − p sto
p Zr ,exp = p sto + (Eq. 3.6f)
2
This makes that the root zone expansion remains unrestricted when the stomata starts to
close, but also that the soil water depletion at which the expansion starts to be limited is
linked with the sensitivity of the crop to water stress. Root deepening in a dry subsoil is
more restrictive for sensitive crops to water stress than for more tolerant crops. The root
zone expansion curve (Zrexp) and the Kssto curve have the same shape factor (Fig. 3.6d).
The correction for ETo of the threshold for stomatal closure (Eq. 3.2d) is however
disregarded when deriving pZr,exp in Eq. 3.6f.

Figure 3.6d – Root zone expansion (Zrexp) at the expansion front (bold line) and
water stress coefficient for stomata closure, Kssto (dotted line) for various soil water
depletions.

If the soil water depletion at the expansion front exceeds pZr,exp TAW, the root zone
deepening is slowed down. The expansion rate (Zrexp) is plotted in Fig. 3.6d as a percentage
of dZ (the non-restrictive expanding rate).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-52

3.7 Soil water balance
3.7.1 Time - depth grid
To describe accurately the retention, movement and uptake of water in the soil profile
throughout the growing season, AquaCrop divides both the soil profile and time into small
fractions (Fig. 3.6a). As such the one-dimensional vertical water flow and root water uptake
can be solved by means of a finite difference technique (Carnahan et al., 1969; Bear, 1972).
A mesh of grid lines with spacing z and t is established throughout the region of interest
occupied by the independent variables: soil depth (z) and time (t). The flow equation and
water extraction by plant roots is solved for each node at different depths zi and time levels
tj so that the dependent variable – the moisture content i,j - is determined for each node of
the solution mesh and for every time step.

Figure 3.7a – The time(t) – depth (z) grid

for the solution of the soil water balance in AquaCrop

In AquaCrop the time increment is fixed at one day and the depth increment (z) is by
default 0.1 m. The soil profile is such divided into soil compartments (12 by default) with
thickness z (Fig 3.7b). The hydraulic characteristics of each compartment are that of the
soil horizon to which it belongs. If a crop is selected with a deep effective root zone,
AquaCrop will adjust the size of the compartments (z) to cover the entire root zone. For
deep root zones, z is not constant but increases exponentially with depth, so that
infiltration, soil evaporation and crop transpiration from the top soil horizon can be
described with sufficient detail. Program settings allow the user to adjust the number and
size of the soil compartments.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-53

 1
Soil 2 Soil compartments

horizon 1 3
4
5
6
7
Soil 8
horizon 2 9
10
11
12

Figure 3.7b – Soil horizons and soil compartments

3.7.2 Calculation scheme

In AquaCrop, the differential flow equation is replaced by a set of finite difference
equations (subroutines), written in terms of the dependent variable  (Fig. 3.7c). The
simulation starts with the drainage of the soil profile. Subsequently water infiltrates into
the soil profile (after the subtraction of surface runoff), and moves upward by capillary rise
from a shallow groundwater table. Finally the amount of water lost by soil evaporation and
crop transpiration is calculated. In each of the described subroutines, the soil water content
is updated at the end of the time step (j) and at each grid point (i), according to the
calculated water content variation (). The final water content variation at the end of a
time step is the result from various processes described in different subroutines.

Since the magnitude of the changes in soil water content, simulated in each of the
subroutines, depends on the actual soil water content, the sequence of the calculations
might theoretically have an influence on the final simulation result. The effect however
will be small since the time step is restricted to one day. Further on, major changes in soil
water content of the soil profile as a result of infiltration, internal redistribution of soil
water and drainage, will only occur in a wet soil profile. But since in a wet soil the
evaporation and transpiration are at their maximum rate, evapotranspiration is at that
moment only dictated by the atmospheric water demand and crop development and hence
independent of the soil water content in the soil profile. On the other hand, when the soil
profile is dry, the simulated evaporation and transpiration rate depends strongly on the soil
water content but at that moment soil water flow in the soil profile does not take place.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-54

 Rain Irrigation Soil Crop
evaporation transpiration

runoff
Runoff subroutine

Redistribution Infiltration Capillary ris e Ev aporation Transpiration

subroutine subroutine s ubroutine subroutine subroutine

 i,j
=  i,j-1
+  i,t
+  i,t
+  i,t
+  i,t
+  i,t

Deep Capillary
percolation rise
Figure 3.7c – Calculation scheme of the soil water balance in AquaCrop

3.7.3 Redistribution and drainage subroutine

▪ Drainage function
To simulate the redistribution of water into a soil layer, the drainage out of a soil profile,
and the infiltration of rainfall and/or irrigation, AquaCrop makes use of a drainage function
(Raes, 1982; Raes et al., 1988; Raes et al., 2006):

 i ei − FC − 1
=  ( SAT −  FC )  sat − FC (Eq. 3.7a)
t e −1

Where i/t decrease in soil water content at depth i, during time step t
[[Link]-1];
 drainage characteristic [-];
i actual soil water content at depth i [m3.m-3];
SAT soil water content at saturation [m3.m-3];
FC soil water content at field capacity [m3.m-3];
t time step [day].

note: IF i = FC THEN i/t = 0

IF i = SAT THEN i/t =  (SAT - FC)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-55

 saturation

0.4
soil water content

1.0

field capacity

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
time (day)

Figure 3.7d – Variation of soil water content over time

in a free draining soil layer with a drainage characteristic of  = 0.4

The drainage function describes the amount of water lost by free drainage over time
between saturation and field capacity (Fig. 3.7d). The function is assumed to be
exponential. When field capacity is reached further drainage of the soil is disregarded. The
drainage function mimics quite realistically the infiltration and internal drainage as
observed in the field (Raes, 1982; Feyen, 1987; Hess, 1999; Wiyo, 1999; Barrios Gonzales,
1999, Raes et al., 2006).

▪ Drainage characteristic τ (tau)

The drainage is described by the dimensionless drainage characteristic  (tau). The drainage
characteristic () expresses the decrease in soil water content of a soil layer, originally at
saturation, at the end of the first day of free drainage. It is expressed as a fraction of the
total drainable amount of water, which is the water content between saturation and field
capacity. In Figure 3.7d,  is 0.4, which means that 40 % of the total drainable amount of
water is lost from the fully saturated soil layer after one day of free drainage. The value of
 may vary between 1 (complete drainage after one day) and 0 (impermeable soil layer).
The larger , the faster the soil layer will reach field capacity. A coarse textured sandy soil
layer has a large  while the  value for a heavy clay layer is very small. In AquaCrop the
close relationship (Barrios Gonzales, 1999) between the dimensionless drainage
characteristics () and the hydraulic conductivity at saturation (Ksat) is used to estimate the
tau value:
0   = 0.0866 Ksat 0.35  1 (Eq. 3.7b)
where Ksat is given in mm/day.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-56

▪ Calculation procedure
In a uniform soil equally wet it can be assumed that the decrease in soil water content per
day (/t) is constant throughout the draining profile. Given the actual soil water content,
the corresponding drainage ability /t ([Link]-1) is given by Eq. 3.7a. The amount
of water DP (mm), which percolates out of the bottom of the soil profile at the end of each
day, is given by:


DP = 1000 z t (Eq. 3.7c)
t

where  the soil water content of the draining soil profile [m3.m-3];
Δθ/Δt drainage ability given by Eq. 3.6a [[Link]-1];
z the thickness of the draining soil profile [m];
t the time step (1 day).

To simulate internal drainage in a profile composed of various compartments, not

necessarily equally wet and may belong to soil horizons with different  values, the
calculation procedure considers the drainage ability (i/t) of the different compartments.
The drainage ability for a particular soil water content between saturation and field capacity
is given by Eq. 3.7a. The drainage ability is zero when the soil water content is lower than
or equal to field capacity.

Given the soil water content of compartment 1, the decrease in soil water content during
time step t is given by Eq. 3.7a. The amount of water D1 (mm) that percolates out of the
top compartment at the end of a time step is given by:

 1
D1 = 1000 z1 t (Eq. 3.7d)
t

where D1 the flux between compartment 1 and 2 [mm];

1 the soil water content of the top compartment [m3.m-3];
z1 the thickness of the top compartment [m];
t the time step (1 day).

Subsequently the soil water content of the top compartment is updated. The same
calculations are repeated for the successive compartments. It is thereby assumed that the
cumulative drainage amount Di = D1 + D2 + … will pass through any compartment as
long as its drainage ability is greater than or equal to the drainage ability of the upperlying
compartment. By comparing drainage abilities and not soil water contents, the calculation
procedure is independent of the soil layer to which succeeding compartments may belong.

If a compartment is reached which drainage ability is smaller than the upperlying

compartment, Di will be stored in that compartment, thereby increasing its soil water
content and its drainage ability (Fig 3.7e). If the soil water content of the compartment
becomes thereby as high that its drainage ability becomes equal to the drainage ability of

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-57

the upperlying compartment, the excess of the cumulative drainage amount, increased with
the calculated drainage amount Di of that compartment, will be transferred to the
underlying compartment (as is the case in compartment 4 and 5 of Figure 3.7e). If the entire
cumulative drainage amount can be stored in a compartment without increasing its soil
water content in such a way that its drainage ability becomes equal to that of the upperlying
compartment (as is the case in compartment 6), only the calculated drainage amount of that
compartment will be transferred to the underlying compartment. If in a compartment the
soil water content remains below field capacity, its drainability is zero and no water is
transferred to the underlying compartment. At the bottom of the soil profile, the remaining
part of D will be lost as deep percolation (D = DP).

soil water content cumulative drainage

0
1
D1 D
2 D1 D2
3 D1 D2 D3
4 Z4 D/Z4

5 D/Z5

6 D/Z6

7
soil depth

9
deep percolation (DP)

Figure 3.7e – Schematic presentation of a draining soil profile (left) with indication
of the soil water content before (full line) and at the end (dotted line) of the process
of internal redistribution of the water, and the calculated cumulative drainage
(right)

In each compartment, the cumulative drainage amount Di that passes through should be
smaller than or equal to the maximum infiltration rate of the soil layer to which the soil
compartment belongs. If not so, part of the Di will be stored in that compartment, or if
required in the compartments above, until the remaining part of Di equals the infiltration
rate of the soil layer.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-58

3.7.4 Runoff subroutine
In AquaCrop, the estimation of the amount of rainfall lost by surface runoff is based on the
curve number method developed by the US Soil Conservation Service (USDA, 1964;
Rallison, 1980; Steenhuis et al., 1995):

RO =
P − I a 2 (Eq. 3.7e)
P + S − Ia

 100 
S = 254  − 1 (Eq. 3.7f)
 CN 

where RO amount of water lost by surface runoff [mm];

P rainfall amount [mm];
Ia initial abstraction [mm] or the amount of water that can infiltrate
before runoff occurs;
S potential maximum soil water retention [mm], Eq. 3.7f;
CN Curve Number

The initial abstraction (Ia) in Eq. 3.7e is fixed at 0.05 S. Recent research (Hawkins et al.,
2002) found that this may be a more appropriate value for Ia than the previous assumed
value of 0.20S in previous AquaCrop versions.

The runoff process is described by Eq. 3.7e. Rain that falls on unsaturated soil infiltrates,
increasing the soil water content until the topsoil becomes saturated (P = 0.05S), after
which additional rainfall becomes surface runoff. A soil with a high Curve Number (CN)
will have a small potential storage (S) and may loose a large amount of rainfall as runoff.

The default Curve Numbers in AquaCrop are the average values for the four distinguished
hydrologic soil groups for the ‘small grain’ hydrologic soil-cover complex with good
hydrologic conditions as provided by USDA in the National Engineering Handbook
(USDA, 2004). The same criteria used by USDA for the assignment of hydrologic soil
groups (based on Ksat) are used in AquaCrop for the classification of the soils in the
hydrologic soil groups (Table 3.7a).

Table 3.7a – Hydrologic soil groups, the corresponding range for the saturated
hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) of the top horizon, and default CN values (assuming
an initial abstraction of 5 % of S) for antecedent moisture class II (AMCII).
Hydrologic soil Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) CN default value
group mm/day for AMC II
A > 864 46
B 864 – 347 61
C 346 – 36 72
D ≤ 35 77

The user can specify a CN value different from the default, but should thereby not consider
the effect of land use and cover, since these effects are considered when specifying the

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-59

field management. Hence a clear distinction is made between the CN value based on soil
profile characteristics (CNsoil: which is a soil parameter), and the adjustment of CNsoil as a
result of field management practices (which is a field management parameter).

In AquaCrop the specified CN value as soil profile characteristic is the value that belongs
to the antecedent moisture class AMC II (CNAMC II). This value is considered when the soil
water content in the top soil is half way between Field Capacity and Permanent Wilting
Point. At run time, the specified Curve Number (CNAMC II) is adjusted for the simulated
wetness of the top soil layer. To adjust CN to the antecedent moisture class, relationships
derived from CN values for various AMC presented by Smedema and Rycroft (1983) are
used. The relationships used in AquaCrop to derive CNAMC I and CNAMC II from CNAMC II
are:

CN AMC I = −16.91 + 1.348 CN AMC II − 0.01379 CN AMC

2
II + 0.0001172 CN AMC II
3

with 0 ≤ CNAMC I ≤ 100 (Eq.3.7g)

CN AMC III = 2.5838 + 1.9449 CN AMC II − 0.014216 CN AMC

2
II + 0.000045829 CN AMC II
3

with 0 ≤ CNAMC III ≤ 100 (Eq.3.7h)

The storage capacity of a soil is indeed somewhat larger (smaller CN value) if it is dry than
when it is wet. By linear interpolation between the corresponding CN values at various
antecedent moisture classes, CN is adjusted to the wetness of the topsoil.

The calculation of the relative wetness of the topsoil extends to a depth of 0.3 meter. In the
calculation, the soil water content at the soil surface has a larger weight than the soil water
content at 0.3 meter (Fig. 3.7f):

exp f d / dx − 1
wrel = 1 − (Eq. 3.7i)
exp f − 1

where wrel relative weighing factor

f shape factor (fixed at -4)
d soil depth (m)
dx the maximum depth considered as relevant for the adjustment of CN
(default = 0.3 m)

Program settings allow the user to switch off the adjustment of CN for soil wetness and to
adjust the default thickness of 0.3 m. Current thinking (Hawkins (personal communication)
2002) is that the AMC-I and AMC-III CN’s are ‘error-bands’ to describe departure of
surface runoff from all kind of sources, including soil moisture. There seems to be no much
literature references to show real consistent impacts of prior soil water content on surface
runoff on the scale proposed by USDA.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-60

 soil surface

soil depth

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

wrel
Figure 3.7f – The value for the relative weighing factor (wrel) at various soil depths

For simplicity, irrigation is assumed to be fully controlled; hence the runoff subroutine (for
rainfall) is bypassed for irrigation water infiltration and tailwater is assumed to be zero. If
surface runoff from the field is important when irrigating, the above assumption requires
that irrigation be specified as a net application amount.

The maximum amount that can infiltrate the soil, either as rainfall or irrigation, is limited
by saturated hydraulic conductivity of the topsoil layer. Excess water, is considered as lost
by surface runoff.

Since field management and crop type might affect surface runoff, the user can adjust CNsoil
when specifying the effect of field surface practices affecting surface runoff. The specified
CNsoil, can be adjusted by considering the crop type (if different from ‘small grain’),
treatment and hydrologic conditions. Further-on specific field practices such as tied ridges
and soil bunds might prevent soil surface runoff. In that case the runoff subroutine is
bypassed. When the field is surrounded by soil bunds, water that cannot infiltrate as a result
of excessive rainfall or irrigation will be stored between the bunds. The storage capacity is
however limited by the height of the bunds. Water that overtops the bunds is assumed to
be lost by surface runoff.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-61

3.7.5 Infiltration subroutine
After the subtraction of surface runoff, the remaining part of the rainfall and irrigation
water will infiltrate into the soil profile. In AquaCrop the amount of water that infiltrates
in the soil profile is stored into succeeding compartments from the top downwards, thereby
not exceeding a threshold soil water content °i (m3.m-3). The threshold °i at a particular
soil depth, depends on the infiltration rate of the corresponding soil layer and on the amount
of infiltrated water that is not yet stored in the soil profile. The drainage rate at °i, should
correspond with the amount of water that still has to pass through the compartment during
the time step. If the flux exceeds the maximum infiltration rate of the corresponding soil
layer (°i = sat), extra water will be stored in the compartments above, until the remaining
part, that has to pass through the compartment per unit of time step, is equal to the
maximum infiltration rate.

The calculation procedure is not completely independent of the thickness of the soil
compartments. However, the simulation mimics quite realistic the infiltration process, by
taking into account the initial wetness of the soil profile, the amount of water that infiltrates
during the time step, the infiltration rate and drainage characteristics of the various soil
layers of the soil profile.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-62

3.7.6 Capillary rise

▪ Capillary rise for various depths of the groundwater table

The upward flow from a shallow groundwater table to the top soil can be described with
the Darcy equation by considering the water retention curve (h-θ relationship) and the
relationship between matric potential (h) and hydraulic conductivity (K). Since h-θ and K-
h relationships are not available in AquaCrop, capillary rise is estimated by considering the
soil type and its hydraulic characteristics.

The relationship between capillary rise and the depth of the groundwater table is given by
the exponential equation:

 ln( z ) − b 
CR = exp  (Eq. 3.7j)
 a 

where CR is the expected capillary rise ([Link]-1), z the depth (m) of the water table below
the soil surface and a and b parameters specific for the soil type and its hydraulic
characteristics. Since the magnitude of capillary rise is strongly affected by the shape of
the water retention curve and the K-h relationship, the a and b parameters of the equation
varies with the textural class (Fig. 3.7g).

Figure 3.7g –Textural triangle with indication of the 12 different soil types and the 4
soil Classes considered for the determination of the a and b parameters of Eq. 6.1a.
I. Sandy soils (dark area), II. Loamy soils (grey area),
III. Sandy clayey soils (white area) and IV. Silty clayey soils (dark area)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-63

The a and b parameters describing the capillary rise in AquaCrop were obtained in 4
successive steps:
1. Selection of typical water retention curves for the various textural classes. By
considering similarities in h-θ relationships, the 12 distinguished classes were grouped
into 4 Classes: I. Sandy soils, II. Loamy soils, III. Sandy clayey soils, and IV. Silty
clayey soils (Fig. 3.7g). For each of the classes one representative water retention curve
was selected;
2. Generation for each of the 4 classes a set of K-h relationships from the shape of the
unique h-θ relationship (obtained in step 1) by considering the range of saturated
hydraulic conductivities (Ksat) typical for each class (Tab. 3.7b);
3. Simulation of the capillary rise that can be expected for each of the 4 soil classes at
various depths (z) of the water table by considering the typical water retention curve
(step 1) and the different generated K-h relationships (step 2). Simulations were carried
out with the UPFLOW software (Raes and De Proost, 2003);
4. From the obtained CR-z plots (step 3), a and b soil parameters were derived by Janssens
(2006) for each class (by considering the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) as the
independent variable). The coefficients of determination for the a and b equations (Eq
3.7k and 3.7l in Tab. 3.7b) were always high (R2 > 0.96).
The capillary rise from a shallow groundwater table (Eq. 3.7j) for the 4 soil classes and for
various depths of the groundwater table are plotted in Figure 3.7h.

Table 3.7b – Equation 3.7k and 3.7l for the 4 soil Classes with indication of the
considered range for the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) (Janssens, 2006)
Soil Class Range a b
Ksat Eq. 3.7k Eq. 3.7l
[Link]-1
I. Sandy soils 200
sand, loamy sand, to – 0.3112 – 10-5 Ksat – 1.4936 + 0.2416
sandy loam 2000 ln(Ksat)

II. Loamy soils 100

loam, silt loam, silt to – 0.4986 + 9 (10-5) Ksat – 2.1320 + 0.4778
750 ln(Ksat)

III. Sandy clayey 5

soils to – 0.5677 – 4 (10-5) Ksat – 3.7189 + 0.5922
sandy clay, sandy 150 ln(Ksat)
clay loam, clay loam
IV. Silty clayey 1
soils to – 0.6366 + 8 (10-4) Ksat – 1.9165 + 0.7063
silty clay loam, silty 150 ln(Ksat)
clay, clay

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-64

 Capillary rise (mm/day)
0 2 4 6 8 10
0.0

3
4

Groundwater depth below soil surface (m)

0.5

2
1.0 1

1.5

2.0

2.5
1. Sandy soils
2. Loamy soils
3. Sandy clayey
4. Silty clayey
3.0

Figure 3.7h – Capillary rise to a bare soil surface, as obtained with Eq. 6.1a, for the
4 considered soil Classes and for various depths of a shallow groundwater table and
by assuming a typical saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) of 500 mm/day for
Class I (Sandy soils), 250 mm/day for Class II (Loamy soils), 100 mm/day for Class
III (Sandy clayey soils) and 25 mm/day for Class IV (Silty clayey soils)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-65

▪ Generation of the parameters for capillary rise
The soil profile in AquaCrop can be composed of up to five different horizons, each with
their own physical characteristics. The soil data for the various soil horizons consist in the
soil water content at saturation (Sat), field capacity (FC), and permanent wilting point
(PWP), and the value for the hydraulic conductivity at soil saturation (Ksat).

To generate default values for the a and b soil parameters (Eq. 3.7j), AquaCrop determines:
- in a first step the class of the soil type for each of the soil layers. The classification is
obtained by comparing the volumetric water content at saturation, field capacity and
permanent wilting point of each soil layer with the expected ranges of those soil water
contents in the 4 classes (Tab. 3.7c);
- in the next step, the a and b soil parameters for each soil layer with Eq. 3.7k and 3.7l
(Tab. 3.7b) by considering (i) the soil class and (ii) the specified saturated hydraulic
conductivity (Ksat).

Table 3.7c – Ranges considered for the soil water content at saturation, field capacity
and permanent wilting point for the 4 soil classes
Soil water content (vol %)
Soil class Saturation Field Capacity Permanent Wilting
Point
I. Sandy soils 32 – 51 9 – 28 4 – 15
II. Loamy soils 42 – 55 23 – 42 6 – 20
III. Sandy clayey 40 – 53 25 – 45 16 – 34
soils
IV. Silty clayey soils 49 – 58 40 – 58 20 - 42

In the Soil profile characteristic menu, the soil class and the default values are displayed.
If required the user can calibrate the a and b soil parameters by considering the simulated
capillary rise for various depths of the groundwater table (see Chapter 2, section 2.13 Soil
profile characteristics).

▪ Equilibrium at field capacity

After the drainage of a thoroughly wetted soil profile, the soil water content will remain at
Field Capacity (FC) in the absence of any soil water extraction. In the presence of a shallow
groundwater table, the soil water content in the soil profile is in equilibrium with the
groundwater table and varies with soil depth (Fig. 3.7i).

To simulate drainage and capillary rise correctly, AquaCrop needs to know this equilibrium
state (called adjusted Field Capacity). In AquaCrop a parabolic function is used to describe
the adjustment of FC in the presence of the groundwater table:

 FC adj , i =  FC +  FC , i (Eq. 3.7m)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-66

  ( Sat −  FC )
with  FC , i =   (x − z i )2 for zi <= x (Eq. 3.7n)
 x2 

where θFC soil water content at FC in the absence of a groundwater table (m3 m-3)
ΔθFC,i increase in FC at height zi above the groundwater table (m3 m-3)
θFCadj,i adjusted FC at height zi above the groundwater table (m3 m-3)
θsat soil water content at saturation (m3 m-3)
zi height above the groundwater table (m)
x height above the groundwater table where FC is no longer adjusted

FC
ad
j

Figure 3.7i – Soil water profile in equilibrium with the groundwater table

At a height of x meter or more above the groundwater table, the adjustment of Field
Capacity is neglected. At the groundwater table, FCadj,i is equal to sat, and at a height of x
meter or more above the groundwater table (where zi ≥ x), FCadj,i is equal to FC (Fig. 3.7i).

The value for x can be derived from the soil matrix potential at Field Capacity (FC) which
varies between -10 kPa (for the more sandy soils) to -20 kPa (for the more loamy and
clayey soils) when expressed as energy per unit volume. This corresponds with a head
(energy per unit weight) of about – 1 m water (pF 2.0) up to – 2 m (pF 2.3). By considering
indicative values for the soil water content at FC of 10 vol% for the more sandy and 30 vol

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-67

% for the more loamy soils, the height (meter) where the effect of the groundwater table
on FC can be neglected is given by:

  − 10 
2 + 0.3 FC 
 30 − 10 
10
x= (Eq. 3.7o)
100

where FC the soil water content at FC (vol %) varying between 10 and 30 vol% (Tab.
3.7d).

Table 3.7d – The soil water content at Field Capacity (FC) and the height (x) above
which the effect of the groundwater table on FC can be neglected (Eq. 3.7o)
FC (vol%) x (meter)
FC  10 vol% 1.00
15 1.19
20 1.41
25 1.68
FC  30 vol% 2.00

▪ Calculation procedure
Concept
The calculation starts at the bottom compartment (n) of the soil profile, and moves step by
step upwards to the upper lying compartments (i+1, i, i-1, ..) till the top compartment (1)
is reached (Fig 6.4a). The calculation procedure consists of the following steps:
1. Calculation of the maximum amount of water that can be transported upward by
capillary rise to the node (center) of the compartment (CRmax,i) by considering the depth
of the groundwater table below the center of the soil compartment (zi) and the
characteristics of the soil layer (Eq. 3.7j);
2. Storage of water in that compartment till i is equal to FCadj,i or all the CRmax,i has been
stored. The amount of water stored in compartment i is:

( )
IF θi ≤ θFCadj,I THEN Wstored ,i = 1000  FCadj,i −  i zi  f CR ,i CRmax,i (Eq. 3.7p)
ELSE Wstored ,i = 0 (Eq. 3.7q)

where Δzi is the thickness of the compartment (m), fCR,i the capillary rise factor (Eq.
3.7u), and Wstored,i the stored amount of water (mm) in the compartment. The amount
of water still to store is obtained by subtraction the stored amount of water from CRmax,i

Wremain = CRmax,i − Wstored ,i (Eq. 3.7r)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-68

 where Wremain is the amount of water still to store (mm). If the soil water content (i) of
the compartment was initially at FCadj,i no water could have been stored and Wremain is
equal to CRmax,i. If the stored water (Wstored,i) is equal to CRmax,i, the calculation stops
since Wremain becomes zero;

CR
compartment soil water content
1

i-1
CRmax i
FCadj i
i
i+1

FCa
CR

dj
ma
x

zi
groundwater table

Figure 3.7j – The maximum amount of water that can be transported upward by
capillary rise (CRmax,i) and the adjusted field capacity (FCadj,i) for the node of
compartment i, at a height of zi meter above the groundwater table

3. As long as Wremain is not zero, the calculation continues by moving to the next upper
lying compartment (i-1). The calculations restart with step 1, i.e. with the calculation
of CRmax for that compartment (CRmax,i-1). The calculation will continue with the
minimum of CRmax,i-1 and Wremain. This control takes care of (i) water already stored in
the underlying compartments and (ii) possible changes of layers in the soil profile when
moving upward (whereby the restricted capillary capacity of an underlying soil layer,
limits the upward flow to the upper lying soil layers).

The calculation stops if all the water has been stored (Wremain becomes 0) or the soil surface
is reached (i = 1). The total amount of water that has been moved upward by capillary rise
to the soil profile is given by the sum of the water stored in each of the compartments:
n
CR =  Wstored ,i (Eq. 3.7s)
i =1

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-69

Adjustment for soil water content
The water movement in the soil is determined by (i) a driving force (i.e. the water potential
gradient) and (ii) the capacity of the soil to conduct the water (i.e. the hydraulic
conductivity):
− In the absence of a water potential gradient the soil water content () in the profile is at
FCadj (Fig. 3.7i). Water moves downward (drainage) if  > FCadj and upwards
(capillary rise) when  < FCadj. The larger the difference between  and FCadj, the
stronger the water potential gradient, and the stronger the driving force for water
movement.
− When most of the soil pores are filled with water as in a wet soil, the capacity of the
soil to conduct the water and hence the hydraulic conductivity are large. In a soaked
soil all pores are able to conduct the water and the hydraulic conductivity is at its
maximum (Ksat, the saturated hydraulic conductivity). If the soil is dry, only the small
pores contain water and the hydraulic conductivity is very low. In a dry soil, water can
only move if the potential gradient is huge.

Upward flow affected by the potential gradient (driving force)

To move water upward from a groundwater table a water potential gradient is required.
The strength of the gradient is expressed in AquaCrop by the relative wetness:

 i −  PWP
relative wetness = (Eq. 3.7t)
 FCadj, i −  PWP

where i is the soil water content at a height zi above the groundwater table, and PWP and
FCadj,i the soil water content at the Permanent Wilting Point and the adjusted Field Capacity
respectively.

The restrictions for upward water movement as a result of a low potential gradient is
estimated by considering a power function of the relative wetness and is expressed by a
capillary rise factor (fCR,i):
x
  i −  PWP 
f CR , i = 1−   (Eq. 3.7u)
 −  
 FCadj , i PWP 

The capillary rise factor, fCR,i, varies with the soil water content (i) and ranges between 1
and 0 (Fig. 3.7k). The capillary rise factor considers on the one hand the driving force for
upward water movement and on the other hand the hydraulic conductivity.

If the top soil is dry, the potential gradient is strong and the driving force for water
movement is strong as well (fCR = 1). The wetter the soil profile, the smaller the potential
gradient and the smaller the upward water movement (fCR < 1). If the soil water content at
a given height above the groundwater table is equal to FCadj,i, upward water movement is
fully inhibited due to the absence of any water potential gradient. The power (x) in Equation
6.4f is a program parameter and set at 16 for testing.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-70

 1.0

x= 3
x
0.8

=
30 2
x=
x =16
16
f CR
0.6

0.4

x=
5
0.2

0.0
(WP+FC)
WP FCadj
2
soil water content

Figure 3.7k – The capillary rise factor (Eq. 3.7u) for different soil water content in
the soil profile above the groundwater table and values for the power x.

The power (x) in Equation 3.7u is a program parameter which can vary between 5 and 30
(with 16 as default). With the program parameter the user can adjust the simulated capillary
rise. Increasing the required soil water content gradient (by reducing x) will limit upward
flow from the groundwater table, while reducing the required soil water content gradient
(by increasing x) will facilitate the capillary rise to the soil profile.

The capillary rise factor affected by the hydraulic conductivity

Although the soil water potential gradient becomes very high when the top soil is very dry,
upward movement of water is restricted due to the extreme low hydraulic conductivity in
a dry soil. If the soil water content drops below the threshold halfway between Field
Capacity and Permanent Wilting Point, fCR decreases linear from 1 (at the threshold) to
zero when Permanent Wilting Point is reached (Fig. 3.7k).

Capillary rise versus drainage

The calculation of upward movement from a groundwater table, which starts at the bottom
compartment will stop when a compartment i is reached which soil water content is above
FCadj,i. At this soil water content the compartment is draining and water cannot be stored
(fCR,i = 0). More important, as a result of the downward movement of water, water can no
longer move further upwards to the upper lying compartments.

If the total soil profile is draining (n > FCadj,n), the calculation process does not start at all.
As long as water moves out of the bottom compartment, capillary rise to the soil profile is
inhibited. After a thorough drainage, the upward movement of water can not restart
immediately since all over the soil profile, i is equal to FCadj,i and fCR,i is zero (Eq. 3.7u).
Capillary rise is restored when sufficient water is extracted out of the soil profile by crop
transpiration and/or soil evaporation and fCR,i becomes larger than 0 (Fig. 3.7u).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-71

Root zone expansion
Roots of crops sensitive to water logging can not develop below the groundwater table.
Hence, the maximum rooting depth (Zx) is restricted to the depth of the groundwater table.
If later in the season the water table drops, the root zone will expand till Zx is reached.

If during the season the water table enters in the root zone, the roots under the groundwater
table will become inactive and might die off. If later in the season the water table drops, it
is assumed that the part of the root zone that was flooded becomes active again and that
the root zone expands till Zx is reached.

Deficient aeration conditions and reduced crop transpiration

Transpiration is hampered when the soil water content in the root zone results in deficient
soil aeration. If the water content in the root zone is above the anaerobiosis point the root
zone becomes water logged and transpiration is limited. This is likely to be the case if the
groundwater table is very shallow and the soil water content in the root zone is close to
saturation (Fig. 3.7i).

The sensitivity of the crop to water logging is specified by the soil water content
(anaerobiosis point) at which the aeration of the root zone will be deficient for the crop and
starts to affect crop transpiration (section 3.10 Crop transpiration). To simulate the
resistance of crops to short periods of waterlogging, the full effect will only be reached
after a specified number of days.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-72

3.7.7 Processing of 10-day and monthly climatic data

▪ Daily climatic data

For each day of the simulation period, AquaCrop requires:
- the minimum (Tn) and maximum (Tx) air temperature;
- the reference evapotranspiration ETo; and
- rainfall depth.
The input may consist of daily, 10-day or monthly Tn, Tx, ETo and Rainfall data. At run
time, the 10-day and monthly data are processed to derive daily minimum and maximum
air temperatures, ETo and rain data.

By weighing the reference evapotranspiration rates and air temperatures in the previous,
actual and next 10-day period or month, daily ETo rates, and the daily maximum and
minimum air temperatures are obtained in AquaCrop. The calculation procedure is based
on the interpolation procedure presented by Gommes (1983). The same interpolation
procedure is applied for 10-day and monthly rainfall data but since it is highly unlikely that
rainfall is homogenously distributed over all the days of the 10-day period or month, some
further processing is required to determine the amount of rainfall that is (i) lost by surface
runoff, (ii) stored in the top soil as effective rainfall, (iii) lost by deep percolation and (iv)
by soil evaporation (Fig. 3.7f).

surface
runoff
effective
rainfall

deep
percolation

Figure 3.7l - Partitioning of rainfall in effective rainfall,

surface runoff and deep percolation losses

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-73

▪ Estimation of surface runoff
To estimate surface runoff with 10-day or monthly Rainfall data, a specific number of rainy
events is assumed during a 10-day period (the default is 2 showers per 10-day). By dividing
the total rainfall amount for the period by the number of events in that period, the rainfall
amount per shower is obtained and the surface runoff can be calculated (see 3.7.4 – Runoff
subroutine). The more rainy days are considered during the 10-day period, the smaller the
rainfall amount per event and the smaller the runoff will be. Because the day(s) at which it
rains, are unknown the Curve Number is not corrected for soil wetness and the CN value
for Antecedent Moisture Class II is used.

▪ Estimation of effective rainfall and deep percolation

Effective rainfall is that part of rainfall that is stored in the root zone and not lost by surface
runoff or deep percolation (Fig. 3.7f). If the rainfall data consist of 10-day or monthly
values, the rainfall distribution over the period is unknown and the amount of water lost by
deep percolation cannot be determined by solving the water balance on a daily basis (time
step). After the subtraction of the amount of rainfall lost by surface runoff, the effective
rainfall is estimated by one or another procedure determined by the user. If the amount of
rainfall that is stored in the root zone will also be effectively retained in the root zone
depends on the storage capacity of the root zone at the moment of rainfall.

The following procedures are available in AquaCrop to determine the effective rainfall
when 10-day or monthly rainfall data is given as input:
- 100 percent effective
- USDA-SCS procedure
- Expressed as a percentage of rainfall

100 percent effective

All rainfall is stored in the root zone. Excess water that cannot be retained, will drain out
of the root zone and will be lost by deep percolation.

USDA-SCS procedure
SCS scientists analysed 50 years of rainfall records at 22 locations throughout the United
Sates of America to predict effective rainfall (SCS, 1993). A daily soil water balance
incorporating crop evapotranspiration, rainfall, irrigation and the storage capacity of the
root zone was used to determine the effective rainfall (Tab. 3.6e). By considering the
monthly crop evapotranspiration (ETcm) and rainfall (Pm), the monthly effective rainfall
(Pem) is obtained by the following empirical equation (USDA, 1970):

( )
Pem = 0.70917 Pm0.82416 − 0.11556 10 0.02426 ETcm (Eq.3.7v)

where Pem, Pm and ETcm are given in inches (1 inch = 25.4 mm). In the above equation
ETcm is the sum of the soil evaporation and crop transpiration by assuming that the
processes are not affected by water stress. The difference between rainfall (Pm) and the
estimated effective rainfall (Pem) is regarded as being lost by deep percolation.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-74

Simulations (Naesens, 2002) with rainfall data from various climatic zones indicates that
the procedure predicts effective rainfall with an accuracy of +/- 20 %. The procedure is
also valid for 10-day rainfall data but the accuracy decreases to +/- 40 %.

Table 3.7e – Effective rainfall (expressed as a percentage of monthly rainfall) for various
levels of crop evapotranspiration and for a root zone with a RAW of 75 mm, as determined
by the USDA-SCS procedure.
Monthly crop evapotranspiration [mm/month]
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Monthly Rain Effective rainfall
[mm/month] [%]
10 58 62 66 71 75 81 86 92
20 63 68 72 77 82 88 94 100
30 63 67 72 77 82 88 94 100
40 62 66 71 76 81 86 92 99
50 61 65 70 74 79 85 91 97
60 60 64 68 73 78 83 89 95
70 59 63 67 72 77 82 88 93
80 58 62 66 71 76 81 86 92
90 57 61 65 70 74 80 85 91
100 56 60 64 69 73 78 84 90
120 55 59 63 67 72 77 82 87
140 54 58 61 66 70 75 80 85
160 53 56 60 64 69 74 79 84
180 52 55 59 63 68 72 77 82
200 51 55 58 62 67 71 76 81

Expressed as a percentage of rainfall

The user specifies the percentage of the 10-day/monthly rainfall that is stored in the root
zone. The ineffective part of the rainfall is assumed to have drained out of the root zone
and is stored immediately below the root zone.

The percentage will depend on the rainfall amount, the evapotranspiration rate and soil
type. Indicative values are given in Table 3.7e. The percentage can be obtained with greater
accuracy by simulating the drainage out of the root zone for those years were daily rainfall
data is available (or available in a nearby representative station). As such the characteristics
of the climate, cropping period, irrigation schedules and drainage characteristics of the soil
can be fully considered.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-75

▪ Estimation of soil evaporation
The calculation procedure for soil evaporation (E) assumes that the evaporation takes
places in two stages (See 3.9 Soil evaporation). By distributing rainfall homogenously over
all the days of the 10-day period or month, soil evaporation is likely to be over-estimated.
Simulations (Mihutu, 2011) with rainfall data from various climatic zones indicated that
the two stage calculation procedure over predicts E by some 10 to 30 % depending on soil
type. The soil evaporation rate is adjusted by multiplying the estimated daily evaporation
(E) with a reduction factor:

 REW + 1 
Eadj =  n E
 (Eq. 3.7w)
 20 

where REW is the readily evaporable water (mm) and n a program parameter which may
vary between 1 (strong reduction) and 10 (light reduction). Its default value is 5.

The optimal setting of the program parameter can be obtained by simulating the soil
evaporation for those years were daily rainfall data is available (or available in a nearby
representative station). As such the characteristics of the climate (rainfall distribution and
evaporating power of the atmosphere), the degree of canopy cover and the characteristics
of the soil type can be fully considered.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-76

3.8 Salt balance
Salts enter the soil profile as solutes with the irrigation water or through capillary rise from
a shallow groundwater table. It is assumed that rainfall does not contain dissolved salts.
The extent to which salts accumulate in the soil depends on the irrigation water quality and
quantity that infiltrates into the soil, frequency of wetting, the adequacy of leaching, the
importance of soil evaporation and crop transpiration, the soil physical characteristics of
the various layers of the soil profile, and the salt content and depth of the groundwater
table. Salts are transported out of the soil profile (leached) by means of the drainage water.
AquaCrop uses the calculation procedure presented in BUDGET (Raes et al., 2001; Raes,
2002; Raes et al., 2006) to simulate salt movement and retention in the soil profile.

3.8.1 Movement and accumulation of salts in the soil profile

Vertical downward salt movement in a soil profile is described by assuming that salts
are transferred downwards by soil water flow in macro pores. This is simulated in
AquaCrop by the drainage function (see Chapter 3, section 3.7 Soil water balance). The
exponential drainage function (Eq. 3.7a) describes the vertical solute movement till field
capacity is reached. If the soil water content is at or below field capacity, AquaCrop
assumes that all macro pores are drained and hence inactive for solute transport.

Since the solute transport in the macro pores bypass the soil water in the matrix, a diffusion
process has to be considered to describe the transfer of solutes from macro pores to the
micro pores in the soil matrix. The driving force for this horizontal diffusion process is the
salt concentration gradient that exists between the water solution in the macro pores and
micro pores. To avoid the building up of high salt concentrations at a particular depth, a
vertical salt diffusion is also considered. The driving force for this vertical redistribution
process is the salt concentration gradient that builds up at various soil depths in the soil
profile.

Vertical upward salt movement is the result of capillary rise from a saline groundwater
table and water movement in response to soil evaporation. The vertical upward salt
movement depends on the wetness of the top of the soil profile and the salinity and depth
of the groundwater table (see Chapter 3, section 3.7 Soil water balance). Due to soil
evaporation water will evaporate at the soil surface while the dissolved salts remain in the
top compartment.

3.8.2 Cells
To describe the movement and retention of soil water and salt in the soil profile, AquaCrop
divides the soil profile in various soil compartments (12 by default) with thickness Δz (Fig.
3.7b). To simulate the convection and diffusion of salts, a soil compartment is further
divided into a number of cells where salts can be stored (Fig. 3.8a).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-77

 cells
convection
soil
compartments
1 2 3 4 ...

diffusion

diffusion z

diffusion

field saturation
capacity

diameter of soil pore

micro pores macro pores
small large

Figure 3.8a – Convection and diffusion of salts in the cells of a soil compartment

The number of cells (n), which may range from 2 to 11, depends on the soil type of the soil
horizon. Since salts are strongly attached to the clay particles a clayey horizon will contain
more cells than a sandy horizon. The inverse of the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat)
is used as an index for the clay content. The number of cells is obtained by considering the
Ksat of the soil horizon to which the soil compartment belongs:

 1000 
2  n = ROUND1.6 +   11 (Eq. 3.8a)
 Ksat 

where Ksat is saturated hydraulic conductivity (mm/day) of the soil horizon. The volume
of a cell, which is a fraction of the total pore volume, is given by:

 sat  Vol% gravel 

Wcell = 1000 z 1 −  (Eq.3.8b)
n  100 

where Wcell is the volume of the cell in mm(water), θsat the soil water content at saturation
(m3/m3) of the soil horizon, n the number of cells, Δz the thickness of the soil compartment
(m), and Vol%gravel the volume percentage of the gravel in the soil horizon to which the
compartment belongs. A cell is in fact a representation of a volume of pores with a
particular mean diameter. Cells with a low number have small diameters, while cells with
a high number have large diameters (Fig. 3.8a).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-78

Salts can be transported by diffusion horizontally and vertically from one cell to its adjacent
cells if there exists a concentration gradient and if the cells are active, it is when they
contain soil water. Hence, the number of active cells depends on the wetness of the soil. If
the soil is dry, only cells with small pore diameters (low numbers) will accommodate water
and the diffusion process will be limited. When the soil water content increases, more and
more cells are active and become involved in the diffusion process. Once the soil water
content is above field capacity, the macro pores are active as well and salts can now also
be conducted vertically downward in the soil profile together with the movement of the
soil water. If the soil is saturated all macro pores contains water and the convection rate is
at its maximum.

The salt concentration in a cell can never exceed a threshold value. The threshold value is
determined by the solubility of the salt (see Chapter 2: 2.13 Soil profile characteristics,
2.13.6 Program settings). If the salt concentration in a cell exceeds the threshold value,
salts will precipitate and will be temporarily removed from the soil solution. Salts return to
the solution as soon as the salt concentration in the cell drops below the threshold value.

3.8.3 Salt diffusion

The salt diffusion between two adjacent cells (cell j and cell j+1) is given by the differences
in their salt concentration which is expressed by the electrical conductivity (EC) of their
soil water. At the end of the time step t+Δt the EC of the soil water in cell j is:

 EC j ,t Wcell , j + EC j +1,t Wcell , j +1 

EC j ,t + t = EC j ,t + f diff  − EC j ,t  (Eq. 3.8c)
 Wcell , j + Wcell , j +1 
 

where EC is the electrical conductivity of the soil water in the cell (dS/m), Wcell the volume
of the cell (mm), and fdiff a salt diffusion coefficient.

The salt diffusion between adjacent cells does not only depend on differences in their salt
concentration but also on the swiftness with which salts can be rearranged between them
(fdiff). Between cells having large pore diameters, salts can move quite easily since the
forces acting on them are relatively small. Equilibrium between the salt content in those
pores is reached quickly. Due to strong adsorption forces and low hydraulic conductivity’s,
salt diffusion will be rather limited in the small pores and it might take quite a while before
equilibrium is reached between the salt concentrations in those cells. This is simulated in
AquaCrop by adjusting the diffusion process with the ease salts can diffuse. The ease of
salt movement is expressed by the diffusion coefficient (fdiff). The coefficient varies
between 1 for the macro pores (no limitation on salt diffusion) and 0 for the very smallest
pores (salts can no longer diffuse between adjacent cells). Between cells representing
macro pores the diffusion is entirely in response to salt concentration gradients (fdiff = 1).
Between cells representing the smaller pores, salt diffusion is more limited (fdiff < 1).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-79

 1.0
%
80
0.8 % %
60 50

salt diffusion coefficient

=
or
ct
fa
0.6 n
usio
iff
fdiff

%
d
al

40
o b
0.4 gl

0.2 %
20

0.0
1 2 3 ... macropores

field saturation
cell capacity

Figure 3.8b – The salt diffusion coefficient (fdiff) for the various cells
and for various global diffusion factors

The salt diffusion coefficient for the various cells is plotted in Figure 3.8b, for various
global salt diffusion factors. The global diffusion factor is a program parameter that
describes the global capacity for salt diffusion and can be used to calibrate the model.
Increasing or decreasing the global salt diffusion factor alters the ease for salt diffusion and
increases or decreases the speed with which equilibrium is reached between the salt
concentrations in the adjacent cells. The default setting for the salt diffusion factor is 20 %.

In Table 3.8a the calculation procedure (Eq. 3.8d) for fdiff is presented.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-80

Table 3.8a - Equation 3.8d: Calculation procedure for the salt diffusion coefficient
(fdiff)

GDF
(global < 50 % > 50 %
diffusion
factor)

field
capacity saturation

cell 1 2 3 ... macropores

x
x = 0.0 ............ 0.5 ............ 1.0

fdiff a bx − a a b (1− x ) − a
(Eq. 3.8d1) 1− (Eq. 3.8d2)
ab−a a b−a

a=2
GDF
(Eq. 3.8d3)  GDF 
a
100 a = 21 −  (Eq. 3.8d5)
 100 

b b = 1010 ( 0.5−GDF /100) (Eq. 3.8d4) b = 1010 ( GDF /100 − 0.5) (Eq. 3.8d6)

3.8.4 Vertical salt movement in response to soil evaporation

Soil evaporation in Stage II (falling rate stage) will bring soil water and its dissolved salts
from the upper soil layer to the evaporating surface layer (see 3.9 Soil evaporation). At the
soil surface, water will evaporate while the salts remain at the soil surface. If the upper soil
layer is sufficiently wet, the transport of soil water will be entirely in the liquid phase and
the upward salt transport can be important. When the soil dries out, water movement will
be gradually replaced by vapour diffusion, resulting in a decrease of upward salt transport.

To simulate upward salt transport in response to soil evaporation, AquaCrop considers not
only the amount of water that is extracted out of the soil profile by evaporation, but also
the wetness of the upper soil layer (Fig. 3.8c). The relative soil water content of the upper
soil layer determines the fraction of the dissolved salts that moves with the evaporating
water:

SWCrel
f salt = 10 SWC rel (Eq. 3.8e)
10

 −  air dry
SWCrel = (Eq. 3.8f)
 sat −  air dry

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-81

where fsalt fraction of dissolved salts that moves with the evaporating water
SWCrel relative soil water content of the upper soil layer with thickness Ze,top
θ soil water content of the upper soil layer (m3.m-3)
θsat soil water content at saturation (m3.m-3) of the upper soil layer
θair dry soil water content when the upper layer is air dry (m3.m-3), which is
taken as half of the soil water content at permanent wilting point (θair
dry = θPWP/2)

1.0

0.8

0.6
salt
f

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
SWC rel
air dry saturation

Figure 3.8c – Fraction of dissolved salts (fsalt) that moves with the evaporating water
for various relative soil water contents (SWCrel) of the upper soil layer

When the upper soil layer is sufficiently wet, soil evaporation will move an important
fraction of dissolved salts with the water that is moved by the process to the evaporating
soil surface layer. When the layer dries out, the fraction of the dissolved salts that can be
transported upward diminishes since water is no longer entirely moved by soil water flow
but also by vapour diffusion. Vertical salt movement in response to soil evaporation is no
longer considered when the soil water content of the upper soil layer becomes air dry (Fig.
3.8c).

At the start of Stage II of soil evaporation, the thickness of the upper layer (Ze,top) is set at
0.15 m (see 3.9.5 Evaporation reduction coefficient). When evaporation removes water
from the upper layer Ze,top gradually expands to a maximum depth which is a program
parameter. Its default value is 0.3 m and the range is 0.15 to 0.50m.

3.8.5 Vertical salt movement as a result of capillary rise

Salts might also accumulate in the root zone as a result of upward transport of saline water
from a shallow groundwater table. The amount of salts that accumulate in the top soil
depends on the magnitude of the capillary rise (see 3.7 Soil water balance), the salinity of
the groundwater and leaching by excessive rainfall or irrigation.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-82

3.8.6 Soil salinity content
The salt content of a cell is given by:

Saltcell = 0.64 Wcell ECcell (Eq. 3.8g)

where Saltcell is the salt content expressed in grams salts per m2 soil surface, Wcell (Eq. 3.8b)
its volume expressed in liter per m2 (1 mm = 1 l/m2), and 0.64 a global conversion factor
used in AquaCrop to convert deciSiemens per meter in gram salts per liter (1 dS/m = 0.64
g/l).

The electrical conductivity of the soil water (ECsw) and of the saturated soil paste extract
(ECe) at a particular soil depth (soil compartment) is:
n

 Salt
j =1
cell , j

ECsw = (Eq. 3.8h)

 Vol % gravel 
0.64 (1000  z ) 1 − 
 100 

 Salt
j =1
cell , j

ECe = (Eq. 3.8i)

 Vol % gravel 
0.64 (1000  sat z ) 1 − 
 100 

where n is the number of salt cells of the soil compartment, θ the soil water content (m3/m3),
θsat the soil water content (m3/m3) at saturation, Δz (m) the thickness of the compartment,
and Vol%gravel the volume percentage of the gravel in the soil horizon to which the
compartment belongs

The effect of soil salinity on biomass production is determined by the average ECe of the
soil water in the compartments of the effective rooting depth (see 3.15 ‘Simulation of the
effect of soil salinity stress’).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-83

3.9 Soil evaporation
ETo is the evapotranspiration rate from a grass reference surface, not short of water and is
an index for the evaporating power of the atmosphere. Soil evaporation (E) is calculated
by multiplying ETo with the soil evaporation coefficient (Ke) and by considering the effect
of water stress:
E = (Kr Ke ) ETo (Eq. 3.9a)
where Kr is the evaporation reduction coefficient which becomes smaller than 1, and as
such reduces soil evaporation, when insufficient water is available in the soil to respond to
the evaporative demand of the atmosphere. The soil evaporation coefficient Ke is
proportional to the fraction of the soil surface not covered by canopy (1-CC). The
proportional factor is the maximum soil evaporation coefficient (Kex) which integrates the
effects of characteristics that distinguish soil evaporation from the evapotranspiration from
the grass reference surface. The calculation procedure is presented in Fig. 3.9a.

Figure 3.9a – Calculation scheme in AquaCrop for soil evaporation (E)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-84

3.9.1 A two stage calculation method
Evaporation from soil takes place in two stages (Philip, 1957; Ritchie, 1972): an energy
limiting stage (Stage I) and a falling rate stage (Stage II).

▪ Stage I - energy limiting stage

When the soil surface is wetted by rainfall or irrigation, soil evaporation switches to stage
I. In this stage, water is evaporated from a thin soil surface layer (Ze,surf) which is in direct
contact with the atmosphere (Fig. 3.9b). As long as water remains in the evaporating soil
surface layer, the evaporation rate is fully determined by the energy available for soil
evaporation and the evaporation stays in stage I.

Figure 3.9b - The upward transport of water

from the upper soil layer to the evaporating soil surface layer

▪ Stage II - falling rate stage

When all the water is evaporated from the evaporating soil surface layer (Ze,surf), soil
evaporation switches to stage II and water flows from the soil layer below (Ze,top) to the
surface layer. In this stage the evaporation is not only determined by the available energy
but depends also on the hydraulic properties of the soil. The ability to transfer water to the
evaporating soil surface layer reduces as the soil water content in the soil profile decreases.
As a result the evaporation rate decreases in function of time.

3.9.2 Readily Evaporable Water (REW)

The Readily Evaporable Water, REW, expresses the maximum amount of water (mm) that
can be extracted by soil evaporation from the soil surface layer in stage I. Once REW is
removed from the soil, the evaporation rate switches to the falling rate stage. REW
corresponds to the U value presented by Ritchie (1972). Water lost by soil evaporation in
stage I comes mainly from a thin soil surface layer which is in direct contact with the air
above the field (Fig. 3.9b). When the soil surface layer is sufficiently wetted by rainfall or

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-85

irrigation, its soil water content is at field capacity. When the Readily Evaporable Water is
removed from the surface layer, its soil water content will be in equilibrium with the
atmosphere, i.e air dry; Hence REW is given by:
REW = 1000 ( FC −  air dry ) Z e, surf (Eq. 3.9b)

where FC volume water content at field capacity [m3/m3];

air dry volume water content at air dry [m3/m3];
Ze,surf thickness of the evaporating soil surface layer in direct contact with
the atmosphere [m].

The soil water content at air dry is estimated by applying the rule of thumb, stating that the
soil water content at air dry is about half of the soil water at wilting point (θair dry ≈ 0.5 θWP).
By assuming 40 mm for Ze,surf, an agreement was found between REW (Eq. 3.9b) and the
cumulative evaporation for the energy limiting stage (Stage I evaporation), i.e., the U value
of Ritchie (1972).

3.9.3 Soil evaporation coefficient for wet soil surface (Ke)

When the surface is wet, soil evaporation is calculated by multiplying the reference
evapotranspiration (ETo) with the soil evaporation coefficient (Eq. 3.9a). The soil
evaporation coefficient, Ke, considers the characteristics of the soil surface and the fraction
of the soil not covered by the canopy:

(
Ke = 1− CC * Ke x ) (Eq. 3.9.c)

where (1-CC*) adjusted fraction of the non-covered soil surface;

Kex maximum soil evaporation coefficient for fully wet and not shaded
soil surface.

The maximum soil evaporation coefficient Kex for a wet non shaded soil surface is a
program parameter. The default value is 1.10 (Allen et al., 1998) and can be adjusted by
the user. When the canopy cover (CC) expands in the crop development stage, the soil
evaporation coefficient Ke declines gradually (Fig. 3.9c).

In Eq. 3.9c, the fraction of the soil surface not covered by green canopy (1-CC*) is adjusted
for micro-advective effects (Fig 3.9d). The adjustment for (1-CC*) is based on the
experimental data of Adams et al. (1976) and Villalobos and Fereres (1990):

(1 − CC * ) = 1 − 1.72 CC + CC 2 − 0.30 CC 3 0 (Eq. 3.9d)

The microadvection cause E to be less than just being proportional to CC. The extra energy
is used for crop transpiration (see 3.10 Crop transpiration).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-86

 1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8

CC: green canopy cover

Ke/Kex 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
time (canopy development)

Figure 3.9c – Decline (bars) of the soil evaporation coefficient Ke with reference to
the wet non shaded soil surface (Kex) in the crop development stage when
the green canopy cover (shaded area) increases

1.0

0.8

0.6
1 - CC*

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Canopy cover (CC)

Figure 3.9d – Adjusted fraction (1-CC*) of not shaded soil surface (bold line)
for various fractions of green canopy cover (CC)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-87

3.9.4 Adjustment of Ke for withered canopy, mulches and partial wetting
by irrigation
▪ Sheltering effect of withered canopy cover
The soil evaporation coefficient needs to be adjusted for the sheltering effect of withered
canopy when the green canopy cover declines during periods of severe water stress or in
the late season stage as dictated by phenology. The dying crop will act as a shelter which
reduces soil evaporation much stronger then described by (1-CC*). Although in this stage
the green canopy decreases, the soil remains well sheltered by the withered canopy even
when the green canopy cover becomes zero (CC = 0) at the end of the growing cycle.

Two factors are considered for the adjustment of the soil evaporation coefficient:
- fcc a coefficient expressing the sheltering effect of the dead canopy cover [0 … 1];
- CCtop the canopy cover prior to senescence. If the canopy cover has reached its
maximum size, CCtop = CCx

( )
Keadj = (1 − f cc CC top ) 1 − CC * Ke x (Eq. 3.9e)

Notwithstanding the rule of thumb (Allen et al., 1998) to reduce the amount of soil water
evaporation by about 5% for each 10 % of soil surface that is effectively covered by an
organic mulch the default value for fcc is 0.60 and not 0.50, because a standing crop gives
better shelter against the effect of dry wind than an organic mulch that covers the soil
surface. To simulate a smooth increase of evaporation in the late season stage when
senescence occurs, fcc increases gradually from 0 (at the start of the late-season stage) to
its final value when CC is half of CCtop.

1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8
CC: green canopy cover

0.6 0.6
Ke/Kex

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
time (canopy decline)

Figure 3.9e – Increase (bars) of the soil evaporation coefficient Ke adjusted for
withered canopy with reference to the wet non shaded soil surface (Kex) in the late
season stage when the green canopy cover (shaded area) decreases

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-88

The effect of the withered canopy shelter on the reduction of soil evaporation is plotted in
Figure 3.9e. The effect is a program parameter which can be adjusted by the user.

▪ Adjustment for mulches

To reduce evaporation losses from the soil surface, mulches can be considered. The effect
of mulches on crop evaporation is described by two factors (Allen et al., 1998):
- soil surface covered by mulch (from 0 to 100%); and
- fm (≤ 1), the adjustment factor for the effect of mulches on soil evaporation, which
varies between 0.5 for mulches of plant material and is close to 1.0 for plastic mulches
(Allen et al., 1998).

The adjustment for soil evaporation consists in multiplying Ke by the correction factor:


Keadj = 1 − f m
Percent cov ered by mulch 
( )
 1 − CC Kex
*
(Eq. 3.9f)
 100 

The adjustment is not applied when standing water remains on the soil surface (between
soil bunds).

▪ Adjustment for partial wetting by irrigation

When only a fraction of the soil surface is wetted by irrigation, Ke is multiplied by the
fraction of the surface wetted (fw) to adjust for partial wetting (Allen et al., 1998):

( )
Keadj = f w 1− CC * Ke x (Eq. 3.9g)

The fraction fw is an irrigation parameter, and can be adjusted when selecting an irrigation
method in the Irrigation Management Menu. The adjustment for partial wetting is not
applied when:
- surface is wetted by irrigation and rain on the same day;
- surface is wetted by rain; and
- irrigation and/or rain water remains on the soil surface (between the soil bunds).

▪ Adjustment for mulches and partial wetting by irrigation

If the soil surface is covered by mulches and at the same time partial wetted by irrigation,
only one of the above adjustments is valid. Ke is the minimum value obtained from Eq.
3.9f and 3.9g.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-89

3.9.5 Evaporation reduction coefficient (Kr)
When insufficient water is available at the soil surface soil evaporation switches from Stage
I (energy limiting stage) to Stage II (falling rate stage). This simulated with the introduction
of an evaporation reduction coefficient (Eq. 3.9a). The evaporation reduction coefficient
(Kr) varies with the amount of water available in the upper soil layer from where water is
transferred to the evaporating soil surface layer. Kr is 1 if the soil is sufficiently wet and
the soil evaporation is not hampered by water depletion, which is the case in Stage I. Kr
decreases when the soil water depletion increases and is zero when the upper layer of the
soil becomes air dry (Fig. 3.9f).
evaporation reduction coefficient (Kr)

1.0

0.8

0.6 fK =
1

0.4 fK
=
4
0.2 fK
=
8

0.0
1.0 0.5 0.0
relative soil water content (Wrel)
start Stage II air dry

Figure 3.9f – The evaporation reduction coefficient Kr

for various levels of relative soil water content and decline factors (fK)

In stead of using the square root of time (Ritchie type of model), a mechanistic approach
is used to describe the evaporation rate in the falling rate stage. With this approach not only
time but also the amount of water extracted from the top soil by transpiration, groundwater
contribution from a shallow water table and the weather conditions (Rain and ETo) are
considered for the determination of Kr.

To account for the sharp decline in hydraulic conductivity with decreasing soil water
content, an exponential equation is used to relate Kr to the relative water content of the
upper soil layer:

exp f K Wrel − 1
0  Kr =  1 (Eq. 3.9h)
exp f K − 1

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-90

where fK is a decline factor and Wrel the relative water content of the soil layer through
which water moves to the evaporating soil surface layer (upper soil layer with thickness
Ze,top). A thickness of 0.15 m is assigned initially for Ze,top. However, when Wrel drops
below a threshold (set at Wrel = 0.4), Ze,top expands to a maximum depth which is a program
parameter. Its default value is 0.3 m and the range is 0.15 to 0.50 m.

At the start of Stage II, Wrel begins to decline below 1 and becomes 0 when there exist no
longer a hydraulic gradient i.e. when Ze,top is air dry (Fig. 3.9f). The decline factor fK
depends on the hydraulic properties of the soil and can be used to calibrate Kr when
measurements of soil evaporation are available. The decline of Kr with decreasing Wrel
alters by varying the value of fK (Fig. 3.9f). When fK takes a value of 4, a good fit was
obtained between the square root of time approach (Ritchie, 1972) and the soil water
content approach used by AquaCrop in the simulation of Stage II evaporation. Even after
three weeks of evaporation (21 days) the cumulative amount of water lost by soil
evaporation remained in the same range for both approaches and for most soil textural
classes.

3.9.6 Calculation of soil evaporation (E)

▪ Energy limiting stage (Stage I)
When rainfall occurs or water is added by irrigation, the infiltrated water replenishes the
soil surface layer till REW is reached. As long as readily evaporable water remains in the
surface layer, E is in the energy limiting stage, and the rate of soil evaporation is the
maximum rate:
( )
EStage I = 1− CC * Ke x ETo (Eq. 3.9i)
The following rules are applied:
- The maximum amount of water that can be stored in the surface layer is REW. Light
wetting events do not necessarily completely replenished the soil surface;
- If the soil surface is only partly wetted by irrigation, only the wetted fraction of the
surface layer is replenished;
- When the soil is flooded and water remains between soil bunds on top of the field,
evaporation takes places from the water layer at the soil surface. When the water layer
is completely evaporated, it is assumed that the total REW is still available in the soil
surface layer and soil evaporation starts in stage I.

▪ Falling rate stage (Stage II)

When all the readily evaporable water is removed from the evaporating soil surface layer,
the soil evaporation switches to the falling rate stage (Stage II). The evaporation rate is
given by:

( )
EStageII = Kr 1− CC * Ke x ETo (Eq. 3.9j)

where Kr is the dimensionless evaporation reduction coefficient.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-91

The relative water content at which Kr is 1 (upper limit) is the soil water content of the top
soil at the end of stage I. The upper limit will be close to saturation when the soil is slow
draining and close to field capacity when the soil drains quickly. However, it is assumed
in the model that the upper limit cannot drop below the soil water content at field capacity
minus REW. As such the expected sharp drop in evaporation when the top soil is only
slightly wetted by rainfall or irrigation can be simulated.

Since Kr varies strongly with Wrel especially at the beginning of Stage II, the routine daily
time step is inadequate and had to be divided into 20 equal fractions to obtain a differential
solution for Eq. 3.9j. At the end of each small time step, the water content of the soil profile
is updated and Kr is estimated with Eq. 3.9h. Consequently the switch from stage I to II
occurring during the day, can be simulated as well.

3.9.7 Calculation of soil evaporation (ETOT) in weed infested fields

As a result of the faster development of CCTOT (canopy cover of crop and weeds) and the
higher canopy cover (CCxTOT), the transpiration rate is larger and the soil evaporation
lower in a weed infested field than in a weed-free field. This affects the soil water balance,
and might affect the timing and magnitude of soil water stresses in the season as well.
Hence, the soil evaporation (ETOT) in the weed-infested field needs to be considered to
simulate correctly the soil water balance.

The soil evaporation in the weed-infested field (ETOT) is given by:

(
ETOT = Kr 1− CCTOT
*
)
Ke x ETo (Eq. 3.9k)
where Kr is the evaporation reduction coefficient (which is 1 in the energy limiting stage),
Kex the maximum soil evaporation coefficient for fully wet and not shaded soil surface,
and (1 - CC*TOT) the adjusted fraction of the non-covered soil surface by the canopy cover
of crop and weeds.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-92

3.10 Crop transpiration
ETo is the evapotranspiration rate from a grass reference surface, not short of water and is
an index for the evaporating power of the atmosphere. Crop transpiration (Tr) is calculated
by multiplying ETo with the crop transpiration coefficient (KcTr) and by considering the
effect of water (Ks) and cold (KsTr) stress:
Tr = (Ks Ks Tr Kc Tr ) ETo (Eq. 3.10a)
where Ks is the soil water stress coefficient which becomes smaller than 1, and as such
reduces crop transpiration, when insufficient water is available to respond to the
evaporative demand of the atmosphere, and KsTr is the cold stress coefficient which
becomes smaller than 1 when there are not enough growing degrees in the day. The crop
transpiration coefficient KcTr is proportional with the green canopy cover (CC). The
proportional factor is the maximum crop transpiration coefficient (KcTr,x) which integrates
the effects of characteristics that distinguish the crop transpiration from the
evapotranspiration from the grass reference surface. The calculation procedure is presented
in Fig. 3.10a.

Figure 3.10a – Calculation scheme in AquaCrop for crop transpiration (Tr)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-93

3.10.1 Crop transpiration coefficient (KcTr)
Crop transpiration is calculated by multiplying the reference evapotranspiration with the
crop transpiration coefficient (Eq. 3.10a). The crop transpiration coefficient (KcTr)
considers (i) the characteristics that distinguish the crop with a complete canopy cover from
the reference grass and (ii) the fraction by which the canopy covers the ground:

KcTr = CC * KcTr , x (Eq. 3.10b)

where KcTr,x coefficient for maximum crop transpiration (well watered soil and complete
canopy, CC = 1);
CC* actual canopy cover adjusted for micro-advective effects.

1
adjusted canopy cover (CC*)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Canopy cover (CC)

Figure 3.10b – Canopy cover (CC*) adjusted for micro-advective effects (bold line)
for various fractions of green canopy cover (CC)

To estimate crop transpiration, CC is increased to CC* to account for interrow micro-

advective and sheltering effect by partial canopy cover (Fig. 3.10b). The adjustment is
based on studies of Adams et al. (1976) and Villalobos and Fereres (1990):

CC * = 1.72 CC − CC 2 + 0.30 CC 3 (Eq. 3.10c)

When the canopy cover is incomplete extra energy is available for crop transpiration (Tr)
and less for soil evaporation (E). The micro-advection cause Tr to be more than just being
proportional to CC and E less than being proportional to (1-CC) (see 3.9 ‘Soil
evaporation’).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-94

3.10.2 Coefficient for maximum crop transpiration (KcTr,x)
Due to differences in albedo, crop height, aerodynamic properties, and leaf and stomata
properties, KcTr,x differs from 1. The KcTr,x coefficient is often 5-10% higher than the
reference grass, and even 15-20% greater for some tall crops such as maize, sorghum or
sugar cane. The KcTr,x coefficient is approximately equivalent to the basal crop coefficient
at mid-season for different crops (Allen et al., 1998), but only for cases of full CC.

3.10.3 Adjustments of KcTr,x for ageing, senescence and elevated [CO2]

▪ Adjustment of KcTr,x for ageing effects
After the time tCCx required to reach CCx under optimal conditions and before senescence,
the canopy ages slowly and undergoes a progressive though small reduction in transpiration
and photosynthetic capacity (Fig. 3.10c). This is simulated by applying an adjustment
factor (fage) that decreases KcTr,x by a constant and slight fraction (e.g., 0.3%) per day,
resulting in an adjusted crop coefficient. The ageing comes in effect at tCCx which is the
time when CCx (maximum canopy cover) would have been reached without water stress
(i.e. at the beginning of the mid-season). A short lag phase of 5 days is assumed. After the
lag phase of 5 days, KcTr,x,adj is given by:
KcTrx , adj = KcTr , x − (t − 5) f age CC x (Eq. 3.10d)

where t is the time in days after tCCx (t is zero before and at tCCx), and fage is the reduction
expressed as a fraction of CCx. The fage coefficient is a crop parameter, since it will require
some adjustment for annual crops such as sugarcane.

1.2

1.0 100 %
crop transpiration coefficient

green canopy cover

0.8
KcTr

CC

0.6

0.4

0.2 20%

0.0
0.0 time
canopy canopy
expansion decline

Figure 3.10c – Canopy development (shaded area) and crop transpiration coefficient
KcTr (line) throughout the crop cycle for KcTr,x = 1.1, CCx = 100%, and fage
0.16%/day

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-95

The same apply for forage and pasture crop. However, since the canopy is harvested at
each cut, a new canopy has to develop which cancels the ageing. Once CCx is reached after
a cutting, the ageing kicks in again and is described by Eq. 3.10d.

▪ Adjustment of KcTr,x once senescence is triggered

When senescence is triggered, the transpiration and photosynthetic capacity of the green
portion of the canopy drops more markedly with time. This is simulated by multiplying
KcTrx,adj (Eq. 3.10d) with another adjustment factor, fsen, which declines from 1 at the start
of senescence (CC = CCx) to 0 when no green canopy cover remains (CC = 0):

KcTrx , sen = KcTrx , adj ( f sen )

a
 CC  (Eq. 3.10e)
with f sen =  
 CC x 

The exponent a is a program parameter and can be used to accentuate (a > 1) or to minimize
(a < 1) the drop in the transpiration/photosynthetic efficiency of the declining canopy. In
the program ‘a’ can vary between an upper limit of 4 (very strong effect) and a lower limit
of 0.1 (very limited effect). Its default value is 1. The senescence factor (fsen) for various
degrees of withering (CC/CCx) and various values of the exponent ‘a’ is plotted in Fig.
3.10d.

1.0
0.9
a = 0.1
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.6 a= 1
f(sen)

0.5 a=
2
0.4 a=
0.3 4
0.2 a=
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
CC/CCx
no green leaves fully green
remain canopy

Figure 3.10d – The senescence factor (fsen)

for various degrees of withering (CC/CCx) and various values of the exponent ‘a’

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-96

▪ Adjustment of KcTr,x for elevated [CO2]
The overall transpiration response to elevated [CO2] is relatively small but significant. An
average decrease of 5% in crop transpiration is considered. The decrease is a combined
consequence of several effects. Elevated [CO2] decreases crop transpiration via reductions
in stomatal conductance, thus decreasing the transpiration on a leaf area basis. This
mechanism reduces the cooling effect of the transpiration process, augments leaf
temperature and triggers more transpiration, hence offsetting part of the transpiration
reduction.

By considering the reduction of 5 %, when the [CO2] increase from 370 to 550 ppm
(analysis of FACE data), the correction of Kc for elevated [CO2]:

[𝐶𝑂2 −369.41]
𝐾𝑐𝑇𝑟𝑥,𝑎𝑑𝑗 = 𝐾𝑐𝑇𝑟𝑥 (1 − 0.05 ) (Eq. 3.10e/2)
550−369.41

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-97

3.10.4 Soil water stress coefficient (Ks)
Crop transpiration can be affected by a shortage of water and an excess of water. This is
simulated with the help of a soil water stress coefficient for stomatal closure (Kssto) and for
water logging (Ksaer).

To allow light rain to reduce the soil water stress of deep rooted crops, the root zone
depletion is compared with the depletion in the top soil at each time of the simulation (Fig.
3.2c). The comparison determines which part of the soil profile is the wettest and controls
the water stress (only for Kssto).

▪ Water stress coefficient for stomatal closure (Kssto)

To simulate the result of stomatal closure induced by water stress, the coefficient for crop
transpiration (KcTr) is multiplied by the water stress coefficient for stomatal closure (Kssto):
Tr = Ks sto KsTr KcTr ET0 (Eq. 3.10f)
The Kssto coefficient describes the effect of water stress on crop transpiration (see 3.2.2:
Soil water stress). When sufficient water remains in the considered soil volume (top soil or
root zone), transpiration is unaffected and Kssto = 1. When the soil water depletion exceeds
an upper threshold (psto TAW), the water extracted by the crop becomes limited (Kssto < 1)
and the crop is under water stress (Fig. 3.10e). When the soil water content in the
considered soil volume reaches its lower limit (which is permanent wilting point), the
stomata are completely closed, and crop transpiration is halted (Kssto = 0). In AquaCrop
the shape of the Kssto curve between the upper and lower threshold can be selected as linear
or concave. Since the stress response curve are defined for an evaporating power of the
atmosphere (ETo) of 5 mm/day, the upper threshold for water stress needs to be adjusted
for ETo.

The upper threshold of soil water depletion (Dsto,upper) is given by:

Dsto ,upper = psto TAW (Eq.3.10g)

where psto fraction of TAW at which stomata start to close;

TAW Total Available soil Water in the considered soil volume [mm].

At the lower threshold, which corresponds with permanent wilting point, the soil water
depletion (Dsto,lower) is:
Dsto ,lower = TAW (Eq.3.10h)

The depletion coefficient psto is the fraction of TAW that can be depleted from the
considered soil volume before stomata starts to close. The p factor divides the Total
Available soil Water (TAW), in two parts: water that can be extracted without stress
(RAW) and water that is more difficult to extract (Fig. 3.10f).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-98

 stress coefficient for
high ETo stomatal closure
low ETo

no stress 1.0

0.8
water stress coefficient

0.6
Kssto

0.4

0.2

D
full stress 0.0
p(sto) p(lower)
field capacity TAW permanent wilting point

Figure 3.10e – The water stress coefficient for stomatal closure (Kssto)
for various degrees of depletion (D) in he considered soil volume
W: stored soil water

0.0
(mm)

field capacity
psto TAW

TAW
RAW
TAW
depletion (mm)
D : soil water

permanent wilting point

0.0
considered soil volume
(top soil or root zone)

Figure 3.10f – The upper and lower threshold of soil water depletion affecting
stomatal closure

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-99

▪ Effect of soil salinity on the water stress coefficient for stomatal closure
Due to osmotic forces, which lower the soil water potential, the salts in the root zone makes
the water less available for the crop. This results in a decline of the biomass production.

In a well-watered saline soil, and in the absence of any other stresses than salt stress,
AquaCrop obtains the relative biomass production from the ‘Biomass – ECe’ relationship
(Fig. 3.2f). The partial closure of the stomata is specified by calibration for a particular
ECe (Fig. 3.10g – effect 1).

When the soil is not well-watered, water depletion in the root zone results in an increase of
the salt concentration in the remaining soil water. Although root zone depletion does not
alter ECe (the indicator for soil salinity), it increases the electrical conductivity of the soil
water (ECsw). The stronger the root zone depletion, the larger ECsw, and the more difficult
it becomes for the crop to extract water from its root zone. This results in a stronger closure
of the stomata when the soil dries out. The extra effect of ECsw on stomata closure is
specified by calibration for the crop response to salinity stress (Fig. 3.10g – effect 2).

1.0

1
0.8
2

0.6
sto
Ks

0.4

0.2

0.0 2
FC PWP
s oil w ate r conte nt

Fig. 3.10g – The soil water coefficient for stomatal closure (Kssto) without (gray line)
and with (several alternative black lines) the effect of soil salinity stress. The decline
of Kssto (effect 1) is linked with ECe, the shift of the upper and lower threshold
(effect 2) is the effect of ECsw. The effect of ECsw on stomata closure (presented by
the alternative black lines) is specified by calibration

The effect of soil salinity stress on stomatal closure is simulated by multiplying the soil
water stress coefficient for stomatal closure (Kssto) with the soil salinity stress coefficient
for stomatal closure (Kssto,salt):
Ks sto ,adj = Ks sto ,salt Ks sto (Eq. 3.10i)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-100

▪ Water stress coefficient for deficient aeration conditions (Ksaer)
Transpiration is hampered not only when the water content in the considered soil volume
is limited but also when the root zone is water logged, resulting in deficient soil aeration
(Fig. 3.10h). If the water content in the root zone is above the anaerobiosis point (θair) the
root zone becomes water logged and transpiration is limited.

soil saturation
deficient
anaerobiosis point
soil aeration
field capacity

permanent wilting point

Figure 3.10h – The upper and lower threshold for the soil water content in the root
zone resulting in deficient aeration conditions

The effect of water logging on crop transpiration is simulated by means of a water stress
coefficient for water logging (Ksaer):
Tr = Ks aer KsTr KcTr ETo (Eq. 3.10j)
Ksaer varies linearly between the anaerobiosis point where Ksaer is 1 and soil saturation
where Ksaer is zero (Fig. 3.10i).
no stress 1.0

0.8
anaerobiosis point

RAW
water stress coefficient

0.6
Ksaer

0.4

0.2

full stress 0.0

0 sat 0 air 0 FC 0 sto
0 : soil water content (vol%)

Figure 3.10i – The water stress coefficient for water logging (Ksaer)
for various levels of soil water content (θ)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-101

The sensitivity of the crop to water logging is specified by the soil water content
(anaerobiosis point) at which the aeration of the root zone will be deficient for the crop and
starts to affect crop transpiration. The anaerobiosis point is a crop parameter. To simulate
the resistance of crops to short periods of waterlogging, the full effect will only be reached
after a specified number of days (which is a program parameter).

3.10.5 Cold stress coefficient (KsTr)

As for the water stress coefficient, the target crop parameter for the cold stress coefficient
(KsTr) is the crop transpiration coefficient (KcTr). It expresses the reduction in stomatal
conductance at low temperature. Daily crop transpiration (Tr) is calculated by multiplying
ETo with the crop transpiration coefficient (KcTr) and by considering the effect of water
stress (Ks) and cold stress (KsTr) on that day:
Tr = Ks KsTr KcTr ETo (Eq. 3.10k)
Depending on the number of growing degrees generated on a day, the value of KsTr varies
between 0 (resulting in no crop transpiration on a day) and 1 (transpiration is not restricted
by temperature for that day).
no stress 1.00
air temperature stress coefficient

0.80

0.60
KsTr

0.40

0.20

full stress 0.00

Growing Degrees (°C day)
air temperature limits
crop transpiration

lower limit upper limit

0 °C day GD upper °C day

Figure 3.10j – The air temperature stress coefficient for reduction of crop
transpiration (KsTr) for various levels of growing degrees

If the growing degrees generated in a day drops below an upper threshold (GDupper) the
crop transpiration is limited by air temperature and Ksb is smaller than 1 (Fig. 3.10j). In
AquaCrop it is assumed that transpiration is completely halted when it becomes too cold
to generate any growing degrees (KsTr = 0 for 0 °C day). Between the lower (0°C day) and
upper limit (GDupper) the variation of the adjustment factor is described by a logistic
function. The upper threshold (GDupper) is a crop parameter, and its value can be adjusted
between 0.1 and 20 °C day.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-102

3.10.6 Calculation of crop transpiration in weed infested fields (TrW)
Weeds affect crop development and production trough competition for the available
resources (water, light, and nutrients). In AquaCrop the competition is expressed by the
relative cover of weeds (RC). It is thereby assumed:
- that weeds and crop are equally sensitive to water, temperature, salinity and fertility
stress. This might be justified since a difference in sensitivity between weeds and crop
will be reflected by a difference in relative cover of weeds (RC). As such, RC also
reflects indirectly the differences in sensitivity to stresses of crop and weeds;
- that weeds and crop have the same growth cycle. This might be justified since weeds
already in the field at sowing will be most likely removed during land preparation.
Weeds germinating much later than the crop will hardly affect RC during the crop cycle
and their competition for the resources will be limited;
- that weeds and crop have a similar crop transpiration coefficient. This might be justified
since maximum transpiration coefficients (KcTr,x) for various crop types are similar;
- that weeds and crop have a similar root system and soil water extraction. This might be
justified since a difference in root system and water extraction will be reflected by a
difference in relative cover of weeds (RC). As such, the RC also reflect indirectly the
differences in root system and water extraction of crop and weeds.

Crop transpiration in a weed infested field (TrW) is proportional to CCW (Eq. 3.5k). In the
calculation of TrW, the adjustment for micro-adjustments is based on the total canopy cover
CCTOT:
 (
TrW = Ks Ks Tr CCW + CC TOT
*
)
− CC TOT Kc Tr , x ETo (Eq. 3.10l)

where Ks is the water stress coefficient, KsTr the cold stress coefficient, CCw the crop
canopy cover, CCTOT the total (crop and weeds) canopy cover, CC*TOT the total canopy
cover adjusted for micro-advective effects, KcTR,x the maximum crop transpiration
coefficient, and ETo is the evapotranspiration rate from a grass reference surface.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-103

3.10.7 Soil water extraction
▪ Calculation procedure
The calculation procedure consists of the following steps:
1. Determination of the transpiration demand by considering the average soil water
content in the considered soil volume (top soil or root zone) and as such the average
total water stress in the soil volume:

Tr = Ks soil volume KsTr KcTr ETo (Eq. 3.10m)

where Ks soil volume is the average soil water stress in the considered soil volume induced
by a shortage or an excess of water and/or aeration stress. A linear relationship between
the water stress coefficient ( Ks soil volume ) and the soil water content in the considered
soil volume is assumed.
2. Determination of the amount of water that can be extracted out of the root zone at
various depths, by considering the maximum root extraction rate and the water stress
coefficient at the various depths (soil compartments):

S i = Ks i S x , i (Eq. 3.10n)

where Si sink term ([Link]-1) at soil depth i;

Ksi water stress factor (dimensionless) for soil water content θi at soil
depth i;
Sx,i maximum root extraction rate ([Link]-1) at soil depth i.

The root extraction rate or sink term, S, (Feddes et al., 1978; Hoogland et al., 1981,
Belmans et al., 1983) expresses the amount of water that can be extracted by the roots
at a specific depth per unit of bulk volume of soil, per unit of time ([Link]-1).
Depending on the type of water stress, Ksi is either Kssto or Ksaer in Eq. 3.10n. To
determine the value of Ksi for the given θi, the assigned shape of the Ks curve (linear
or convex) is considered.
3. By integrating Eq. 3.10n over the different compartments of the root zone, the exact
amount of water that can be extracted by transpiration is obtained:

1000 (Ks S x , i ) dzi

bottom
Tr = i  Ks soil volume KsTr KcTr ETo (Eq. 3.10o)
top

where dzi is the thickness of the soil compartment (m). The integration starts at the top
of the soil profile and is stopped when the sum is equal to the transpiration demand
given by Eq. 3.10m or the bottom of the root zone is reached.

When the maximum root extraction rate over the entire root zone (Σ 1000Sxdz) is too
small (as a result of a limited root volume), the amount of water that can be extracted

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-104

 by transpiration will be smaller than the demand (Eq. 3.10m). The transpiration demand
can easily be extracted out of the root zone if Sx at the various depths is sufficiently
large. When Sx is large, the root zone well watered (Ks = 1) and the transpiration
demand small, water will only be extracted from the top of the root zone. When the top
becomes increasingly drier (Ksi < 1), more and more water will need to be extracted at
the lower part of the root zone.

▪ Maximum root extraction rate (Sx) and the total extraction rate (Σ 1000Sxdz)
In the model the maximum root extraction rate at the top of the soil profile (Sx,top) might
be different from the maximum extraction rate at the bottom of the root zone (Sx,bottom). The
assigned Sx values at different soil depths are proportional to the specified water extraction
pattern (Fig. 3.10k). Apart from the root distribution, Sx is also determined by the total root
volume. The total root volume determines the total amount of water that can be extracted
out of the root zone, i.e. the total extraction rate (Σ 1000Sxdz).

Figure 3.10k – Default extraction pattern in the root zone

The total extraction rate and the root distribution in the root zone are crop parameters which
can be adjusted. The default values (which are assigned when the crop is created) are:
- for root distribution: 40, 30, 20, 10% (where the values refer to the upper, second, third
and bottom quarter of the root zone as in Fig. 3.10j), and
- for total extraction rate Σ 1000Sxdz: A default 3 mm/day for each 0.10 m of rooting
depth is considered. By making Σ Sxdz very small, extremely low root volume resulting
in severely water stress even in a well-watered soil for normal climatic conditions can
be simulated.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-105

The maximum sink term (Sx) specifies the maximum amount of water that can be extracted
by the crop roots in the time step of 1 day. It is expressed in m3(water) per m3(soil) per day.
In AquaCrop distinction is made between the (Fig. 3.10k):
- maximum root extraction in top quarter of the root zone, Sx (top ¼);
- maximum root extraction in bottom quarter of the root zone, Sx (bottom ¼)
which are both non-conservative crop parameters, and can be altered by the user.

The two crop parameters determine:

- the maximum root extraction (mm/day), which is the maximum amount of water that
all the roots together would be able to extract, when maximum rooting depth (Zx) is
reached:

Ext Zx = 1000 Sx Zx (Eq. 3.10p)

Sx(top 1 / 4) + Sx(bottom 1 / 4)
with Sx = (Eq. 3.10q)
2
- the water extraction pattern throughout the effective root zone, which is expressed by
the percentages for the upper (P1), second (P2), third (P3) and bottom (P4) quarter of
the root zone:
Sx(top 1 / 4)
P1 = 100 (Eq. 3.10r)
4 Sx

Sx(bottom 1/ 4 ) +
2
3
(Sx(top 1/ 4) − Sx(bottom 1/ 4) )
P2 = 100 (Eq.3.10s)
4 Sx

Sx(bottom 1 / 4) +
1
3
(Sx(top 1 / 4) − Sx(bottom 1 / 4) )
P3 = 100 (Eq. 3.10t)
4 Sx
Sx(bottom 1 / 4)
P4 = 100 (Eq.3.10u)
4 Sx

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-106

▪ Calculation procedure for maximum root extraction and root distribution
when root zone expands in growing cycle
From the specified maximum root extraction in the top (Sx (top ¼)) and in the bottom
quarter of the root zone (Sx (bottom ¼)), AquaCrop determines by trigonometry (Fig.
3.10m):
- the maximum root water extraction at the soil surface (SxTop), and
- the maximum root water extraction at the bottom of the maximum root zone
(SxBottom)

SxTop and SxBottom are used throughout the simulation, to calculate at each time step,
the maximum root extraction (Sxi) at various depths Zi in the expanding root zone (i.e. the
Sxi for the different soil compartments:

Zrt − Z i
Sxi = SxBottom + SxTop − SxBottom (Eq. 3.10v)
Zrt

where Zrt is the rooting depth at time t.

As such the specified water extraction pattern P1, P2, P3 and P4 in respectively the upper,
second, third and bottom quarter of the root zone remains valid at any time, as the root zone
expands during simulation.

Figure 3.10m. – Specification of SxTop, SxBottom, Sx(Top ¼) and Sx(Bottom ¼)

Figure 3.10n – Root distribution or maximum root extraction (grey area) at various
moments (t1, t2 and t3) during the growing cycle

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-107

▪ Water extraction pattern and root distribution when root zone expansion
is restricted
In AquaCrop, the root zone expansion becomes restricted (or becomes even inhibited)
when:
1. water stress results in stomata closure, causing a limited CO2 uptake, and as such limited
root elongation and limited formation of new roots;
2. a restrictive soil layer is present in the root zone (which is a soil characteristic);
3. the expanding root zone reaches a dry sub soil. When the soil water content at the
expansion front is below a threshold, root zone expansion slows down and will even
stops when the soil water content is at permanent wilting point (the sub soil is too dry to
allow root zone expansion).
If the restricted expansion of the root zone is only the result of limitations in the soil profile
(conditions 2 and 3 above), new roots still continue to be formed. Since the expansion of
the root zone is limited or inhibited, the new formed roots concentrate above the restrictive
soil layer. This result in an increase of SxBottom and alters the root distribution (water
extraction pattern) in the top soil (Fig. 3.10p).

Figure 3.10p – Root distribution (water extraction pattern) at time t in a soil profile
(1) without, and (2) with restrictive soil layers (too dry and/or the presence of
physical or chemical restrictive soil layers).

To guarantee an identical total root density (total maximum root extraction) when a
restrictive soil layer limits the root zone expansion, SxBottom is adjusted, with the
correction factor, Scor:
 Zx   SxTop + SxBottom 
2  t ,un lim
   − SxTop
 
=  
Zxt 2
S cor (Eq. 3.10w)
SxBottom
where Zxt is the limited rooting depth at time t, and Zxt,unlim the rooting depth which could
have been reached at that moment, if root deepening was unlimited.
The adjusted SxBottom is given by:
  Tr 
SxBottomadjust = S cor   SxBottom  0.060 m 3 .m −3 .day −1 (Eq. 3.10x)
  Tr 
 x 

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-108

where ∑Tr is the sum of the actual crop transpiration, and ∑Trx the sum of the potential
crop transpiration. The ratio of the actual over the potential crop transpiration (∑Tr/∑Trx)
in Eq. 3.10x, is a correction for the effect of the closure of the stomata which also slows
down root zone expansion, but do not results in a concentration of roots at the bottom of
the expanding root zone (since root formation is limited).

Eq. 3.10v, which specifies the maximum root extraction (Sxi) at various depths Zi in the
root zone, becomes :
Zr − Z i
Sxi = (Scor ) SxBottom + SxTop − (Scor ) SxBottom t  0.060 m 3 .m −3 .day −1
Zrt
(Eq. 3.10y)
where Zrt is the rooting depth at time t.

The restriction of 0.060 m3/[Link] in Eq. 3.10x and 3.10y, refers to the limitations of the
maximum root extraction.

3.10.8 Feedback mechanism of transpiration on canopy development

A feedback mechanism is added to the model to guarantee that when crop transpiration
drops to zero, the canopy development is halted under all circumstances. As such leaf
growth stops when the root zone is water logged (at least for crops sensitive to water
logging), when it is too cold for the crop to transpire, and in the absence of any atmospheric
water demand (ETo is zero).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-109

3.11 Dry above-ground biomass
The daily (m) and the cumulative (B) dry above-ground biomass production is obtained
from the normalized biomass water productivity (WP*), and the ratio of the daily crop
transpiration (Tr) over the reference evapotranspiration for that day (ETo):

 Tr 
m = WP*   (Eq. 3.11a)
 ETo 
 Tr 
B = WP*    (Eq. 3.11b)
 ETo 

▪ Crops that do not transfer assimilates to their below-ground parts (annual

crops)

The calculation scheme is presented in Fig. 3.11a/1

Figure 3.11a/1 – Calculation scheme in AquaCrop for dry above-ground biomass

(B) for annual crops (no transfer of assimilates)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-110

▪ Crops transferring assimilates between above and below ground parts
Perennial herbaceous forage crops transfer a considerable fraction of the assimilates to their
below-ground parts after mid-season. At the start of the next season, a fraction of the stored
assimilates are remobilized by transferring them from the below-ground parts to the above
ground parts. The rest is assumed to be lost during the off-season by respiration and natural
self-thinning, or remain stored in underground organs.

Since AquaCrop does not simulate biomass partitioning among various organs, variations
in partitioning along the season are simulated by increasing or reducing WP*. The
calculation scheme for the above-ground biomass is presented in Fig. 3.11a/2, with
indication of the crop parameters which can be used to calibrate the transfer of assimilates:
- Lstorage: the duration of the storage period;
- S: the maximum fraction of produced assimilates that are stored in the below-ground
parts during the storage stage;
- M: the fraction of stored assimilates of the previous season, that are remobilized at the
start of the season.

Figure 3.11a/2 – Calculation scheme in AquaCrop for dry above-ground biomass

(Bupper) for perennial herbaceous forage crops with transfer of assimilates between
the above-ground and the below-ground parts of the plant.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-111

3.11.1 Normalized biomass water productivity (WP*)
By considering the biomass water productivity (WP), the aboveground biomass can be
derived from the simulated transpiration. The biomass water productivity expresses the
above-ground dry matter (g or kg) produced per unit land area (m2 or ha) per unit of water
transpired (mm). Many experiments have shown that the relationship between biomass
produced and water consumed by a given species is highly linear (Steduto et al., 2007).
AquaCrop uses the normalized biomass water productivity (WP*) for the simulation of the
dry above-ground biomass (Eq. 3.11a and b). The WP is normalized for the atmospheric
CO2 concentration and for the climate. The units of biomass water productivity after the
adjustment for climate are mass of above-ground dry matter (g or kg) per unit land area
(m2 or ha).

▪ Normalization for atmospheric CO2

The normalization for CO2 consists in considering the biomass water productivity for an
atmospheric CO2 concentration of 369.41 ppm (parts per million by volume). The reference
value of 369.41 is the average atmospheric CO2 concentration for the year 2000 measured
at Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii (USA). The observatory was selected as the reference
location because the air at the site is very pure due to its remote location in the Pacific
Ocean, high altitude (3397 m.a.s.l), and great distance from major pollution sources.

▪ Normalization for the climate

The WP is normalized for climate by dividing the amount of water transpired (Tr) with the
reference evapotranspiration (ETo). Asseng and Hsiao (2000) argued that ETo would be
better than vapor pressure deficit (VPD) for normalization because the FAO Penman-
Monteith equation takes into account the difference in temperature between the air and
evaporation surface. Further Steduto and Albrizio (2005) demonstrated with experimental
data that more consistent results were obtained when normalizing with ETo as compared
with VPD. The reference evapotranspiration ETo is obtained from meteorological data with
the help of the FAO Penman-Monteith equation (Allen et al., 1998).

▪ Classes for C3 and C4 groups

After normalization for atmospheric CO2 concentrations and climate, recent findings
indicate that crops can be grouped in classes having a similar WP* (Fig. 3.11b). Distinction
can be made between C4 crops with a WP* of 30 - 35 g/m2 (or 0.30 – 0.35 ton per ha) and
C3 crops with a WP* of 15 - 20 g/m2 (or 0.15 – 0.20 ton per ha).

Some leguminous crops may have WP* values below 15 g/m² due to their biological
nitrogen fixation process.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-112

 ²
m

²
m
g/

g/
5

0
:3

:3
P*

P*
W

W
²
/m
0g

s
2

op
*:
Dry above-ground biomass WP

cr
C4
²
/m
15g
P*:
ps W
cro
C 3

Sum (Tr/ET0)

Figure 3.11b – The relationship between the dry above-ground biomass and the
total amount of water transpired for C3 and C4 crops after normalization for CO2
and climate (ETo)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-113

3.11.2 WP*adjusted for CO2, products synthesized, and soil fertility
▪ Adjustment of WP* for atmospheric CO2 (fCO2)
AquaCrop will adjust WP* when running a simulation for a year at which the atmospheric
CO2 concentration differs from its reference value (369.41 ppm). The adjustment is
obtained by multiplying WP* with a correction coefficient:

*
WPadj  
= 1 + f type ( f CO 2 − 1) WP * (Eq. 3.11c)

where WP*adj WP adjusted for CO2

ftype correction coefficient for crop type
fCO2 correction coefficient for CO2

The coefficient between square brackets, considers the difference between the reference
value and the atmospheric composition for that year (fCO2) and the crop type (ftype).

In Figure 3.11c/1, the adjustment of WP* for various atmospheric CO2 concentrations (Eq.
3.11c) is plotted for various crop types (ftype). In Table 3.11c/1 the adjustment of WP* for
various atmospheric CO2 concentrations (Eq. 3.11c) for C3 crops (ftype = 1) and for two
different approaches of the correction coefficient for CO2 (fCO2) are listed.

1.5
1 + ftype (fCO2 - 1)

1.4
. 00
e) = 1
f(typ
1.3 op
cr
C3
1.2 f(type) = 0.50

f(type) = 0.25
1.1 C4 crop
f(type) = 0.00
1.0

0.9

0.8
320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560
CO2 in ppm
Figure 3.11c/1 – Correction for WP* as given by Eq. 3.11c (with the default fsink of
0.5 for fCO2) considering various atmospheric CO2 concentration and various
coefficients for crop type: ftype = 1.00 (WP* ≤ 20 g/m2); 0.50 (WP* = 30 g/m2); 0.25
(WP* = 35 g/m2); and 0.00 (WP* ≥ 40 g/m2).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-114

Table 3.11c/1 – Adjustment (multiplier) for WP* (Eq. 3.11c), for various
atmospheric CO2 concentration ([CO2]) for C3 crops (ftype = 1) and for two different
approaches of the correction coefficient for CO2 (fCO2)
Year [CO2] [1 + f (f – 1)] type CO2

approach based on FACE theoretical approach

(fsink = 0) (fsink = 1)
- ppm - -
1905 298.2 0.815
1924 304.5 0.832
1953 311.9 0.851
1975 331.11 0.901
2000 369.41 1.000 (reference)
2015 400 1.073 1.078
2031* – 2040* 450 1.162 1.205
2052 – 2057
* *
500 1.214 1.330
… 550 1.230 1.453
* corresponding years depending on the assumed scenario of [CO2] elevation

Correction coefficient for crop type (ftype)

Not many FACE experiments are conducted for C4 crops since it is believed that this crop
type hardly respond to elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations. The correction for crop
type (ftype) assumes that the different response of C3 and C4 crops can be considered as
valid.

0  f type =
(40 − WP *)  1
(40 − 20)
(Eq. 3.11d)

The Eq. 3.11d considers the distinction between C4 crops with a typical WP* of 30 up to
35 g/m2 and C3 crops with a typical WP* of 15 up to 20 g/m2 (Fig. 3.11b)

Correction coefficient for CO2 concentration up to 550 ppm (fCO2)

f CO 2 =
(C a, i / Ca , o )
1 + (Ca , i − Ca , o ) (1 − w)bSted + w ( f sin k bSted + (1 − f sin k )bFACE )
(Eq. 3.11e/1)

where fCO2 correction coefficient for CO2

Ca,o reference atmospheric CO2 concentration (369.41 ppm)
Ca,i atmospheric CO2 concentration for year i (ppm)
bSted 0.000138 (Steduto et al., 2007);
bFACE 0.001165 (derived from FACE experiments);

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-115

 w weighing factor;
fsink crop sink strength coefficient.

To consider the discrepancy between the observed (FACE experiments) and theoretical
adjustment (Steduto et al., 2007) of WP*, two coefficients (bSted and bFACE) are considered.
The weighing factor (w) makes that in Eq. 3.11e/1 bFACE gradually replaces bSted starting
from the reference atmospheric CO2 concentration (Ca,o = 369.41 ppm) and becomes fully
applicable for Ca,i equal to 550 ppm:
 (550 − Ca ,i ) 
0  w = 1 −  1
 (550 − Co,i ) 
 (Eq. 3.11f)

where Ca,o reference atmospheric CO2 concentration (369.41 ppm);

Ca,i actual atmospheric CO2 concentration (ppm) but  550 ppm

For Ca,i smaller than or equal to Ca,o, the weighing factor is zero (w = 0), while for Ca,i =
550 ppm, w becomes 1. The threshold of 550 ppm is selected as the representing value for
the elevated [CO2] maintained in the FACE experiments.

The crop sink strength coefficient in Eq. 3.11e/1 considers that the theoretical adjustment
(with bSted) might not be entirely valid when (i) soil fertility is not properly adjusted to the
higher productivity under elevated CO2 concentration, and/or (ii) the sink capacity of the
current crop variety is unable to take care of the elevated CO2 concentration.

Table 3.11c/2 – Range of indicative values for fsink for 10 crops available in the
database of AquaCrop (Vanuytrecht et al., 2011)
Crop Class and indicative value range for fsink
Cereals
- Maize Low (0.0 – 0.2)
- Rice Low (0.0 – 0.2)
- Wheat Low (0.0 – 0.2)
- Sunflower Low (0.0 – 0.2)
Legumes
- Soybean Moderate low (0.2 – 0.4)
Indeterminate crops
- Tomato Moderate low (0.2 – 0.4)
- Quinoa Moderate low (0.2 – 0.4)
Woody species
- Cotton Moderate high (0.4 – 0.6)
Root and tuber crops
- Potato High (0.4 – 0.6)
- Sugar beet High (0.4 – 0.6)

The crop sink strength coefficient (fsink) can be altered according to the sink strength of the
crop considered, which is determined by crop characteristics and field management. The
value can be as high as one (the theoretical approach) or as low as zero (based on an

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-116

analysis of crop responses in FACE environments by Vanuytrecht et al., 2011). Indicative
values for fsink for crops available in the AquaCrop library are presented in Table 3.11c/2.

The values of fsink reported in Table 3.11c/2 should be considered as a good starting value
but not as definitive. If projections of future agricultural productivity are to be made in
areas where nutrient deficiency is excepted fsink should be reduced. If projections are to be
made for species with improved cultivars with a higher responsiveness to [CO2] are likely
to be bred (e.g. high value crops like vegetables) the values for fsink can be higher than the
indicative value in Table 3.11c/2.

Correction coefficient for CO2 concentration above 550 ppm (fCO2)

Literature (e.g. Akita and Moss, 1973; Chapin et al., 2011; Kirschbaum, 2011; Kromdijk
and Long, 2016; Yin and Struik, 2009) indicates that the response for C3 crops does not
increase much beyond 700 – 900 ppm (Fig. 3.11c/2). Since the correction coefficient for
CO2 (fCO2) given by Eq. 3.11e/1, does not consider such a decrease of WP* at high CO2
concentrations (550 ppm and above), the biomass production is likely to be strongly
overestimated at high CO2 concentrations and an unrealistic effect of CO2 fertilization on
crops might be simulated with previous versions of Aquacrop. This is true for any of the
selected adjustment approach (theoretical or based on FACE experiments).

Figure 3.11c/2 – Gross leaf photosynthesis (left ordinate) for various ambient CO2
concentrations for C3 and C4 crops (after Yin and Struik, 2009), and the derived
corresponding adjusted correction coefficient for CO2 (fCO2,adj) at the right ordinate.

The decreasing trend in crop response to elevated CO2 is well documented in literature (e.g.
Akita and Moss, 1973; Chapin et al., 2011; Kirschbaum, 2011; Kromdijk and Long, 2016;
Yin and Struik, 2009). However, the exact crop response differs between publications and

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-117

might be the result of the studied crop type, and differences in the experimental set up and
environmental conditions.

To avoid an unrealistic simulation of biomass production at CO2 concentrations above 550

ppm, the correction coefficient for WP* is further adjusted. It is stressed that it remains
a purely theoretical adjustment, without any validation from field experiments. Since
it is well documented and describes the general trend, the crop response based on the
research by Yin and Struik (2009), was selected to simulate the decline in rise of WP* at
CO2 concentrations above 550 ppm. With the help of the fsink, the user can still vary the
shape (Fig. 3.11c/3) and somewhat the corresponding response.

The adjustment for the correction coefficient for CO2 is based on values for the gross leaf
photosynthesis (Fig. 3.11c/2) given by Yin and Struik (2009). For the C3 crop, the leaf
photosynthesis is:
- 22.7 μmol/m2.s at 369.41 ppm (point A), which is the reference CO2 concentration at
the year 2000. There is no need to correct WP* (Tab. 3.11c/1) and the corresponding
correction coefficient for CO2 (fCO2,adj) is consequently 1 (right ordinate Fig. 3.11c/2);
- 27.5 μmol/m2.s at 550 ppm (point B0), which is the CO2 concentration maintained in
most FACE experiments. Since the leaf photosynthesis is 21 % larger than at the
reference point, fCO2,adj should also be 1.21 at this Ca,i. The resulting fCO2,adj of 1.21
corresponds well with the observed value of 1.23 derived by Vanuytrecht et al. (2011)
from the FACE experiments (Eq. 3.11e/1 with fsink = 0; Tab. 3.11c/1);
- 35.9 μmol/m2.s (point C) at 2,000 ppm, which is 58 % larger than the leaf
photosynthesis at the reference point. Hence at point C the fCO2,adj should be 1.58 (right
ordinate Fig. 3.11c/2).

In Fig. 3.11c/2, the curve AB0C (given by Yin and Struik, 2009) can also be used to specify
the adjustment of WP* for CO2 (fCO2,adj) for the approach based on FACE experiments
(when fsink = 0) for high CO2 concentrations. The corresponding value fCO2,adj is given at
the right ordinate.

For the theoretical adjustment (Eq. 3.11e/1 with fsink = 1), Eq. 3.11e/1 yields a fCO2 of 1.453
at 550 ppm (Tab. 3.11c/1). This corresponds with point B1 in Fig. 3.11c/2. Hence the curve
AB1C specifies fCO2,adj for the theoretical adjustment (when fsink = 1) for high CO2
concentrations.

The equation for any of the curves ABC for any fsink between 0 and 1 (Fig. 3.11c/3) is given
by:
(Eq. 3.11e/2)

with fshape = -4.61824 – 3.43831 (fsink) – 5.32587 (fsink)2 (Eq . 3.11e/3)

where fCO2,adj adjusted correction coefficient for CO2 concentration

CO2rel (Ca,i – Ca,o) / (2,000 – Ca,o)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-118

 Ca,o reference atmospheric CO2 concentration (369.41 ppm)
Ca,i atmospheric CO2 concentration for year i (ppm)
with 369.41 ≤ Ca,i ≤ 2000 ppm
fshape a shape factor which varies with fsink
fsink crop sink strength coefficient

Combined correction coefficient for any CO2 concentration (fCO2)

In AquaCrop, the correction for atmospheric CO2 switches from Eq. 3.11e/1 (fCO2) which
is valid at low CO2 concentrations, to Eq. 3.11e/2 (fCO2,adj) which is valid at high CO2
concentrations (Fig. 3.11c/3). The following rules apply:
- for Ca,i smaller than or equal to 369.41 ppm (the reference value at year 2000), the
correction for CO2 (fCO2) is given by Eq. 3.11e/1;
- for Ca,i between 369.41 and 550 ppm, the correction for CO2 (fCO2,adj) given by Eq.
3.11e/2 is used. However the correction given by Eq. 3.11e/2 (fCO2,adj) cannot exceeds
the correction given by Eq. 3.11e/1 (fCO2). Hence the restriction fCO2, adj ≤ fCO2 applies
in this CO2 range;
- for Ca,i larger than or equal to 550 ppm (the value in most FACE experiments) but
smaller than 2,000, the correction for CO2 (fCO2,adj) is given by Eq. 3.11e/2;
- for Ca,i larger than or equal to 2,000 ppm, the correction is at its maximum and fCO2 =
1.58.

Figure 3.11c/3 – Correction coefficient for CO2 for various atmospheric CO2
concentrations and fsink in AquaCrop, for a C3 crop type (ftype = 1 with WP* ≤ 20
g/m2). The dotted lines are the fCO2 as given by Eq. 3.11e/1 for respectively fsink = 0,
0.5 and 1. The points A, B0, B1, and C are identical as in Figure 3.11c/2

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-119

References
Akita S, Moss DN (1973) The Effect of an Oxygen-free Atmosphere on Net Photosynthesis
and Transpiration of Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
Leaves. Plant Physiol 52:601–603.
Chapin FS, Matson PA, Vitousek P (2011) Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology,
2nd edn. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Kirschbaum MUF (2011) Does Enhanced Photosynthesis Enhance Growth? Lessons
Learned from CO2 Enrichment Studies. Plant Physiology 155:117–124.
Kromdijk J, Long SP (2016) One crop breeding cycle from starvation? How engineering
crop photosynthesis for rising CO2 and temperature could be one important route to
alleviation. Proc R Soc B 283:20152578.
Steduto, P., T.C. Hsiao and E. Fereres 2007. On the conservative behavior of biomass water
productivity. Irrig. Sci. 25: 189-207.
Vanuytrecht, E., D. Raes and P. Willems. 2011. Considering sink strength to model crop
production under elevated atmospheric CO2. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 151:
1753-1762.
Yin X, Struik PC (2009) C3 and C4 photosynthesis models: An overview from the
perspective of crop modelling. NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 57:27–
38.

Atmospheric CO2 concentration for various years

Next to air temperature, ETo and rainfall data, the CO2 concentration is climatic input. By
default AquaCrop obtains the atmospheric CO2 concentration for a particular year from the
‘MaunaLoa.CO2’ file in its database which contains observed and expected concentrations
at Mauna Loa Observatory. For years before 1958 (the start of observations at the
Observatory) CO2 data obtained from firn and ice samples are used. These samples were
collected close to the coast of Antarctica (Etheridge et al., 1996). For future years an
expected increase of 2 ppm is considered (Fig. 3.11c/4).
Years before 2000, have an atmospheric CO2 concentration which is lower than the
reference value of 369.41 ppm and hence a smaller WP (fCO2 < 1). Years after 2000 have a
higher atmospheric CO2 concentration, and hence a higher WP (fCO2 > 1).
For crop yield estimates for future years, CO2 files from four different RCP’s (‘RCP2-
6.CO2’, RCP4-5.CO2’, ‘RCP6-0.CO2’ and ‘RCP8-5.CO2’) are available in the DATA
subdirectory of AquaCrop. The RCPs (Representative Concentration Pathways) represent
a broad range of climate outcomes. Each RCP results from different combinations of
economic, technological, demographic, policy, and institutional futures. In 2021, IPCC
released a new set of climate scenarios with respect to the sixth IPCC report. CO2 files for
the five “Shared Socioeconomic Pathways” (SSPs) are added to the DATA subdirectory
(‘SSP1-1.9.CO2’, ‘SSP1-2.6.CO2’, ‘SSP2-4.5.CO2’, ‘SSP3-7.0.CO2’ and ‘SSP5-
8.5.CO2’). They represent different socio-economic developments as well as different
pathways of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. Compared to the previous used
RCPs, the new SSPs scenarios have been improved in a variety of ways (IPCC, 2021). In
Figure 3.11d, the CO2 concentrations of the new set of SSPs are plotted next to the RCPs.
For scenario analysis the user can use other ‘CO2’ files or own estimates as long as the
structure of the CO2 files is respected (see Chapter2, section 2.23.3 ‘CO2 file’).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-120

atmospheric CO2 concentration (ppm)
500

400
ref erence (369.41 ppm)

300

200

100

0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
year
Figure 3.11c/4 – Atmospheric CO2 concentrations derived from frin and ice samples
(light bars), observed at Mauna Loa Observation (dark bars), and predicted (dotted
line) by assuming a continuous rise of 2 ppm/year, with indication of the reference
value

Figure 3.11d – Projected CO2 concentrations for 5 SSPs (solid line) and 4 RCPs
(dotted lines), available in the database of AquaCrop.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-121

▪ Adjustment of WP* for types of products synthesized (fyield)
If products that are rich in lipids or proteins are synthesized during yield formation,
considerable more energy per unit dry weight is required than for the synthesis of
carbohydrates (Azam-Ali and Squire, 2002). As a consequence, the biomass water
productivity during yield formation needs to be adjusted for the type of products
synthesized during yield formation:
*
WPadj = f yield WP * (Eq. 3.11g)

where WP*adj WP adjusted for type of products synthesized

fyield reduction coefficient for the products synthesized (fyield <= 1).

In the vegetative stage, the dry above-ground biomass is derived from the simulated
amount of water transpired by means of WP*. During yield formation, the biomass water
productivity switches gradually from WP* to WP*adj (Fig. 3.11e). For determinant crops
the transition takes place during the lag phase where the increase of the Harvest Index is
slow (see 3.12.3 Building up of Harvest Index). For indeterminant crops it is assumed that
the biomass water productivity is fully adjusted after 1/3 of the length of the yield formation
stage.
Dry above-ground biomass

transition
period

yie ld
form ation

Sum (Tr/ET0)

Figure 3.11e – The relationship between the dry above-ground biomass and the total
amount of water transpired before and during yield formation for crops rich in
lipids or proteins

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-122

▪ Adjustment of WP* for soil fertility (KsWP)
If limited soil fertility affects the biomass water productivity, the adjusted productivity is
given by:
*
WPadj = KsWP WP * (Eq. 3.11h)

where WP*adj WP adjusted for soil fertility

KsWP soil fertility stress coefficient for biomass water productivity (KsWP
<= 1)

KsWP is 1 for non-limiting soil fertility. The stress coefficient decreases for increasing soil
fertility stress (see 3.2. Stresses). Biomass production is no longer possible when the stress
coefficient reaches the theoretical minimum of 0.

Because the reservoir of nutrients gradually depletes when the crop develops, the effect of
soil fertility on the adjustment of WP is not linear throughout the season. As long as the
canopy is small, the daily biomass production will be rather similar to the daily production
for non-limited soil fertility, and KsWP,i at day i will be close to 1 (no fertility stress). This
is the case early in the season when sufficient nutrients are still available in the root zone.
If the crop does not experience water stress, the canopy will further develop during the
season but this will result in a progressive depletion of nutrients from the reservoir.
Consequently the daily biomass production will gradually decline when more and more
biomass is produced. This is simulated in AquaCrop by making the stress coefficient KsWP,i
a function of the relative amount of biomass produced (Brel). For every day in the season
Brel is given by the ratio between the amount of biomass produced on that day and the
maximum amount of biomass that can be obtained at the end of the season for the given
soil fertility level. The maximum amount refers to a production without any water stress
during the season.

Since Brel, after correction for temperature stress, is proportional to the relative amount of
water that has been transpired, KsWP,i for any day in the season is given by:
2
 i 
  (Tr j / ETo j ) 
KsWP , i = 1 − fWP  j =1  (Eq. 3.11i)
 n 
  (Trx , j / ETo j ) 
 j =1 
where KsWP,i soil fertility stress coefficient for biomass water productivity at day
fWP maximum reduction for WP (expressed as a fraction) for the given
soil fertility level, that can be observed at the end of the season when
the crop does not experience water stress (fWP = 1 – KsWP)
∑(Trj/EToj) sum of water transpired at day i (normalized for climate)
∑(Trx,j/EToj) sum of water that will have been transpired at the end of the season
(normalized for climate) for the given soil fertility level when the
crop does not experience water stress
n number of days in the season

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-123

 no stress 1.0

f WP

soil fertility stress coefficient

0.8
Ks WP

0.6
KsWP,i

0.4

0.2

full stress 0.0

0% 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 %
relative transpiration

Figure 3.11f – Soil fertility stress coefficient for various degrees of relative
transpiration (for a fWP of 0.3 or a KsWP of 0.7)

The variation of the soil fertility stress coefficient throughout the season is plotted in Fig.
3.11f. At the start of the season KsWP,i is 1 and WP* is not adjusted. As more and more
water is transpired during the season, KsWP,i will gradually decline. When the crop does
not experience any water stress throughout its cycle, the relative transpiration becomes 1
at the end of the season and KsWP,i=n = KsWP. However, if water stress hampers the canopy
development and/or result in stomatal closure, the relative transpiration will remain smaller
than 1 throughout the season, resulting in a smaller adjustment of WP (KsWP,i=n > KsWP,x).

▪ WP*adjusted for CO2, products synthesized, and fertility or salinity stress

The total adjustment of the normalized biomass water productivity for atmospheric CO2,
type of products synthesized and soil fertility/salinity stress is given by:
*
WPadj  
= 1 + f type ( f CO 2 − 1) f yield KsWP ,i WP * (Eq. 3.11j)

How strongly WP*adj differs from WP*, depends on the deviation of the atmospheric CO2
concentration from its 369.47 ppm reference value, the crop type, its sink strength, the
growth stage (vegetative or yield formation), the type of products synthesized during yield
formation, the amount of biomass produced, the soil fertility and /or soil salinity stress. For
soil fertility/salinity stress, WP*adj will decline during the season as more biomass is
produced and KsWP,i gradually decreases.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-124

3.11.3 Dry above-ground biomass of the crop (BW) in weed infested fields
▪ Unlimited soil fertility
The crop dry above-ground biomass in a weed-infested field (BW) is given by:
Tr
BW = WP *  W (Eq. 3.11k)
ETo
where WP* is the normalized biomass water productivity, and Trw the crop transpiration in
the weed infested field.

▪ Limited soil fertility

When soil fertility limits crop development and production, the crop dry above-ground
biomass in the weed-infested field (BW) is given by:
Tr
BW = KsWP WP*  W (Eq. 3.11m)
ETo
Since it is assumed that soil fertility affects both weed and crop identically, soil fertility
will also be identically in a weed-stressed and in a weed-free field. But next to fertility
stress, which reduces crop development, there is also weed stress, which reduces crop
density.

3.11.4 Transfer of assimilates for perennial herbaceous forage crops

Reference: Raes, D., Fereres, E., García Vila, M., Curnel, Y., Knoden, D., Kale Çelik, S.,
Ucar, Y., Türk, M., Wellens, J. 2023. Simulation of alfalfa yield with AquaCrop.
Agricultural Water Management (284), 108341.
[Link]

Perennial herbaceous forage crops transfer a considerable fraction of the assimilates to their
below-ground parts after mid-season. At the start of the next season, a fraction of the stored
assimilates are remobilized by transferring them from the below-ground to the above
ground parts of the crop (Fig. 3.11a/2). The rest is assumed to be lost during the off-season
by respiration and natural self-thinning, or remain stored in underground organs.

The transfer of assimilates is described by 3 crop parameters (Tab. 3.11n), which can be
used to calibrate the process of the transfer of the assimilates.

Table 3.11n – Crop parameters describing the transfer of assimilates (Fig. 3.11a/2)
Symbol Description Type
Lstorage Number of days at end of season during which assimilates Management
are stored in root system – only for perennial forage crops Cultivar

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-125

 S Fraction of assimilates, transferred to the below-ground Management
parts at last day of season – only for perennial forage Cultivar
crops
M Fraction of stored assimilates, transferred to above Management
ground parts in next season – only for perennial forage Cultivar
crops

▪ Calibration of the process of the transfer of assimilates

In the Transfer assimilates tab-sheet of the Production tab-sheet in the Crop characteristics
menu, the seasonal transfer of the assimilates between the above and below ground parts
of the crop is specified (Fig. 3.11m).

Figure 3.11m – Input (1 to 3) and information (a to c) on the transfer of assimilates

in the “Transfer assimilates” tab-sheet in the Crop characteristics menu

If the transfer of assimilates is considered, the user can change:

1. The duration of the transfer period in which assimilates are stored in the below-
ground parts at the end of the season, by specifying (1.a) the number of days or (1.b)
the starting date (day and month) of the storage stage. By knowing the total length of
the crop cycle and the specified duration of the storage stage, AquaCrop obtains from
the input, the time in calendar days at which the transfer starts;

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-126

2. The fraction of produced assimilates that are stored in the below-ground parts
during the storage stage, by specifying the percentage (S in %) at the last day of the
storage stage (when the storage is at its maximum);
3. The fraction of the stored assimilates that are remobilized at the start of the next
season, by specifying the remobilization percentage (M in %)
With this information AquaCrop calculates and displays (Fig 3.11m):
a) the total mass of assimilates than can be produced without considering harvests during
the storage stage in the absence of water, fertility or salinity stress, and the percentages
stored in the above ground and below-ground parts;
b) the mass of assimilates that were stored to the root system;
c) the mass of assimilates that will be transferred from the below-ground to the above
ground parts, at the start of the next season.
The percentage of the daily produced assimilates that is transferred to the below-ground
parts gradually increases from 0 % at the start of the storage stage to a specified maximum
(e.g. 65 %) at the end of the stage. For calibration purposes, AquaCrop calculates for each
day of the storage stage, the total of the mass of assimilates produced (m) and the fraction
(msto) that is transferred to the below-ground parts under optimal conditions (i.e. by
assuming no water, fertility or salt stresses and without considering harvests):
m = WP* (Ks CC* KcTr,x ETo)/ETo (Eq. 3.11n)
msto = fi m (Eq. 3.11p)
where WP* is the normalized biomass water productivity, Ks the coefficient for cold
stress, CC* the canopy cover (adjusted for micro-advective effects) under optimal
conditions, KcTr,x the crop transpiration coefficient for full canopy cover and ETo the
reference evapotranspiration; and fi, the daily fraction of assimilates transferred, varying
from 0 at the start of the storage stage to its maximum value (e.g. 0.65) at the end.

Calibration:
- By altering the length of the storage stage, the total amount of biomass produced in the
storage stage (∑m) can be adjusted;
- By altering the maximum percentage at the end of the storage stage, the percentage of
assimilates stored (100 ∑msto/∑m) can be adjusted;
- Only a fraction of the stored assimilates will be remobilized at the start of the next
season. This fraction (expressed as a percentage) can be used to calibrate (increase or
decrease) the remobilization of the stored assimilates at the start of the next season.

▪ Transfer of assimilates between above and below-ground plant parts

Perennial herbaceous forage crops allocate the carbon assimilated through photosynthesis
(mi) to above (leaves and stems) and below-ground organs (crowns and roots). Since
AquaCrop does not simulate biomass partitioning among various organs, variations in
partitioning along the season is simulated by increasing or reducing WP*, as it is done for

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-127

the energy-rich yield products of some crops during yield formation (section 3.11.2). The
above-ground biomass (Bupper) is simulated as:
𝑇𝑟
𝐵𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑚𝑖 = 𝑓𝑖 𝑊𝑃 ∗ ∑ (𝐸𝑇𝑜𝑖 ) (Eq. 3.11q)
𝑖

Where fi is a correction factor which is less than one during the period of assimilate storage
in below-ground organs, and greater than one during the period of remobilization of
assimilates in spring (Fig. 3.11a/2).

The net assimilate storage stage starts after mid-season when the crop transfers an
important fraction of mi to the below-ground organs. During the following spring, which
corresponds to the net remobilization stage, the stored assimilates are transferred to the
above-ground organs to contribute to enhanced growth. In the remobilization and storage
stages, fi is corrected for regrowth, since plants use the carbohydrate reserves for regrowth
both in the spring and after each cutting (Fig. 3.11n).

Figure 3.11n – Schematic representation of the simulation of the total above-ground

biomass (Bupper,n) in the nth season, for alfalfa. During the spring (net remobilization
stage), the transfer to the above-ground parts of the Mth fraction of the assimilates
stored below ground in the previous season (Bsto,(n-1)), is simulated by increasing the
biomass at day i (mi) with a fraction (ci fmob,i). From mid-season (start of the net
storage stage), a fraction (ai fsto,i) of mi is stored in the below-ground parts (source
Raes et al., 2023).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-128

▪ Storage of assimilates below ground (storage stage)
At run time, AquaCrop calculates the daily amount of biomass produced (mi) and the
fraction transferred to the below-ground parts during the storage stage. The start of the
storage stage is the moment derived from the specified length of the storage stage (Lstorage).

Since perennial herbaceous forage crops transfer a considerable fraction of the assimilates
below ground after mid-season, the daily biomass produced, mi, is reduced by a fraction
(fsto,i) that exponentially increases from 0 at the start of the net storage stage (t = 0) to a
fraction (S) of mi at the end of the season (t = 1):
(𝑒𝑥𝑝−5𝑡 −1)
𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑜,𝑖 = [ (𝑒𝑥𝑝−5−1) ] 𝑆 (Eq. 3.11r)

When the crop is harvested during the storage stage, fsto,i is temporarily reduced to consider
the assimilates required for the regrowth of the crop canopy. This is simulated by
multiplying fsto,i by an adjustment factor (ai) for regrowth (0 ≤ ai ≤ 1):
(𝐶𝐶𝑖 − 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑢𝑡 )
𝑎𝑖 = (𝐶𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑢𝑡 )
(Eq. 3.11s)

where CCcut is the canopy cover after harvest, and CCi the canopy cover at day i, which
increases during regrowth from CCcut to the maximum canopy cover, CCx. At every
harvest date, CCi = CCcut, ai is zero and storage is halted (Fig. 3.11p). When CCi reaches
CCx at the end of regrowth, ai is 1, and storage is again at maximum rate.

Figure 3.11p – Storage fraction (fsto,i) that exponentially increases during the storage
stage of assimilates (Eq. 3.11r). The adjustment factor ai for regrowth (Eq. 3.11s) is
zero on a day of harvest, and gradually increases to 1 during regrowth.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-129

The mass of assimilates transferred to the root system (msto,i = (1-ai fsto,i) mi) might be much
less than the one displayed in the Crop characteristics menu in which optimal conditions
were assumed (Fig. 3.11m). When in a season, poor field management (a late harvest, low
soil fertility) and limited water availability (low rainfall, insufficient irrigation, poor
irrigation water quality) are encountered, the total biomass production and the fraction of
assimilates stored might be very low, since:
- (unwanted) cuttings during the storage stage will results in a low CC;
- water, fertility, salinity stress during the storage stage might result in a low CC, and a
(partly) closure of the stomata.

Although the percentage of assimilates transferred to the root system gradual increases
(Fig. 3.11p), the daily production of the biomass at the end of the storage stage, and as such
the stored fraction, might not be that important due to a reduction of the crop transpiration
in the late-season as a result of the natural senescence of the crop Canopy Cover at the end
of the crop cycle and/or cold stresses (Fig. 3.11q).

Figure 3.11q – Example of simulated stored assimilates in root system (Bout) during
the storage stage

▪ Remobilization of assimilates from below ground (remobilization stage)

Not all assimilates can be recovered from storage. In AquaCrop it is assumed that of the
total assimilates stored below ground in the previous season (Bsto,(n-1)), a fraction (M) is
remobilized during the next season (Bmob,n). The rest is assumed to be lost by respiration
and natural self-thinning, or to remain stored below ground:
𝐵𝑚𝑜𝑏,𝑛 = 𝑀 𝐵𝑠𝑡𝑜,(𝑛−1) (Eq. 3.11t)
Furthermore, it is assumed that at the start of the first year after sowing, only 20% of M is
remobilized above ground, as many of the stored assimilates in the sowing year were
required in the development and establishment of the perennial plant parts below ground
(crown and root system).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-130

To simulate the remobilization of stored assimilates at the start of the season, mi is
increased with a fraction (fmob,i) which decreases gradually as more and more assimilates
are remobilized (Fig. 3.11r):
(𝑒𝑥𝑝−5𝑡 −1)
𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑏,𝑖 = [ (𝑒𝑥𝑝−5−1) ] (Eq.3.11u)
𝐵𝑚𝑜𝑏,𝑛 −∑ 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑏,𝑖
𝑡= (Eq. 3.11v)
𝐵𝑚𝑜𝑏,𝑛

where mmob,i are the assimilates remobilized from the root system on day i, expressed as a
fraction (fmob,i) of mi, and t is the relative time in the remobilization stage which gradually
decreases from 1 at the start of the season to zero at the end of the remobilization stage.

When the canopy reaches 90 percent of CCx after regrowth, remobilization is no longer
considered. This is simulated by multiplying fmob,i with an adjustment factor (ci) for
regrowth (0 ≤ ci ≤ 1):
(𝐶𝐶 − 𝐶𝐶 )
𝑐𝑖 = 0.1𝑥 𝐶𝐶 𝑖 if CCi > 0.9 CCx (Eq. 3.11w)
𝑥

At each harvest, ci is 1 and remobilization starts at its maximum rate. It stays that way until
CC has reached 90 percent of its maximum (CCx). When maximum canopy cover is
reached (CC = CCx), ci is zero and remobilization is halted until the next harvest. It is
considered that remobilization and storage do not occur at the same time.

Figure 3.11r – Mobilization fraction (fmob,i) that exponentially decreases during the
mobilization stage of assimilates (Eq. 3.11u). To stimulate growth, the adjustment
factor ci is 1 as long as CC increase. When the maximum canopy cover is reached, ci
is zero and remobilization is halted (Eq. 3.11v).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-131

AquaCrop calculates the biomass production each day (most likely to be small at the start
of the season due to cold stresses and/or low CC). By already knowing the total mass of
assimilates that has to be mobilized in the season (a fraction of the stored assimilates in
previous season), AquaCrop will decrease gradually the multiplicator (fi) of WP* when
more and more assimilates are mobilized (Fig. 3.11s). The multiplicator will be back at
1.0, when all assimilates are mobilized.

Figure 3.11s – Example of simulated mobilized assimilates from the root system
(Bin) during the mobilization stage

Since remobilization and storage cannot exist at the same time, any remaining part that still
needs to be remobilized at the start of the storage stage, is no longer considered and
assumed to be lost.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-132

3.12 Partition of biomass into yield part (yield formation)
The partition of biomass into dry yield part (Y) is simulated by means of a Harvest Index
(HI):
𝑌𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 𝐻𝐼 𝐵 (Eq. 3.12a)

where B is the total dry above-ground biomass produced at crop maturity (Eq. 3.11b) and
HI the fraction of B that is the yield part, and Ydry is the dry yield. When water and/or
temperature stress develops during the crop cycle, the Harvest Index is adjusted to the
stresses at run time for fruit/grain producing crops and roots and tuber crops and might be
different from the reference harvest index (HIo). The adjustment can be positive or negative
and depends on the timing and the extent of the stress. The calculation scheme is presented
in Fig. 3.12a.

Figure 3.12a – Calculation scheme in AquaCrop for dry (Ydry) and fresh yield
(Yfresh)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-133

3.12.1 Reference Harvest Index (HIo)
The reference Harvest Index (HIo) is the ratio of the dry yield mass to the total dry above-
ground biomass that will be reached at maturity for non-stressed conditions. HIo is a crop
a parameter that is cultivar specific.

3.12.2 Building up of Harvest Index

The increase of HI is described by a logistic function:
HI ini HI 0
HI i = (Eq. 3.12b)
HI ini + (HI 0 − HI ini ) exp− ( HIGC) t
where HIi Harvest Index at day i;
HIo specified reference Harvest Index [fraction];
HIini initial value for HI (HIini is 0.01);
HIGC growth coefficient for HI [day-1];
t time [day].

The simulation of the building up of the Harvest Index differs along the crop types.
Distinction is made between leafy vegetable crops (Fig. 3.12b), root/tuber crops (Fig.
3.12c), and fruit/grain producing crops (Fig. 3.12d).

▪ Building up of Harvest Index for leafy vegetable crops

After germination of leafy vegetable crops the Harvest Index builds up quickly and reaches
after a short while the reference value HIo (Fig. 3.12b). The time to reach HIo is expressed
as a fraction of the growing cycle (default is 20 %).

HIo
Harvest Index

time
germination

Figure 3.12b – Building up of Harvest Index along the growth cycle for leafy
vegetable crops

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-134

In Eq. 3.12b, t is the time after germination. Given HIini, HIo and the time required to obtain
HIo, the corresponding growth coefficient (HICG) for HI is derived in AquaCrop from Eq.
3.12b.

▪ Building up of Harvest Index for root/tuber crops

Just after the start of tuber formation or root enlargement the increase of the Harvest Index
is described by a logistic function (Fig. 3.12c). The harvest index for any day of yield
formation is given by Eq. 3.12b, where t is the time after the start of tuber formation or root
enlargement. The growth coefficient (HICG) is determined with the help of the specified
length of yield formation (time required to obtain HIo). When the building up of the Harvest
Index is fast, the crop might have reached its reference value (HIo) before the end of the
crop cycle.
Harvest Index

HIo

sowing time
transplanting start of tuber formation
or root enlargement

Figure 3.12c – Building up of Harvest Index for root and tuber crops

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-135

▪ Building up of Harvest Index for fruit/grain producing crops
Just after flowering the increase of the Harvest Index is slow (lag phase) and described by
the logistic function. The harvest index for any day in the lag phase is given by Eq. 3.12b
where t is the time after flowering. The growth coefficient (HICG) is determined with the
help of the specified length of yield formation (time required to obtain HIo).

Once the increase of the Harvest Index is sufficient large to reach HIo at the end of yield
formation, the lag phase is ended and the increase of HI becomes linear (Fig. 3.12d). When
the building up of the Harvest Index is fast, the crop might have reached its reference value
(HIo) before the end of the crop cycle. Given the excess of potential fruits, the period of
building up of HI cannot be smaller in AquaCrop than the time required to have 100%
potential fruits.

70

60
HI0
50
Harvest Index (%)

40

30

20

10

0
time (days after anthesis)
lag phase linear increase of HI

f lowering yield formation phy siological

(start y ield f ormation) maturity

Figure 3.12d – Building up of Harvest Index from flowering till physiological

maturity for fruit and grain producing crops

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-136

3.12.3 Adjustment of HIo for inadequate photosynthesis
For root/tuber crops and fruit/grain producing crops the Harvest Index might need to be
adjusted for insufficient green canopy cover. A too short grain/fruit filling stage or tuber
formation stage might result in inadequate photosynthesis and a reduction of the reference
Harvest Index (HIadj) at run time.

During the yield formation stage, the Harvest Index for root/tuber crops and fruit/grain
producing crops, gradually increases until the Reference Harvest (HIo) is reached at about
the end of the crop growing cycle. However, when due to early canopy senescence, the
remaining green canopy cover (CC) drops below a threshold (CCmin), the Harvest Index
can no longer increase (Fig. 3.12e). In that case there is not enough green canopy left, so
that photosynthesis becomes insufficient. This results in an adjusted HI which is smaller
than HIo. The threshold green canopy cover below which the Harvest Index can no longer
increase is a program parameter.

Figure 3.12e – Harvest index development (bold line) when insufficient green canopy
cover remains during yield formation for crops with determinacy linked with
flowering

The adjustment is limited to the case of a decline of the green canopy cover due to severe
water stress, triggering an early senescence. This restriction avoids a zero HI (and no yield
formation) when CC is small (as a result of stresses) at the start of yield formation (tuber
formation or root enlargement for root/tuber crops or flowering for fruit/grain crops). The
adjustment of HI is only valid for root/tuber crops and fruit/grain producing crops, and
does not apply to leafy vegetable and forage crops.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-137

3.12.4 Adjustment of HIo for water stress before the start of yield
formation
When a fruit/grain producing or root/tuber crop has spent less energy in its vegetative
growth, the Harvest Index might be higher than HIo (Fig. 3.12f). The maximum allowable
increase of HIo as the result of water stress before flowering (ΔHIante) is specified as a
percentage of HIo.

70

60
HI ante
HI 0
50
Harvest Index (%)

40

30

20

10

0
lag phase tim e (days after anthesis)

yield formation

f lowering phy siological

(start y ield f ormation) maturity

Figure 3.12f – Range (shaded area) in which the Harvest Index of fruit/grain
producing or root/tuber crops can increase as a result of water stress before the
start of yield formation

In AquaCrop the relative biomass is used to assess the saving in energy in the vegetative
growth stage. The relative biomass (Brel), determined at the start of flowering (tuber
formation), is the ratio between the actual biomass (B) and the potential biomass (B0):

B
Brel = (Eq. 3.12c)
B0

The actual dry above-ground biomass is the biomass derived from the cumulative amount
of water transpired at the moment of flowering. The potential value is the dry above-ground
biomass that could have been obtained in the same period in the given environment if there
was not any stress resulting in stunned growth, stomatal closure or early senescence.

HIo might be adjusted upward if Brel is smaller than 1 at the start of flowering. However, it
is the magnitude of Brel that determine the magnitude of the adjustment. A too high or a too

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-138

low Brel will result in only a slight correction or no adjustment at all (Fig. 3.12g). Hence,
the adjustment is restricted to a particular range of Brel. The range valid for adjustment is
given by:

Range(Brel ) =
( )
ln HI ante
1 (Eq. 3.12d)
5.62

where ΔHIante allowable increase of HIo as the result of water stress before
flowering [%];
Range(Brel) range of relative biomass (Brel) in which HIo can be adjusted
[fraction].

In AquaCrop the range is linked to the allowable increase (in percentage) of HIo specified
by the user. The percentage is crop specific and gives the maximum possible increase of
HIo as a result of water stress before flowering. The higher the specified increase ΔHIante,
the larger the range for adjustment.

HIante /100
1.0
fante

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
lower upper
Brel limit top limit
Brel range
affecting HI 0

Figure 3.12g – Coefficient (fante) by which HIo has to be multiplied to consider the
effect of water stress before the start of yield formation, for various relative biomass
values (Brel), and a given allowable increase (ΔHIante)

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-139

Within the range where HI can be adjusted, the exact correction for HIo is given by a sine
function (Fig. 3.12g):

• For Brel between the lower limit and the top:

1 + sin ((1.5 − Ratiolow )  ) HI ante

f ante = 1 + (Eq. 3.12e)
2 100

where Brel relative biomass at the start of flowering (Eq. 3.12c);

Br,low lower limit of the Brel Range affecting HIo;
Br,top top of Brel Range affecting HIo;
fante coefficient by which HIo has to be multiplied to consider the
effect of water stress before flowering;

Brel − Br , low
0  Ratiolow = 1 (Eq. 3.12f)
Br , top − Br , low

• For Brel between the top and the upper limit (Brel = 1):

1 + sin ( (0.5 + Ratioup )  ) HI ante

f ante = 1 + (Eq. 3.12g)
2 100

where Brel relative biomass at the start of flowering (Eq. 3.12c);

Br,top top of Brel Range affecting HIo;
Br,up upper limit of Brel Range affecting HIo;
fante coefficient by which HIo has to be multiplied to consider the
effect of water stress before flowering.

Brel − Br , top
0  Ratioup = 1 (Eq. 3.12h)
Br , up − Br , top

The response in the Range(Brel) is assumed to be asymmetric. The top is at 1/3 of Br,up and
at 2/3 of Br,low.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-140

3.12.5 Adjustment of HIo for failure of pollination (only for fruit/grain
producing crops)

▪ Flowering
In AquaCrop the pattern of flowering is assumed to be asymmetric with time (Fig. 3.12h).
The flowering distribution curve is given by:

f k = 0.00558 k 0.63 − 0.000969 k − 0.00383 (Eq. 3.12i)

where k is the relative time in percentage of the total flowering duration and fk is the
fraction of flowers flowering at time k.

Figure 3.12h – Distribution of flowering during the flowering period

Generally a crop will produce flowers in excess. When conditions are favorable, the crop
sets more fruits than needed for a good harvest. The excessive young fruits are aborted as
the older fruits grow. The excess (fexcess) is a crop parameter.

▪ Failure of pollination
Severe water stress, cold stress, or heat stress at flowering might induce a reduction in the
reference harvest index because insufficient flowers are pollinated to reach HIo. The effect
is dynamic, affecting only the population of flowers that is due to pollinate at the time of
the stress, but not the younger flowers due to pollinate days later or the flowers already
pollinated. To estimate HIadj AquaCrop calculates for each day of the flowering period, the
HI that can be reached with the number of flowers already pollinated:

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-141

 j
  f  
HI adj =   Ks j 1 + excess  Fj HI 0   HI 0 (Eq. 3.12j)
1   100  

where j number of days since the start of flowering (j = 1 at the start of flowering)
fexcess excess of the sink (percentage);
Fj fractional flowering on day j (Eq. 3.12j/2: derived from Eq. 3.12i);
To be able to account for cold and heat stress at flowering, the calculation
procedure works with calendar days;
Ksj stress factor limiting pollination on day j.
100
𝐹𝑗 = 𝐿 𝑓̅𝑗 (Eq. 3.12j/2)
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

where Lflowering the length of the flowering (days)

fj average of the fraction of flowers flowering during the time step j

stressed period

40 38.0 %

30
Development of HI

26.7 %

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time (days)

Figure 3.12i – The development of HI at flowering and the adjusted harvest indexes
(HIadj) for a non-stressed (full) and a stressed (dotted line) flowering period of 14
days. (HIo = 38%, fexcess = 50%, and stress occurs (Ks < 1) from day 2 till day 9)

The excess of the sink made that if stress reduces pollination by a minor amount, HIo might
not be affected because the excessive young fruits are given the change to grow, instead of
dropping off, if stress is ameliorated after the flowering period and canopy photosynthesis
is adequate. An import stress, during several days at flowering, might result in a HIadj that
is smaller than the specified HIo (Fig. 3.12i). The smaller the excess of flowers (fexcess) and
the more severe the stress (Ks), the stronger the reduction of the reference harvest index.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-142

Failure of pollination due to water stress (Kspol,w)
Severe water stress at the time of flowering, can markedly inhibit pollination and fruit
setting. This is simulated by considering a soil water stress coefficient for pollination,
Kspol,w (see 3.2.2 Soil water stress). If the depletion in the considered soil volume (top soil
or root zone) drops below a threshold (ppol TAW), Kspol,w becomes smaller than 1 and
pollination starts to fail (Fig. 3.12j). Kspol,w decreases linearly from 1 at the upper threshold
(ppol) to zero at the lower threshold (permanent wilting point).

water stress coefficient

for pollination

no stress 1.0

0.8
water stress coefficient
Kspol,w

0.6

0.4

0.2

D
full stress 0.0
p(pol) p(lower)
field capacity TAW permanent wilting point

Figure 3.12j – The water stress coefficient for failure of pollination (Kspol,w)
for various degrees of depletion (D) in the considered soil volume

Since pollination is inhibited only be severe stress, the fraction of TAW that can be depleted
from the considered soil volume before pollination is affected (ppol) is large. The threshold
should be set lower than the threshold for the effect for stomatal closure (psto) and
senescence (psen). Since by then stomata are largely closed and most of the transpiration is
eliminated, the stress effect on pollination needs not to be adjusted to ETo. Because the
data on pollination failure are limited and insufficient to determine the shape of the
response curve, a linear function is considered for Kspol,w.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-143

Failure of pollination due to cold (Kspol,c) and heat stress (Kspol,h)
If the minimum air temperature drops below a threshold (Tn,cold) or the maximum air
temperature rises above a threshold (Tx,heat), pollination might be affected. This simulated
by considering a cold stress (Kspol,c) coefficient and heat stress (Kspol,h) coefficient for
pollination (see 3.2.3 Air temperature stress).

When the minimum air temperature on a day drops below the specified threshold
temperature (Tn,cold), the cold stress coefficient Kspol,c will be smaller than 1 (Fig. 3.12k).
Kspol,c becomes zero at the lower threshold which is set at 5 degrees below Tn,cold. A logistic
function is used as the response function between the lower temperature threshold and
Tn,cold. Similarly, when the maximum air temperature rises above the specified threshold
temperature (Tx,heat), the heat stress coefficient Kspol,h will be smaller than 1. Kspol,h
becomes zero at the upper threshold which is set at 5 degrees above Tx,heat. Outside the
stressed period, the air temperature stress coefficients Kspol,c and Kspol,h are 1.

no stress 1.0 1.0 no stress

cold stress coefficient for pollination

heat stress coefficient for pollination

0.8 0.8
Kspol,c

Kspol,h
0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

full stress 0.0 0.0 full stress

lower Tn,cold Tx,heat upper
limit limit
Minimum air temperature Maximum air temperature

Figure 3.12k – The air temperature stress coefficients for failure of pollination
due to cold (Kspol,c) and heat (Kspol,h) stress for various air temperatures

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-144

3.12.6 Adjustment of HIo for water stress during yield formation
Water stress after flowering (fruit/grain producing crops) or after the start of tuber
formation or root enlargement (root/tuber crops) might affect the reference Harvest Index
(HIo) as well. Depending on the moment when the water stress occurs and on its magnitude,
the adjustment can be upwards or downwards (Fig. 3.12l).

70

60
fpost HI 0
HI 0
50
Harvest Index (%)

40

30
fpost HI 0
20

10

0
lag phase tim e (days after anthesis)

yield formation

f lowering phy siological

(start y ield f ormation) maturity

Figure 3.12l – Range (shaded area) in which the Harvest Index of fruit/grain
producing or root/tuber crops can alter as a result of water stress during yield
formation

▪ Upward adjustment of HIo

As long as vegetative growth is still possible (see 3.5.2 Period of potential vegetative
growth), the daily rate with which the Harvest Index increases (dHI/dt) might be adjusted
if water stress affects leaf expansion. This results in an increase of dHI/dt and is given by:

dHI  (1 − Ksexp, i )   dHI 

= 1 +    (Eq. 3.12k)
dt  a   dt O

where (dHI/dt)o reference increase of the Harvest Index after flowering;

Ksexp, i value for the water stress coefficient for leaf expansion growth at
day i (see 3.5.1). Ksexp is 1 for no stress and 0 for full stress;
a crop parameter (the value is crop specific and can vary between 0.5
(strong effect) and 40 (very small effect).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-145

By keeping track of the daily values for Ksexp, i during the period when vegetative growth
is still possible, the positive adjustment of the Harvest Index at the end of the period is
given by:

n (exp)
 1 − Ksexp,i 
  
f post  = 1 +
i =1  a  (Eq. 3.12l)
n(exp)

where n(exp) period when vegetative growth is still possible [days];

fpost↑ coefficient by which HIo has to be multiplied to consider the
positive effect of water stress after flowering.

The adjustment of HIo is plotted in Figure 3.12m for various values of ‘a’. When a is 0.5
and the average root zone depletion during the potential period of vegetative growth is
large (Dr ≥ pexp,lower TAW), fpost↑ might increase up to 3. This will result in a HIo which is
the triple of HIo.

2.0
fpost

1.8

1.6 1
a=

1.4
a=2

1.2

no adjustment
1.0
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

no stress Ksexp full stress

Figure 3.12m – Values for fpost↑ if water stress after flowering occurs
for various mean water stresses affecting leaf growth (Ksexp,w) and ‘a’ values

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-146

▪ Downward adjustment of HIo
During the total period of the building up of the Harvest Index, the daily rate with which
the Harvest Index increases (dHI/dt), might be adjusted if water stress affects crop
transpiration. This results in a decrease of dHI/dt, and is given by:

dHI 10  1 − Kssto , i   dHI 

= Kssto 1 −    (Eq. 3.12m)
dt  b   dt O

where (dHI/dt)o reference increase of the Harvest Index after flowering;

Kssto, i value for the water stress coefficient for stomatal closure (or for
deficient aeration conditions) at day i (see 3.10.2). Kssto is 1 for no
stress and 0 for full stress;
b crop parameter (the value is crop specific and can vary between 1
(strong effect) and 20 (small effect).

no adjustment
1.0

b = 10
fpost

0.8

b=
2
0.6

b=
1
0.4

0.2

0.0
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

no stress Kssto full stress

Figure 3.12n – Values for fpost↓ if water stress after flowering occurs for various
mean water stresses affecting crop transpiration (Kssto) and ‘b’ values

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-147

By keeping track of the daily values for Kssto,i during the period of the building up of HI,
the negative adjustment of the Harvest Index at the end of the period is given by:

n ( yield )
  (1 − Kssto , i )  
  10 Kssto ,i 1 −
  
i =1   b 
f post  = (Eq. 3.12n)
n( yield)

where n(yield) period for building up the Harvest Index [days];

fpost↓ factor by which HIo has to be multiplied to consider the negative
effect of water stress after flowering.

The adjustment of HIo is plotted in Figure 3.12n for various values of ‘b’. The 10th root of
Kssto in Eq. 3.12n makes that the effect of stomatal closure on HIo is small when Kssto is
close to 1, i.e. crop transpiration is only slightly hampered. Severe water stress might
strongly reduce HIo especially when b is small (close to 1).

▪ Combined effect on HIo

The total adjustment for water stress after the start of yield formation on the Harvest Index
is given by the product of the Eq. 3.12l and Eq. 3.12n. If the period where vegetative growth
is still possible (n(exp)) is smaller than the duration of building up the Harvest Index
(n(yield)), the adjustments are weighed by their relative length:

 w1 f post  + (w2 − w1 ) 
f post =   f post 

(Eq. 3.12o)
 w2 

where w1 length of the period when vegetative growth is still possible [days];
w2 length of the period of building up the harvest Index [days];
fpost coefficient by which HIo has to be multiplied to consider the combined
effect of water stress after flowering.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-148

3.12.7 Total effect of water and temperature stress on the Harvest Index
The total correction of HIo at the end of the yield formation is obtained by considering the
adjustments of water stress before and after yield formation and during flowering (Fig.
3.12o).

Figure 3.12o – Periods in which water stress might affect HI and its effect on HIo.
(1) before yield formation; (2) during flowering; and (4) during yield formation,
with indication of (3) the period of possible vegetative growth
for (a) determinant crops and (b) indeterminant crops

The total correction of HIo at the end of the yield formation is given by:

HI = f ante f post HI adj (Eq. 3.12p)

where HI Harvest Index reached at the end of yield formation;

fante factor by which HIadj has to be multiplied to consider the effect of
water stress before flowering (Eq. 3.12e and 3.12g);
fpost factor by which HIadj has to be multiplied to consider the effect of
water stress after flowering (Eq. 3.12o);
HIadj reference Harvest Index adjusted for failure of pollination and
inadequate photosynthesis

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-149

The adjusted Harvest Index can range between an upper limit (larger than HIo) and 0 (Fig.
3.12p):

▪ If HI is larger than HIo, its value can however never exceed a maximum specified by
the user. The allowable increase (ΔHItot) which is crop specific, is specified as a
percentage of HIo:

 HI tot 
HI  1 +  HI 0 (Eq. 3.12q)
 100 

▪ As a result of water stress at and after flowering, HI might be smaller than HIo. If the
water stress during yield formation is very severe and results in a crop transpiration rate
far below its potential value, HI might become very small. HI will be zero (resulting in
no yield) if the average water content in the root zone is at wilting point during yield
formation.

70

60
HI tot
HI 0
50
Harvest Index (%)

40

30

20

10

0
lag phase tim e (days after anthesis)

yield formation

f lowering phy siological

(start y ield f ormation) maturity

Figure 3.12p – Range (shaded area) in which the Harvest Index can increase or
decrease as a result of water stress before and after the start of yield formation

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-150

3.12.8 Crop dry yield (YW) in weed infested fields
Once the dry above-ground biomass of the crop (BW) is determined, crop dry yield in a
weed-infested field (YW) is obtained by multiplying BW with the harvest index (HI):
YW = HI BW (Eq. 3.12r)
HI might be different from the reference harvest index (HIo) if water and/or temperature
stress affects yield formation and/or pollination. The adjustment of HI depends on the
timing and the magnitude of the stresses.

In the calculation of YW a simplification is made since it is assumed that the effect of weeds
on the harvest index is negligible. Nevertheless, it is observed in the field that weed
infestation affects yield not only through a lower biomass production (BW) but also trough
a lower number of ear bearing tillers, grains per ear and 1000-kernel weight (Wilson and
Peters, 1982, Morishita and Thill, 1988). To avoid over-parametrisation this is neglected
in AquaCrop, especially since the effect of weed stress on HI might be small compared to
the effect of weed stress on biomass production (Van Gaelen, 2011). Further-on, the
adjustment of HI might be simulated indirectly in AquaCrop, since the presence of weeds
might cause extra water stress for the crop (due to larger total transpiration of crop and
weeds). As a consequence, the simulated HI might be lower than the simulated HI in weed-
free conditions.

3.12.9 Dry and Fresh yield

In AquaCrop biomass (B) and crop yield (Y) are expressed as the mass of dry matter per
unit of surface (ton/ha). The dry yield (Ydry) is a fraction (fm) of the fresh yield (Yfresh). The
fraction fm, expresses the dry matter content of the fresh yield:

Ydry = fm Yfresh (Eq. 3.12s)

The dry matter content is not a conservative crop parameter.

3.12.10 ET or Yield water productivity (WPET)

In AquaCrop distinction is made between biomass water productivity (WP) and yield or
ET water productivity (WPET):
□ WP refers to the amount of biomass that can be obtained with a certain quantity of
water transpired (see section 3.11 ‘Dry above-ground biomass’);
□ WPET is the ratio between crop yield and evapotranspiration. It is expressed as kg yield
per m3 of water evapotranspired. Yield (instead of biomass) is used since it is often the
output in which one is most interested in. Evapotranspiration (ET) instead of crop
transpiration is used since soil evaporation needs to be considered as well at field level,
since water will evaporate from the crop and soil surface each time the soil is wetted
by rainfall or irrigation (Fig. 3.12s).

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-151

 Biomass water productivity Yield or ET water productivity
A constant relationship between biomass A performance indicator of the crop
production and transpiration system

Figure 3.12s – The biomass water productivity (WP) vs yield or ET water

productivity (WPET)

The ET water productivity in a weed infested field is given by:

Yw
WPET = (Eq. 3.12t)
(ETOT + TrTOT )
where YW is the crop dry yield in a weed infested yield, and ETOT the soil evaporation and
TrTOT the transpiration of the total canopy (crop and weeds) during the growing cycle.
WPET in a weed infested field is most likely lower than in weed free conditions, since crop
dry yield (YW) might be smaller and total evapotranspiration of crop and weeds (ETOT +
TrTOT) might be larger than under weed-free conditions.

WPET, which is an output of AquaCrop when running simulations, is typically used as an

indicator to assess the performance of a system. AquaCrop uses WPET to identify the
environments in which (or management strategies by which) the yield per unit water
consumed (ET) can be maximized. This type of performance indicator is useful under
conditions of scarcity of water resources.

One way to increase WPET, and as such the production of more marketable yield per unit
of water evapo-transpired in the field, consists in reducing soil evaporation (which is in the
denominator of the equation). Reducing soil evaporation, which is a non-productive
consumption of water, can be achieved by mulches or by switching from traditional
irrigation methods to drip irrigation, which only partially wets the soil surface. By running
AquaCrop with and without the interventions, the increase in WPET can be quantified.

AquaCrop can also be used to quantify the effect of other irrigation, field and crop
management strategies on WPET (more crop per drop) in water-scarce regions. Examples
of strategies that can be analysed by AquaCrop are the effect of selecting a more suitable
crop and/or cultivar for the region, altering the time for seeding/planting, adjusting the
planting density to the rainfall and soil fertility, introducing deficit irrigation, limiting
surface run-off of valuable rainwater from the field, improving weed management, etc.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-152

3.13 Schematic outline of the model operation
The model operation as explained in this chapter is schematic depicted in Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13 – Schematic outline of the model operation of AquaCrop

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-153

3.14 Simulation of the effect of soil fertility stress

3.14.1 Calibration of the crop response to soil fertility stress

To describe the effect of soil fertility stress on crop development and production,
AquaCrop makes use of 4 stress coefficients (Table 3.14).

Table 3.14 - Soil fertility stress coefficients and their effect on crop growth
Soil fertility stress coefficient Direct effect Target
model
parameter
KsCCx: Stress coefficient for Reduces canopy cover CCx
maximum Canopy Cover
Ksexp,f : Stress coefficient for Reduces canopy expansion CGC
canopy expansion
fCDecline : Decline coefficient of Decline of the canopy cover once the CC
canopy cover maximum canopy cover is reached
KsWP : Stress coefficient for Reduces biomass production WP*
Biomass Water Productivity

The shape of each of the 4 soil fertility stress coefficients are fixed when calibrating the
crop response to soil fertility stress (Fig. 3.14a). The calibration process is described in
Chapter 2 (see ‘Calibration for soil fertility stress’) of the Reference Manual, by
considering the effect of soil fertility stress in a stressed field. The calibration is done in
the Crop characteristics menu.

Ks exp,f curve
1.0
soil fertilty stress coefficient

0.8 Ks CCx curve

1.0
0.6
soil fertilty stress coefficient

0.4
0.8 fCDecline curve

0.6 1.0
0.2
soil fertilty stress coefficient

0.4 0.8 Ks WP curve

0.0 1.0
0% 20 % 40 % 60 80 100
0.6
soil fertilty stress coefficient

0.2
soil fertiltiy
0.8stress
% 0.4 % %
0.0
0 20
0.6 40 60 80 100
0.2 soil fertiltiy stress
0.4
% % %
0.0
0 0.2 20 40 60 80 100
soil fertiltiy stress
0.0
0 % 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 %
soil f ertiltiy stress

Figure 3.14a – The shape of the 4 Ks curves as determined by calibration

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-154

From the 4 calibrated Ks curves, the relation between Biomass and soil fertility stress (Fig.
3.14b) is obtained:
(i) by defining for various soil fertility stress levels the individual effect on (a) CGC,
(b) CCx, (c) canopy decline, and on (d) WP* (as obtained from the 4 stress curves,
Fig. 3.14a); and
(ii) by subsequently calculating for each of those soil fertility stress levels the
corresponding biomass production (B) by considering the specific decrease of
CGC, CCx, canopy decline and WP*.

Since the shapes of the 4 Ks curve are not necessary identical and the effect of stress on
WP* increases when the canopy cover increases, the Biomass – soil fertility stress
relationship is not linear (Fig. 3.14b).

100

80
relative Biomass (%)

60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
soil fertility stress (%)

Figure 3.14b – Relationship between relative Biomass and soil fertility stress

3.14.2 Selection of a soil fertility level for simulation

In the Field management menu, the soil fertility level is specified indirectly when the user
specifies the maximum biomass that can be expected in the field affected by soil fertility
stress. The selected biomass is the biomass production that can be expected for the selected
crop, for the given soil fertility level in the field, under the given climatic conditions, and
in absence of any other stresses than soil fertility stress. It is the biomass that can be locally
produced in a good rainy year or under irrigation when there is no water stress. This level
of biomass might be available in statistical reports of local crop productions, or might be
obtained from farmers. The selected biomass is expressed as a percentage of the biomass
that can be obtained in the same field but for unlimited soil fertility.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-155

From the relationship between relative Biomass and soil fertility stress (Fig. 3.14b),
AquaCrop derives the ‘corresponding’ soil fertility stress in the field. This corresponding
soil fertility stress level is required to know the corresponding values for each of the 4
stress coefficients. These values are derived from the shapes of the individual Ks curves
(Fig. 3.14a).

3.14.3 Running a simulation

When running a simulation, AquaCrop considers the effect of soil fertility stress on canopy
development and crop production with the help of the 4 stress coefficients and calculates
at each time step the Biomass.

When due to soil water or soil salinity stress, the Biomass is less than what can be expected
for the given soil fertility stress, AquaCrop decreases the soil fertility stress in its next time
step(s). As such AquaCrop considers the rise in soil fertility because a water or salinity
stressed crop is limited in its uptake of nutrients. The stronger the non-fertility stress, the
more nutrients remain in the soil reservoir and the stronger the rise in soil fertility. If at a
later stage the non-fertility stress is relieved by ample rainfall or irrigation, the soil fertility
decreases since more nutrients are taken up by the crop and eventually returns to its original
state if the Biomass production is in line with the one specified in the Field management
menu. This dynamic adjustment of the soil fertility level makes that the effect of soil
fertility stress is automatically adjusted to the effect of other stresses which affect the
biomass production.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-156

3.15 Simulation of the effect of soil salinity stress
The stress indicator for soil salinity in a well-watered soil is the average electrical
conductivity of the soil-paste extract (ECe) in the root zone during the growing cycle. The
electrical conductivity of the soil water (ECsw) will increase the effect of soil salinity,
when the root zone depletion increases between wetting (rain and/or irrigation) events.

3.15.1 Soil salinity stress coefficient

The reduction of biomass production in a well-watered salt affected soil is described by a
soil salinity stress coefficient (Table 3.15a).
Table 3.15a – Soil salinity stress coefficient and its effect on biomass production
Stress Direct effect Target model parameter
Coefficient
Kssalt : Soil salinity Reduction of Canopy cover (CGC, CCx and canopy
stress coefficient biomass decline) and
production Crop transpiration (stomatal closure)

The average electrical conductivity of the saturation soil-paste extract (ECe) from the root
zone during the growing season is the indicator for soil salinity stress in a well-watered
soil. At the lower threshold of soil salinity (ECen), Ks becomes smaller than 1 and the stress
starts to affect biomass production. Ks becomes zero at the upper threshold for soil salinity
(ECex) at which the soil salinity stress becomes so severe that biomass production ceases
(Fig. 3.15a). The shape of the Ks curve is linear. Values for ECen and ECex for many
agriculture crops are given by Ayers and Westcot (1985) in the Irrigation and Drainage
Paper Nr. 29 and presented in Annex I.

no stress 1.0 100 % full

soil salinity stress coefficient

relative biomass production

0.8 80 %
Kssalt

0.6 60 %
Brel

lin
ea
0.4
r
40 %

0.2 20 %

full stress 0.0 0% none

ECe n ECe x
e le ctrical conductivity of the saturate d s oil-pas te e xtract (dS/m )

Figure 3.15a – The soil salinity stress (Kssalt) and relative biomass production (Brel)
for various electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-157

3.15.2 Calibration of the crop response to soil salinity stress
The calibration process is described in Chapter 2 (see ‘Calibration for soil salinity stress’)
of the Reference Manual, by considering the effect of soil salinity stress (i) in a well-
watered soil, and (ii) when root zone depletion occurs. The calibration is done in the Crop
characteristics menu.

▪ Well-watered soil
To describe the effect of soil salinity stress on crop development and production, AquaCrop
makes use of 4 stress coefficients (Table 3.15b).
Table 3.15b - Soil salinity stress coefficients and their effect on crop growth
Soil salinity stress coefficient Direct effect Target
model
parameter
KsCCx: Stress coefficient for Reduces canopy cover CCx
maximum Canopy Cover
Ksexp,f : Stress coefficient for Reduces canopy expansion CGC
canopy expansion
fCDecline : Decline coefficient of Decline of the canopy cover once the CC
canopy cover maximum canopy cover is reached
Kssto,salt : Stress coefficient for Reduces crop transpiration Kssto
stomatal closure

The shape of each of the 4 soil salinity stress coefficients are fixed when calibrating the
crop response to soil salinity stress (expressed by ECe) in a well-watered soil (Fig. 3.15b).

Ks exp,f curve
1.0
fertilty stress coefficient

0.8 Ks CCx curve

1.0
0.6
fertilty stress coefficient

0.4
0.8 fCDecline curve
soilsalinity

0.6 1.0
0.2
soil

fertilty stress coefficient

0.4 0.8 Ks sto,salt curve

soilsalinity

0.0 1.0
0% 20 % 40 % 60 80 100
0.6
soilsalinity stress coefficient

0.2
soil

soil fertiltiy
0.8stress
% 0.4 % %
soilsalinity

0.0
0 20 0.6 40 60 80 100
0.2 soil fertiltiy stress
soil

0.4
% % %
0.0
0 0.2 20 40 60 80 100
soil fertiltiy stress
0.0
0 % 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 %
soil salinity stress

Figure 3.15b – The shape of the 4 Ks curves as determined by calibration in a well-

watered soil

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-158

▪ Root zone depletion
When the soil is not well-watered, water depletion in the root zone results in an increase of
the salt concentration in the remaining soil water. Although root zone depletion does not
alter ECe (the indicator for soil salinity), it increases the electrical conductivity of the soil
water (ECsw). The stronger the root zone depletion, the larger ECsw, and the more difficult
it becomes for the crop to extract water from its root zone. This results in an stronger
closure of the stomata when the soil dries out. The extra effect of ECsw on stomata closure
is defined by calibration (Fig. 3.15c – effect 2).

1.0

1
0.8
2

0.6
sto
Ks

0.4

0.2

0.0 2
FC PWP
s oil w ate r conte nt

Fig. 3.15c – The soil water coefficient for stomatal closure (Kssto) without (gray line)
and with (several alternative black lines) the effect of soil salinity stress. The decline
of Kssto (effect 1) is linked with the effect of soil salinity stress in a well-watered soil
(Fig. 3.15b), the shift of the upper and lower threshold (effect 2) is the effect of
ECsw. The effect of ECsw on stomata closure (presented by the alternative black
lines) is specified by calibration

3.15.3 Simulating the effect of soil salinity on biomass production

▪ Well-watered soil:
The average seasonal ECe (electrical conductivity of the soil-paste extract) in the root zone
determines (Fig. 3.15a) the salinity stress (Kssalt) and relative biomass production (Brel):
Brel = 100 Ks salt (Eq. 3.15a)
Brel (percentage) expresses the expected biomass production under salt stress with
reference to the maximal biomass that can be produced in the given environment in the
absence of any other stress.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-159

 Figure 3.15d – The effect of soil salinity on biomass production
in a well-watered soil with unlimited soil fertility

The relative biomass production is obtained by considering the calibrated effect on canopy
development and of stomatal closure on crop transpiration in a well-watered soil. The
calculation procedure is schematically depicted in Figure 3.15d and consists of the
following 4 steps:
1. the average electrical conductivity of the saturation soil-paste extract (ECe) from the
root zone determines the soil salinity stress (Kssalt), as described in Fig. 3.15a;
2. the relative biomass (Brel) that can be produced with the salinity stress (Kssalt) is
obtained by Eq. 3.15a;
3. the salinity stress (Kssalt) determines (Fig. 3.15b) the value for (i) Kssto,salt (resulting in
stomatal closure and affecting crop transpiration, Tr), (ii) Ksexp,f (slowing down canopy
development), (iii) KsCCx (reducing the maximum canopy cover) and (iv) fCDecline
(triggering canopy decline) resulting in reduced canopy cover and reduced crop
transpiration;
4. the reduced crop transpiration, results in a reduced biomass production. As a result of
the calibration the resulting Brel is identical to the expected Brel (Eq. 3.15a) in the
absence of soil water stress.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-160

Changes in the average ECe in the root zone during the season require a continuous
adjustment of Kssalt (Fig. 3.15a) and the corresponding stress coefficients (Fig 3.15b):
Kssto,salt, Ksexp,f, KsCCx, and fCDecline. However, since time is required to build up salts in the
root zone (or to leach them out of the root zone) the adjustment of the stress coefficients
remains modest throughout the simulation run.

The smaller canopy cover and stomatal closure as a result of salinity stress, results in a
reduced crop transpiration which affects the soil water balance.

▪ In presence of water-stress:
Canopy development and crop transpiration might be further affected if next to soil salinity
stress, also water stress develops during the growing season (Fig. 3.15e).

Figure 3.15e – The combined effect of soil salinity and soil water stress
on canopy development, stomatal closure, crop transpiration and biomass
production

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-161

3.16 Simulation of the combined effect of soil fertility and soil
salinity stress
The effect of soil fertility and soil salinity stress on crop canopy (CC) development are not
added up. If soil fertility and soil salinity stress affects CC, the resulting adjustment of
canopy development at a time step, is determined by the strongest stress (corresponding
with the lowest Ks value) at that moment (Fig.3.16).

Figure 3.16 – Schematic outline of the combined effect of soil fertility and salinity
stress on the values of the various stress coefficients: Ksexp,f (stress coefficient for
canopy expansion); KsCCx (stress coefficient for maximum canopy cover); fCDecline
(decline coefficient of canopy cover); KsWP (stress coefficient for biomass water
productivity); Kssto,salt (stress coefficient for stomatal closure);

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-162

References
Adams, J. E., G. F. Arkin and J. T. Ritchie 1976. Influence of row spacing and straw mulch
on first stage drying. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 40: 436-442.

Allen, R.G., L.S. Pereira, D. Raes and M. Smith 1998. Crop evapotranspiration: guidelines
for computing crop water requirements. Irrigation and Drainage Paper n. 56. FAO,
Rome, Italy, 300 pp.

Asseng, S. and T.C. Hsiao 2000. Canopy CO2 assimilation, energy balance, and water use
efficiency of an alfalfa crop before and after cutting. Field Crops Res. 67: 191-206.

Ayers, R.S., Westcot, D.W., 1985. Water quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper no 29. FAO, Rome.

Azam-Ali, S.N. and G.R. Squire 2002. Principles of Tropical Agronomy. CABI
Publishing, Wallingford, UK.

Barrios Gonzales, J.M. 1999. Comparative study of three approaches in the computation
of soil water balance. Master Dissertation IUPWARE. [Link] University,
Leuven, Belgium. 93 pp.

Bear, J. 1972. Dynamics of fluids in porous media. American Elsevier, NY, USA: 338-
346.

Belmans, C., J.G. Wesseling and R.A. Feddes 1983. Simulation of the water balance of a
cropped soil: SWATRE. J. of Hydrol., 63: 271-286.

Carnahan, B., H.A. Luther and J.O. Wilkes 1969. Applied numerical methods. John Wiley
& Sons Inc., NY, USA: 429-444.

Doorenbos, J. and A.H. Kassam 1979. Yield response to water. Irrigation and Drainage
Paper n. 33. FAO, Rome, Italy, 193 pp.

Etheridge D. et al. (1996), J. Geophys. Research vol. 101, 4115-4128.

Farahani, H.J., G. Izzi, P. Stento, and T.Y. Oweis. 2009. Parameterization adn evaluation
of AquaCrop for full and deficit irrigated coton. Agron. J. 101: 469-476.

Feddes, R.A., P.J. Kowalik and H. Zaradny 1978. Simulation of field water use and crop
yield. Pudoc, Simulation Monographs, Wageningen, The Netherlands. 189 p.

Feyen, J. 1987. Field validation of soil water and crop models. In J. Feyen (Ed.) Simulation
models for cropping systems in relation to water management. Proceedings of a
symposium in the Community programme for coordination of agricultural research,

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-163

 Nov. 1986, Louvain, Belgium. Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities, Luxembourg: 105-131.

Garcia-Vila, M., E. Fereres, L. Mateos, F. Orgaz, and P. Steduto. 2009. Déficit irrigation
optimization of cotton with AquaCrop. Agron. J. 101: 477-487.

Geerts, S., D. Raes, M. Garcia, R. Miranda, J.A. Cusicanqui, C. Taboada, J. Mendoza, R.

Huanca, A. Mamani, O. Condori, J. Mamani, B. Morales, V. Osco, and P. Steduto.
2009. Simulating yield response to water of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)
with FAO-AquaCrop. Agron. J. 101: 499-508.

Gommes, R.A. 1983. Pocket computers in agrometeorlogy. FAO Plant Production and
Protection Paper N° 45. FAO, Rome, Italy. 140 p.

Hsiao, T.C., Heng, L., Steduto, P., Rojas-Lara, B., Raes, D., and Fereres, E. 2009.
AquaCrop-The FAO crop model to simulate yield response to water: III.
Parameterization and testing for maize. Agronomy Journal, 101(3): 448-459

Heng, L.K., S.R. Evett, T.A. Howell, and T.C. Hsiao. 2009. Calibration and testing of
FAO aquacrop model for rainfed and irrigated maize. Agron. J., 101: 488-498.

Hess, T.M. 1999. The impact of climatic variability over the period 1961-1990 on the soil
water balance of upland soils in the north East Arid Zone of Nigeria. Institute of Water
and Environment, Cranfield University, Silsoe, UK. 166 p.

Hoogland, J.C., C. Belmans and R.A. Feddes 1981. Root water uptake model depending
on soil water pressure heads and maximum water extraction rate. Acta Hort. 119: 123-
135.

IPCC, 2021: Annex III: Tables of historical and projected well-mixed greenhouse gas
mixing ratios and effective radiative forcing of all climate forcers [Dentener F.J., B.
Hall, C. Smith (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis.
Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani,
S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis,
M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O.
Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2139–2152, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.017

Janssens, P. 2006. Invloed van een ondiepe grondwatertafel op de planning van irrigaties
voor intensieve groenteteelt. Master dissertation, Fac. Bio-ingenieurswetenschappen,
[Link] University, Leuven, Belgium. 89 pp.

McMaster, G. S. and W.W. Wilhelm 1997. Growing degree-days: one equation, two
interpretations. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 87: 291-300.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-164

Morishita, D.W. & Thill, D.C. (1988). Factors of wild oat (Avena fatua) interference on
spring barley (Hordeum vulgare) growth and yield. Weed science, 36: 37-42.

Naesens, K. 2002. Berekening van effectieve neerslag en oppervlakkige afstroming in

waterbalansmodellen. MSc dissertation Fac. of Applied and Biological Sciences,
[Link], Leuven, Belgium. 92 p.

Philip, J.R. 1957. Evaporation, moisture and heat fields in the soil. J. Meteorol. 14:354-
366.

Raes, D. 1982. A summary simulation model of the water budget of a cropped soil.
Dissertationes de Agricultura n° 122. [Link] University, Leuven, Belgium. 110
p.
Raes, D., 2002. BUDGET, a soil water and salt balance model: reference manual.
[Link], Belgium, 80 pp.

Raes, D., and De Proost, P. 2003. Model to assess water movement from a shallow water
table to the root zone. Agricultural Water Management 62(2): 79-91.

Raes, D., H. Lemmens, P. Van Aelst, M. Vanden Bulcke and M. Smith 1988. IRSIS –
Irrigation scheduling information system. Volume 1. Manual. [Link], Dep. Land
Management, Reference Manual 3. 199 p.

Raes, D., Fereres, E., García Vila, M., Curnel, Y., Knoden, D., Kale Çelik, S., Ucar, Y.,
Türk, M., Wellens, J. 2023. Simulation of alfalfa yield with AquaCrop. Agricultural
Water Management (284), 108341. [Link]

Raes, D., S. Geerts, E. Kipkorir, J. Wellens and A. Sahli 2006. Simulation of yield decline
as a result of water stress with a robust soil water balance model. Agricultural Water
Management 81(3): 335-357.

Raes, D., Steduto, P., Hsiao, T.C., and Fereres, E. 2009. AquaCrop-The FAO crop model
to simulate yield response to water: II. Main algorithms and software description.
Agronomy Journal, 101(3): 438-447

Raes, D., B. Van Goidsenhoven, K. Goris, B. Samain, E. De Pauw, M. El Baba, K. Tubail,

J. Ismael and E. De Nys. 2001. BUDGET, a management tool for assessing salt
accumulation in the root zone under irrigation. 4th Inter Regional Conference on
Environment-Water, ICID. 27-30 Aug., Fortaleza, Brazil: 244-252

Rallison, R.E. 1980. Origin and evolution of the SCS runoff equation. Symp. On Watershed
Management, ASCE, New York, N.Y.: 912-924.

Ritchie, J.T. 1972. Model for predicting evaporation from a row crop with incomplete
cover. Water Resources Research 8(5): 1204-1213.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-165

SCS 1993. Irrigation water requirements. National Engineering Handbook, part 623. Soil
Conservation Service, US Dept. Of Agriculture. Washington, USA, 284 p.

Smedema, L.K., and D.W. Rycroft. 1983. Land drainage – planning and design of
agricultural drainage systems. Batsford Ltd., London, U.K.

Steenhuis, T.S., M. Winchell, J. Rossing, J.A. Zollweg and M.F. Walter 1995. SCS Runoff
equation revisited for variable-source runoff areas. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage
Eng. 121(3): 234-238.

Steduto, P. 2003. Biomass Water-Productivity. Comparing the Growth-Engines of Crop

Models. FAO Expert Consultation on Crop Water Productivity Under Deficient Water
Supply, 26 - 28 February 2003, Rome, Italy.

Steduto, P. and R. Albrizio 2005. Resource-use efficiency of field grown sunflower,

sorghum, wheat and chickpea. II Water use efficiency and comparison with radiation
use efficiency. Agric. For. Meteorol. 130: 269-281.

Steduto, P., T.C. Hsiao and E. Fereres 2007. On the conservative behavior of biomass water
productivity. Irrig. Sci. 25: 189-207.

Steduto, P., Hsiao, T.C., Raes, D. and Fereres, E. 2009. AquaCrop-The FAO crop model
to simulate yield response to water: I. Concepts and underlying principles. Agronomy
Journal, 101(3): 426-437

USDA 1964. Estimation of direct runoff from storm rainfall. National Engineering
Handbook, Washington DC, USA. Section 4 Hydrology, Chapter 4: 1-24.

USDA. 1970. Irrigation water requirements. Technical Release no. 21. USDA. Soil
Conservation Service, Washington, DC.

Van Gaelen, H., Delbecque, N., Abrha, B., Tsegay, A., Raes, D. 2016. Simulation of crop
water productivity in weed-infested fields for data-scarce regions. Journal of
Agricultural Science, 154 (6):1026–1039

Vanuytrecht, E., D. Raes and P. Willems. 2011. Considering sink strength to model crop
production under elevated atmospheric CO2. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 151:
1753-1762.

Villalobos, F. J. and E. Fereres. 1990. Evaporation measurements beneath corn, cotton, and
sunflower canopies. Agron. J. 82:1153-1159.

Wilson, B.J. & Peters, N.C.B. (1982). Some studies of competition between Avena fatua
L. and spring barley, I: the influence of [Link] on yield of barley. Weed Research, 22:
143-148.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-166

Wiyo, K.A. 1999. Effect of tied-ridging on soil water status and maize yield under Malawi
conditions. Dissertationes de Agricultura N° 397. [Link] University, Leuven,
Belgium. 200 p.

Reference Manual, Chapter 3 – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3-167