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 CLASS XII

Lab Manual
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S.L. ARORA

DHANPAT RAI & Co. (Pvt.) Ltd.

EDUCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL ^mitSHERS
Published by : GAGAN KAPUR
Dhanpat Rai 8t Co. (P) Ltd., Delhi

Regd. Office : 4576/15, Agarwal Road

Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110002
Phone : 2324 7736, 37, 38, [email protected]

© S.L. Arora

Edited by : Bhupesh Arora and Kanta Arora

No part and style of the book may be copied in any form without the written permission of the
author.

EDIUON : 2023

PRICE: ? 1450/- {New Simplified Physics Vol I & 11 + Lab Manual of Physics)

Typesetting by : North Delhi Computer Convention, Delhi-110009, [email protected]

Printed at: Natraj Offset, Delhi
 PREFACE
This book entitled "Lab Manual of Physics" has been written for the students of Class Xil strictly in accordance
with the latest syllabus issued by CBSE.
The author is of the firm belief that an honest laboratory work develops in us a sense of keen observation,
regulates our thinking and disciplines our minds. It provides us an opportunity of learning by doing which, in turn,
helps us to understand the scientific principles more readily and deeply. Keeping in view the importance of
laboratory work, all experiments in this book have been discussed in depth and detail. No short cut methods,
whatsoever, heave been used as they kill the very purpose of scientific methods. Moreover, a growing tendency
has been observed on the part of the students to proceed with their experiments independently. So, a humble
attempt has been made to present the subject matter in such a simple, systematic and compact form that can
cater to the needs of students of all categories.
This book is the outcome of the another's consistent interaction with his students in the actual laboratory work
for more than thirty five years. Due consideration has been given to the various difficulties faced by the students
in all the experiments. The introductory chapter of "Major Skills in Physics Practical Work" deals with the general
laboratory work, significant figures, error analysis, graphs and logarithms. The physics practical work in this

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manual has been presented in the form of (/) experiments (//) activities and (Hi) projects, as per CBSE syllabus.
Some of the salient features of the book are :
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1. The language of the book is simple, lucid and easily understandable.

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2. Experiments based on the same apparatus have been presented in the form of a separate chapter. This will

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help the students to understand all the experiment, of the chapter in an easy manner.
3. Each experiment precedes with basic concepts which include necessary definitions, formulae, theory,
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description of the apparatus, etc.
4. Each experiment includes a list of necessary apparatus and material required. Here the range of various
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measuring instruments has been specified. This will save the time of students in selecting suitable apparatus
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and will help them in taking the observations with a fair degree of accuracy.
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5. A brief but self contained theory given in each experiment will enable the students to understand the basic
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principles involved in the experiment easily.

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6. The working formulae of all experiments, which the students are required to memorise for the examination
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purpose, have been separately enclosed in shaded boxes.

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7. The procedure has been divided into a suitable number of steps which will help the students to perform the
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experiment in a systematic manner even without teacher's guidance.

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8. At proper places in the procedure, students have clearly instructed to follow the necessary precautions so
that they may actually observe them during the corse of an experiment.
9. Tabular form of recording of observations has been encouraged throughout the book. Step by step approach
used in calculations is self explanatory.
10. An exclusive feature of the book is Viva Voce which plays a significant role in the performance of a student in
the practical examination. So, quite a large number of thought-provoking oral questions alongwith their
answers have been given in all experiments, activities and projects.
11. All the diagrams in the book are sharply drawn, well labelled and easily resketchable.
12. General oral questionspertainingto electrical instruments like cells, resistances, keys, etc., given in Chapter
2 will prove quite useful to the students.
It is earnestly hoped that the book will go a long way in builting up the foundation of the budding physicists. The
author expresses deep regards for Mr. Jagdish Kapur and Mr. Gagan Kapur, Dhanpat Rai and Co., in bringing the
book up-to-date. Any suggestion towards the further improvement of the book shall be grateful received and
acknowledged.
AUTHOR
January, 2023
[email protected]
 SYLLABUS
Time : 3 hours EVALUATION SCHEME Max. Marks: 30

Topic Marks
Two experiments one from each section 7 + 7
Practical record (experiments and activities) 5
One activity from any section 3
Investigatory Project 3

Viva on experiments, activities and project 5

Total 30

SECTION A SECTION B
Experiments
Experiments
1. To determine resistivity of two/three wires by plotting a graph 1. To find the value of i> for different values of ii in case of a
for potential difference versus current.
concave mirror and to find the focal length.
2. To find resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using metre
bridge. 2. To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.
3. To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances 3. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs
between u and v or between 1/ u and 1/ v.
using a metre bridge.
OR
4. To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens.
5. To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by
To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistances using plotting a graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
a metre bridge.
6. To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling
4. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection microscope.
method and to find its figure of merit.
7. To find the refractive index of a liquid using convex lens and
5. To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure plane mirror.
of merit) into a voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same. 8. To find the refractive index of a liquid using a concave mirror
OR and a plane mirror.
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and 9. To draw the l-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in
forward and reverse bias.
figure of merit) into an ammeter of desired range and to verify
the same.
Activities
6. To find the frequency of AC mains with a sonometer.
1. To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a
Activities mixed collection of such items.
2. Use of multimeter to see the unidirectional flow of current in
1. To measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with or
without iron core. case of a diode and an LED and check whether a given electronic
2. To measure resistance, voltage (AC/DC), current (AC) and check component {e.g., diode) is in working order.
continuity of a given circuit using multimeter. 3. To study effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the
source) on an LDR,
3. To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three
4. To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light
(ON/OFF) switches, a fuse and a power source.
incident obliquely on a glass slab.
4. To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
5. To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.
5. To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for
a steady current. 6. To study the nature and size of the image formed by a (r) convex
lens, or (iz) concave mirror, on a screen by using a candle and a
6. To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens/mirror).
a battery, resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark
the components that are not connected in proper order and 7. To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by
correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram. using two lenses from the given set of lenses.

Suggested Investigatory Projects

1. To study various factors on which the internal resistance/EMF of a 5. To investigate the dependence of the angle of deviation on tlie angle
cell depends. of incidence using a hollow prism filled one by one, with different
2. To study the variations in current flowing in a circuit containing an transparent fluids.
LDR because of a variation in (a) the power of the incandescent 6. To estimate the charge induced on each one of the two identical
lamp, used to 'illuminate' the LDR (keeping all the lamps at a fixed Styrofoam (or pith) balls suspended in a vertical plane by making
distance). use of Coulomb's taw.
3. To find the refractive indices of (n) water (b) oil (transparent) using a 7. To study the factor on which the self-inductance of a coil depends by
plane mirror, an equiconvex lens (made from a glass of known observ’ing the effect of this coil, when put in series with a resistor /
refractive index) and an adjustable object needle. (bulb) in a circuit fed up by an AC source of adjustable frequenej’.
4. To investigate the relation between the ratio of (i) output and input 8. To study the earth's magnetic field using a compass needle-bar
voltage and (ii) number of turns in the secondary coil and primary magnet by plotting magnetic field lines and tangent galvanometer.
coil of a self-designed transformer.
 CONTENTS
Part A: Experiments

1 Major Skills in Physics Practical Work 1-15

Section A: Laboratory Worh and its Record

1 Experimentation and Its Importance 1

2 Laboratory and Its Aim 1

3 General Instructions for Performing an Experiment 1

4 Recording the Experiment in Practical Notebook 2

Section B ; Rounding off a Measurement and Significant Figures

5 Rules for Rounding off a Measurement 3

6 Significant Figures 3

7 Significant Figures in the Sum or Difference ofTwo Numbers 4

8 Significant Figures in the Product or Quotient of Two Numbers 4

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Section C : Error Analysis
9 Error in a Measurement
10- Causes for Errors in a Measurement
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Elimination of Random Error
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12 Propagation or Combination of Errors 6

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Section D: Graphs
13 Graphs 9
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14 How to Plot a Graph ? 9

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15 Uses ofGraphs 10
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16 To Calculate Slope of a Straight Line Graph 10

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17 To Calculate Slope ofa Curved Graph 10

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18 Some Examples ofStraight Line and Curved Graphs 11

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Section E: Logarithms
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19 Introduction 12
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20 Napierian or Natural Logarithms 12

21 Common Logarithms 12

22 To Find the Logarithm ofa Number 12

23 Antilogarithm 14

2 Electrical Accessories 16-29

Section A : Sources of EMF

1 Electric Current 16

2 Sources ofEMF 16

3 Electrochemical Cells 16

4 Daniel Cell 16

5 Defects in a Daniel Cell 17

. r 6 Leclanche Cell 17

7 Dry Cell 18

8 Lead-Acid Accumulator 18

9 Precautions for using Lead-Acid Accumulator 19

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 10 Edison Cell or Nickel-Iron Alkali Accumulator 19

11 Battery 20

12 Battery Eliminator 20

Section B : Keys
13 Keys 20

Section C : Resistors
14 Resistor 21

15 Resistance Coils 21

16 Resistance Box 22

17 Rheostat 22

Section D : Galvanometer, Ammeter and Voltmeter

18 Galvanometer 23

19 Weston or Pivoted-Type Moving Coil Galvanometer 23

20 Ammeter 23

21 Voltmeter 24

22 General Instructions for Electricity Experiments 24

23 SI Units of Some Electrical Quantities 25

24 Symbols used in Circuit Diagrams 25

3 Ohm’s Law 30-37

Expenmenf A1 To determine resistivity of two/three wires by plotting a graph of potential

difference versus current. 31

4 Metre Bridge 38-50

Experiment A2 To find resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using metre bridge. 40

Experiment A3 To verify the law of series combination of resistancesusing a metre bridge. 43
Experiment A4 To verify the law of parallel combination of resistances using a metre bridge. 45

5 Potentiometer 51-63

Experiment A5 To compare the emfs of two given primary cells (Daniel and Leclanche cells)
using a potentiometer. 54
Experiment A6 To determine the internal resistance of the given primary cell
using potentiometer. 57

6 Galvanometer, Ammeter and Voltmeter 64-81

Experimenf A7 To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method

and to find its figure of merit. 67
Experiment A8 To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit)
into an ammeter of desired range (say 0 to 30 mA) and verify the same. 70
Experiment A9 To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit)
into a voltmeter of desired range (say 0 to 3 V) and to verify the same. 74

7 Frequency of A.C. Mains 82-90

Experiment AlO(o) To find the frequency of a.c. mains using a sonometer and an electromagnet. 84
Experiment AlO(b) To find the frequency of a.c. mains using a sonometer and a horse-shoe
magnet. 87

VI
 Part A: Activities 91-110

Activity A1 To measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with or without

iron cote. 91

Activity A2 To measure resistance, voltage (ac/dc), current (ac) and check continuity
of a given circuit using multimeter. 95
Activity A3 To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three on/off switches,
a fuse and a power source. 101
Activity A4 To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit (say Ohm's law circuit
used to measure resistance) 103
ActiV/fy A5 To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for
a steady current. 105
Activity A6 To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistoi/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are
not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and circuit diagram. 108

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Part B : Experiments

8 Spherical Mirrors
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ixpenmenf B1 ] To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror
* ' and to find its focal length. 116 Fr
To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens. 121
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Experiment B2

9 127-140
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Spherical Lenses
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Experiment B3 To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v
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or between -and-. 130
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Expenmenf B4 To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens. 134
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10 Refraction through a Glass Prism 141-147

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Exper/menf B5 To determine the angle of deviation of the glass prism by plotting a graph
between angle of incidence and angle of deviation [and hence to find the
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refractive index of the material of the prism]. 142

11 DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX 148-164

Exper/menf B6 To determine the refractive index of a glass slab, using a

travelling microscope. 150
Exper/menf B7 To find the refractive index of a liquid (water) using a concave mirror. 153
Exper/menf B8 To find the refractive index of a liquid by using a convex lens and
a plane mirror. 157

165-180
12 Semiconductor Devices

Experiment B9 To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias
and reverse bias. 169

Experiment BIO To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine its
reverse breakdown voltage. 174

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 Part B : Activities 181-203

Activity B1 To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed

collection of such items. 181
Activity B2 Use of multimeter to see the unidirectional flow of current in case of a
diode and an LED and check whether a given electronic component
(e.g., diode) is in working order. 183
Activity B3 To study the effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the
source) on an LDR. 186
Activity B4 To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident
obliquely on a glass slab. 189
Activity B5(a) To observe polarisation of light using two polaroids. 192
Activity B5(6) To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit. 194
Activity B6(a) To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a
screen by using a candle and screen (for different distances of the
candle from the lens). 195
Activity B6(b) To study the nature and size of the image formed by a concave mirror

using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from
the mirror). 198
Activity B7 To obtain lens combination with the specified focal length by using two
lenses from the given set of lenses. 202

Investigatory Projects
Sample Projects 205-239
Project 1 To study various factors on which the internal resistance/EMF of a cell
depends. 207
Project 2 To study the variation in current flowing in a circuit containing an LDR because
of variation in (a) the power of the incandescent lamp, used to 'illuminate' the
LDR (keeping the lamps at a fixed distance) (b) the distance of a incandescent
lamp (of fixed power) used to 'illuminate' the LDR. 211
Project 3 To find the refractive indices of (a) water (b) oil (transparent) using a plane
mirror, an equiconvex lens (made from glass of known refractive index) and an

adjustable object needle. 213

Project 4 To investigate relation between the ratio of (i) output and input voltage and
(ii) number of turns in the secondary coil and primary coil of a self-designed
transformer. 216

Project 5 To investigate the dependence of the angle of deviation on the angle of incidence
using a hollow prism filled, one by one, with different transparent fluids. 219
Project 6 To estimate the charge induced on each one of the two identical styrofoam (or
pith) balls suspended in a vertical plane by making use of Coulomb's law. 224
Project 7 To study the factors on which the self-inductance of a coil depends by
observing the effect of the coil, when put in series with a resistor/bulb in a
circuit fed up by an ac source of adjustable frequency. 227
Project 8 To study the earth's magnetic field using a compass needle-bar magnet by
plotting magnetic field lines and tangent galvanometer. 230
Tables of Physical Constants 240-243

Logarithmic and other Mathematical Tables 244-255

VIII
 /

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chapter

Major Skills
IN Physics
Practical Work

Section A ; Laboratory Work and Its Record

"An experiment is a question which science poses to nature and a measurement is recording

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of nature's answer. -Max Planck (1858-1947) '

Q Experimentation and Its Importance

Flo called a laboratory. It is in the school physics laboratory

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where we develop skills to measure the various physical
Before the 17th century most problems were solved
by reading what somebody had written about them, or
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quantities accurately. An honest laboratory work
develops in us a sense of keen observation, regulates
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by asking some unknown authority. Soon after A.D. our thinking and disciplines our minds. Here we
1600, Galileo Galilei, the famous Italian scientist who is inculcate the habits of working honestly and
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often called the father of modem science, showed efficiently. Not the least, it provides us an opportunity
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scientists a new way of finding things out. He showed of learning by doing which in turn, helps us to
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them the method of experimenting. understand the scientific principles more readily and
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In science, we acquire knowledge by systematic deeply.

observation, by doing experiments and then drawing
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El General Instructions for

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inferences from the data so collected. These inferences

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are classified and a plausible explanation is given to Performing an Experiment

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them in the form of a hypothesis. It is further tested

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1. An experiment is the search for truth. So an

carefully and if it shows no exceptions, it becomes a
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open and unbiased state of mind should be

law. This step by step approach by which various maintained while working in the lab.
natural phenomena are studied and laws governing
2. Before starting an experiment, the student must
them are explored is called a scientiifc method.
understand the aim of the experiment clearly.
Experimentation is the part of the scientific method which
Then the theory of the experiment should be
deals with solving problems or making discoveries. An understood thoroughly. This gives the student a
experiment is the study of a phenomenon under deliberately broad idea how to realise the aim of the
controlled conditions. It is used to gather facts about a experiment. In case of any difficulty or doubt
problem or to test the accuracy of a statement. the teacher must be consulted before actually
Experiments help us to become more skilled in the use starting the experimental work.
of scientific methods and to understand scientific
3. The student must familiarise himself with the
information more thoroughly. apparatus to be used in the experiment. He
should check that the apparatus he has been
Q Laboratory and Its Aim provided is in working condition and of proper
Any place, situation or a set of conditions, conducive to range. Insufficient knowledge of the apparatus
experimentation, observation, analysis, testing or (usually may result in mishandling or damage of the
small scale) preparation, etc., in any branch of science is apparatus.
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xll

4. The necessary apparatus should be assembled 8. Take as many observations as possible and
in a proper sequence so that any instrument record them immediately and honestly in the
requiring frequent usage during experimen notebook. As far as possible, the observations
tation should be within the easy reach of the should be recorded neatly in an orderly manner
student. It must not require any bodily movement in a tabular form along with proper units.
of any instrument or a piece of apparatus. 9. No attempt should be made to change an
5. The student must handle the apparatus observation in the persuit of desired results.
carefully and cautiously. In no case one should When an observation has been recorded
lose the patience. Any damage caused to wrongly, it should be neatly crossed and the
apparatus accidently or otherwise must at once correct one should be written in its vicinity.
be brought to the notice of teacher-in-charge. 10. One should develop the habit of using
6. The experiment should be viewed as a whole frequently the logarithmic, trigonometric,
and should not be treated piece-wise. It will not reciprocal, root, square and other tubes in the
be of any use to the student if he studies the calculation work. The result must be expressed
experiment stepwise and also simultaneously in an appropriate number of significant figures.
performs the corresponding steps of the No purpose is served in fictitious accuracy.
experiment. In fact, a fore-thought on the part of 11. One should make free and frequent use of
the experimenter will help him to save time, graphs as far as possible to represent the
prevent trouble and increase efficiency. observations and to interpret the result.
7. One must read the precautions before starting 12. Graph papers or extra sheets of paper used
the experiment and they must be actually during experimentation must be pasted in the
followed during experimentation. These will practical notebook.
help to get accurate results and prevent and
potential danger to the apparatus.

Q| Recording the Experiment in Practical Notebook

The practical notebook must be kept neat and safe throughout the year as it carries not only a significant
weightage in the final examination, but it also reflects the capability of the student as well as the hard work he
has poured throughout the year.
Experiments should be neatly and systematically recorded in the practical notebook in the following manner.’^
Left-hand Page of the Notebook
(The blank page to be written in pencil)
1. Diagram A simple, self-explanatory line sketch of the principle involved in the experiment
should be drawn with a sharp-edge pencil. Circuit diagrams in case of electricity
experiments and ray diagrams in case of light experiments are essentially drawn.
2. Observations First the least counts of the various measuring instruments used should be recorded
here. Then the other observations should be neatly recorded in a tabular form with
proper units.
3. Calculations The observed values are substituted in the relevant formula to get the final result.
Detailed calculations using logarithmic tables, etc., must be shown here and the
result should be rounded off to an appropriate number of significant figures. Graphs
and extra sheets used must be pasted here.
4. Result and The result should be precisely stated along with proper units and upto an
percentage error appropriate number of significant figures. Percentage error must be estimated by
using values from standard tables.

* Some authors suggest to write date, experiment number, aim, etc., also on the left-hand page of the notebook. The author does
not understand the need of this duplicasy. However, the students must follow the advise of their own teacher in this regard.

2
 C/iapfer I : MAJOR SKILLS IN PHYSICS PRACTICAL WORK

Right-hand Page of the Notebook

(The ruled page to be written in ink)

Date Experiment No. Page No.

1. Aim/Object The object of the experiment should be stated clearly and
precisely.
2.
Apparatus and material A complete list of the apparatus and material actually used
required in the experiment is given here.
3.
Theory The principle on which the experiment is based should be
briefly stated here. In some cases it will be sufficient to
give the formula and the meaning of each symbol involved
in it.

4. Procedure The various steps actually followed during experimentation

should be listed in an orderly manner. It will be quite
helpful to the students to review these steps during final

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examination.

5. Precautions The main precautions which are actually taken during

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experimentation should be stated here along with their
reasons in brief.

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6. Sources of error
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The possible sources of error which cannot be controlled by
the experimentalist should be listed here pointwise.
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Section B : Rounding off a Measurement and Significant Figures
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Rules for Rounding off a Measurement Rules for counting the number of significant figures
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in a measured quantity :
1. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the
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(/) All non-zero digits are signiifcant. So 13.75 m has

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preceding digit remains unchanged.

four significant figures.
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2. If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, the

(») All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant.
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preceding digit is raised by 1.

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Thus 100.05 km has five significant figures,

3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 itself, then
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(m) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to left of

(fl) the preceding digit is raised by 1 if it is odd.
an understood decimal point are not significant. For
(b) the preceding digit remains unchanged if it example, 86,400 s has three significant figures.
is even.
(iv) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the
left of a decimal point are significant,
Significant Figures
(v) All zeros to the right of a decimal point are
The significant figures are normally those digits in a significant. So 161 cm, 161.0 cm and 161.00 cm,
measured quantity which are knoum reliably plus one have three, four and five significant figures
additional digit that is uncertain. They indicate the extent respectively.
of accuracy to wliich a measurement is made. Suppose {Vi) All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left
that the length of an object be 6.5 cm. This has two of a non-zero digit are not significant. So 0.161 cm
significant figures : 6 and 5. The first figure 6 is reliable and 0.0161 cm, both have three significant
while the second figure 5 is uncertain. Let the length of figures.
another object be 273.6 cm. It has four significant (vii) The number of significant figures does not depend on
figures. The first three figures 2, 7 and 3 are reliable, the system of units. So 16.4 cm, 0.164 m and
while the last figure 6 is uncertain. 0.000164 km, all have three significant figures.

3
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Example 1 Sfntc the number of signiifcant figures in the Example 4 Express the result offollowing calculations to
following: an appropriate number of significant figures :
(/) 453.5 (//) 53,000,000 {Hi) 400.08 (/) 943x 0.00345
(lu) 0.000243 (i?) 0.0650 (vi) 2.43 X 10^ 3.24x0.08666
Solution. (»)
5.006
(i) Four significant figures : 4, 5, 3, 5
2.51x10^x1.81x10^
(f/) Two significant figures : 5, 3 m
0.4463
(Hi) Five significant figures : 4, 0, 0, 0, 8
{/:;) Three significant figures : 2, 4, 3 Solution. (0 943 x 0.00345 = 3.25335
(v) Three significant figures : 6, 5, 0 = 3.25

(vi) Three significant figures : 2, 4, 3

(rounding off to 3 significant figures)
Q Significant Figures in the Sum or Here both numbers have three significant figures,
Difference of Two Numbers so result is rounded off to 3.25.

In addition or subtraction, the result should be reported 3.24x0.08666

in) = 0.056088
to the same number of decimal places as that of the number 5.006

with minimum number of decimal places. = 0.0561

Example 2 Add 7.21, 12.141 and 0.0028, and express the (rounding off to 3 significant figures)
result to an appropriate number of significant figures. Here 3.24 has the minimum number of significant
Solution. 7.21 figures, viz. ; 3. So, result is rounded off to 3 significant
+ 12.141 figures.
-A
+ 0.0028 2.51x10 X 1.81x10^
m = 10.1795 X 10^
Sum = 19.3538 0.4463

Corrected sum = 19.35 = 10.2x10^

(rounding off to 2nd place of decimal point) (rounded off to 3 significant figures)
Here 7.21 has minimum number of decimal places, viz.; Example 5 The radius of a sphere is 1.41 cm. Express its
two, so result is rounded off to second place of decimal point. volume to an appropriate number of significant figures.
Example 3 Subtract 4.27153 from 6.807 and express the Solution.

result to an appropriate number of significant figures. 4 ^

Volume of the sphere
Solution.
6.807

- 4.27153 |x 3.14 X (1.41)

Difference = 2.53547
= 35.208 cm^
Corrected difference = 2.535
= 35.2 cm^
(rounding off to 3rd place of decimal point) (rounding off to 3 significant figures)
Here 6.807 has the lesser number of decimal places, viz., Example 6 The mass of a body is 275.32 g and its volume
3, so difference is rounded off to 3rd place of decimal is 36.41 cnP. Express its densiti/ upto appropriate significant
point.
figures.
El Significant Figures in the Product or Solution.
Mass 275.32
Quotient of Two Numbers Density =
Volume 36.41cm^
In multiplication and division, the result should be = 7.5616589 g cm“^
reported to the same number of significant figures as that of
the number with minimum of significant figures. = 7.562 g cm"^

4
 Chapter 1 : MAJOR SKILLS IN PHYSICS PRACTICAL WORK

Section C : Error Analysis

El Error in a Measurement (c) Personal errors. Sometimes, a constant error is

introduced in each observation due to a
Even if a physical quantity is measured very particular habit developed by the observer
carefully, there is always an uncertainty in the result. during experiments. Such errors are called
This uncertainly is called error. Error in a personal errors.
measurement is equal to the difference between its true For example, when an observer holds his head
value and the measured value. So, it gives an to the right, by habit, while reading a scale, he
indication of the limits within which the true value introduces an error due to parallax.
may lie. Every measurement has an error and every (d) Error due to external causes. Sometimes, physical
calculated quantity which is based on measured values conditions like pressure, temperature, wind, etc.
has an error. affect our observations. These errors can be
eliminated easily by knowing their nature,
10 Causes for Errors in a Measurement
(i?) Random errors. These are the errors which do

w
(i) Least count error. This error is due to the not follow any definite rule and are due to pure
limitation imposed by the least count of the measuring chance. For example, if a physical quantity is measured
instrument. For example, a metre scale has a least
Flo a number of times, each time we get a slightly different

ee
count of 1 mm, it can read accurately only upto this result. These errors depend on the individual
value. The error in its readings will be half of this
value, i.e., 0.5 mm.
Fr
measuring person and care in the measuring process.
for
ur
(») Resolution of the experiment. Different
experimental methods have different units of
ks
Yo

resolution and hence errors,

oo

(m) Constant errors. These are those errors which

B

affect each reading by the same amount. For example,

re

if a scale has faulty graduations, the same error is O

ou

introduced in all observations. This error can be

ad

avoided by measuring the same physical quantity by a

Y

Fig. 1.1 Normal or Gaussian law of enors.

number of different methods, apparatus or techniques. Random or accidental errors are found to follow
nd
Re

(iv) Systematic errors. These are those errors which Normal or Gaussian law of errors as shown graphically in
Fi

follow a definite rule. We can eliminate such errors

Fig. 1.1. Here a graph between the value of random
once we know the rule which governs them.
error x and its frequency /, i.e., the number of times
These errors may of the following types :
this error occurs, is plotted. This law indicates that the
(fl) Errors due to imperfect technique. Such errors exist
probability of zero value of a random error is
due to imperfection in our experimental
maximum and as the magnitude of random error
technique and cannot be eliminated even if we
know their cause. For example, error due to increases, the probability of its occurrence decreases.
buoyancy of air when we weigh a body in air Moreover, the area under the curve on +ve side is
and error due to radiation loss in calorimetric
equal to that on the -ve side, i.e., positive errors are as
experiments. likely to occur as the negative errors. Hence the
(1?) Instrumental errors. These are the built-in errors 'arithmetic mean' of a large number of observations
of the particular measuring instrument that is can be taken as the true value of the measured
used in the experiment. For example, in taking
quantity,
the reading of a circular scale which is supposed
to have a pointer at the centre, a constant error (w) Gross errors or mistakes. They occur due to
is introduced if the pointer is not exactly at the carelessness on the part of the experimenter. They can
centre of the circular scale. be due to improper adjustment of the apparatus.

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

11 Elimination of Random Error 12 Propagation or Combination of Errors

Normal or Gaussian law of random errors shows that An experiment involves several measurements and
probability of occurrence of positive and negative the final result is arrived at by using different physical
errors is same, so random errors can be minimized by relations. The error in the final result depends on each
repeating measurements many times. Then the individual measurement as well as on the
arithmetic mean of all measurements can be taken as mathematical operations done to get the final result,
the true value of the measured quantity. If , Following mles are used to calculate maximum
be the n observations in the measurement of a permissible error in a measurement:
physical quantity, then the true value of the quantity is (/) Error of a sum or a difference. When two
obtained by the arithmetic mean. quantities are added or subtracted, the absolute error in the
ifnal result is the sum of the absolute errors associated with
I!
+ a 1
Z a.
n —
a
the individual quantities. Let AA and ABbe the absolute
mean I
n n
1=1
errors in two quantities A and B respectively. Then
(i) Final absolute error. Time magnitude of the
Measured value oi A = A±AB
difference between the true value of the quantity and the
individual measurement value is called the 'absolute and measured value of B=B±AB
error' of
the measurement. Absolute error in measurement 'a' is Consider the sum
denoted by Aa. Z = A+B

Taking arithmetic mean as the true value, we can The error AZ in Z is given by
write the absolute error in measurements a.^,a2,ay Z±AZ = {A±AA) + (B±A6)
etc., as
= (A+B)±(AA + AB) = Z±(AA + AB)
Afl^ = a mean
-a
1
or AZ = AA+AB
Aa^ = a mean ^2
Thus the maximum error in the sum is equal to the sum
Aa^ = a mean -fl3,etc. of the absolute errors.
Now, consider the difference
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is taken as
Z=A-B
the final absolute error of the value of the quantity a.
The error AZ in Z is given by
Aa |Aflj|+|Afl2l +
mean
n Z±AZ = {A±AA)~{B±AB)
1 " = {A~B)±AA+ AB=^Z±AA+ AB.
= -Z|A a.-
n
I The error AZ will be maximum when both AA and
1=1
ABhave same sign, therefore,
The value of a single measurement 'a' will lie in the AZ = AA + AB
range a±Aa mean'
Thus the maximum error in the difference of two
i.e., Afl,-Art mean <rt<fl+Art mean
quantities is equal to the sum of their absolute errors.
(«) Relative error. It is defined as the ratio of the (//) Errors of a product or a quotient. When two
absolute error to the true value of the quantity being quantities are multiplied or divided, the fractional error in
measured. fiuul result is the sum of the fractional errors of the two
Art quantities.
Relative error =
a
mean
Let measured value of quantity A = A ± AA
and measured value of quantity S = 6± AB
{Hi) Percentage error. It is defined ns the ratio of the Consider the product
absolute error to the true value of the quantity being Z= AB
measured expressed in percent.
Art
Then error AZ in Z is given by
da- X 100%
a
Z±AZ = (A±AA)(B±AB)
mean
= A6± BAA± AABtAAAB

. 6
i
1.^
 Chapter 1 :MAJOR SKILLS IN PHYSICS PRACTICAL WORK
AA
-|M
AA'
Dividing L.H.S. by Z and R.H.S. by AB, we get = A" 1± = A" l±n
A A

1±
AZ
= 1± AA^AB_^_AA AB
Z B~ a' B AA
= Z 1±«
A
Since AA and AB are small, their product term can
be neglected. So, maximum fractional error in Z is Using binomial expansion and
given by AA
neglecting higher powers of —
A
Z “ A B
Thus the fractional error in the product of two quantities Dividing both sides by Z, we get
AZ AA
is equal to the sum of their individual fractional errors. 1± = l±n
A Z A
Now, consider the quotient Z=--
B
The maximum fractional error in Z is given by
The error AZ in Z is given by AZ AA
= n
A±AA
Z±AZ = Z A
B±AB

w
A^’B^
A 1±
AA
-1-1
General rule. If Z = , then fractional error in
A AA AB C
A

6 1±-
AB
= — 1±
B A
1±
B FloZ is given by.
AZ AA AB AC

ee
B — = P— + ‘? + r-
Z ^ A ^ B C

= Z 1±
AA

A
1 +
AB

B
Fr
The percentage error in Z is given by.
for
ur
AZ AA AB AC
+ 100r
lOOx — = 100p—+100q B C
Z A
Using binomial expansion and
ks
Yo

AB Example 7 The length of a rod as measured in an

oo

neglecting higher powers of ^

B experiment was found to be 2.48 m, 2.46 m, 2.49 m, 2.50 m
B

and 2.48 m. Find the average length, the absolute error in

re

Dividing both sides by Z, we get

each observation and the percentage error.
ou

AA_AB AA AB
ad

AZ AA AB
1± = 1± 1 + = 1± i ±—.— Solution.
Y

Z A 6 A B A B 2.48 + 2.46 + 2.49 + 2.50 + 2.48

Average length =
m
5
Since A A and A B are small, their product term can
nd
Re

12.41
be neglected. Hence maximum fractional error in Z is m = 2.482 m = 2.48 m
Fi

5
given by
(rounded off to 2 places of decimal point)
Z A B The absolute errors in the measurement are :
Thus the maximum error in the quotient of tzoo ALj =2.48-2.48= 0.00 m
quantities is equal to the sum of their individual fractional
errors.
Ai2= 2.46-2.48 =-0.02 m
Al3= 2.49-2.48= 0.01 m
(Hi) Error due to the power of a measured
quantity. Thefractional error in the nth power of a quantity Aij= 2.50 -2.48= 0.02 m
is equal to n times the fractional error in the quantity itself Ai5= 2.48-2.48= 0.00 m
Let measured value of quantity A = A± AA S|ALj
Final absolute error =—-—
Consider the Jith power of A,
Z= A
II
0.00 + 0.02 + 0.01 + 0.02 + 0.00
i.e., m
5
The error AZ in Z is given by 0.05
n m =0.01 m
Z±AZ = (A±AA) 5

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Correct length = 2.48 ± 0.01 m

Calculate the maximum percentage error in the value ofY
Percentage error =
0.01
X100 = 0.40% and mention ivhich physical ijuantity causes maximum error.
2.48
Solution. The percentage error in Y is given by
Example 8 The length, breaitth n?id height of a rectangular AY
xl00 = AM AL ^ Arf A/1
block of wood zvere measured to be : y
M L d I _
I = 12.13 ± 0.02 cm ; = 8.16 ± 0.01 cm ; /i = 3.46 ± 0.01 This is because 4, n are constants and a standard
cm
value of ‘g' is taken.
Determine the percentage error in the volume of the block. As is clear from the given data,
Solution. Volume of block is given by V = Ibh AM = 0.01, AL= 0.001, Ad = 0.001, Al = 0.001
The percentage error in the volume is given by AY
xl00 = '0.01 ^ 0.001 2x0.001 0.0011 xlOO
AV [a/ Ab Ah Y 3.00 2.890 0.082 0.087
xl00= — + — + — xlOO
V
, / b h _
= (0.0033 + 0.0003 + 0.0244 + 0.0115) x 100
_ '0.02 0.01 0.01 XlOO
= 0.0395 X 100=3.95%
.12.13 8.16
Example 11 The resistance R
_ 200 100 100
1213 816'*'^ zohere V = 100 ± 5 V
and / = 10 ±0.2 A
= 0.1649 + 0.1225 + 0.2890 = 0.5764
The percentage error in V is 5% and in ! is 2%. What is
= 0.58%
the total percentage error ?
(rounding off to 2 significant figures) Solution. The percentage error in R is given by
Example 9 To find the value of 'g' by using a simple AR
xl00 =
AV
X100 + —xlOO
Al

pendulum, the follozoing observations were actually made : R y i

I = 100 cm ± 0.1 cm. r = 2s±0.1 s = 5% + 2% = 7%

Calculate the maximum permissible error in the Example 12 The specific resistance a of a thin circular
measurement of 'g'. wire of radius r cm, resistance R D and length L cm IS

Solution. Acceleration due to gravity 'g' is given given by

by rcr^R
a =
L L
5 = 47U--;^
T2
Ifr =0.26 ± 0.02 cm, R=32±10. and L = 78± 0.01 cm, ifnd
The percentage error in g is given by the percentage error in a.
^8
xl00= —+2
AL AT
XlOO
Solution. The percentage error in specific
g I T . resistance 'a' is given by
da '2 dr dR dl^
0.1 0.1 xl00 = + — + —
+ 2. X100 = 10.1% a . r R L
100 2
'2 X 0,02 1 0.01
Example 10 For the estimation of Young's modulus : 0.26 32 78
XlOO

Y = 4 Mg L
Tzd^ I = [0.15 + 0.03 + 0.0001] X 100
= 0.1801 X 100 = 0.18 X 100 = 18%
for the specimen of a zvire, follozoing observations zoere
recorded: ' '

1 = 2.890, M=3.00, d = 0.082, g = 9.81^ 1 = 0.087.

i,
 Chapfer 1 : MAJOR SKILLS IN PHYSICS PRACTICAL WORK

Section D : Graphs
13 Graphs represents the one small division of tJie
co-ordinate axis by 1, 2 or 5 units of the
A graph is a straight or a curved Hite which displays concerned variable.
dependence of one variable on another. It is a way of (iv) Write the scales chosen for the two axes at the
presenting information in a pictorial form. It shows at a top of the graph paper at some suitable place.
glance the important features contained in a given
data, howsoever large. In sciences, graphs are used to 4. Labelling the co-ordinate axes :
display and interpret the results of experiments. (0 The scales should be marked properly along the
two co-ordinate axes with the values which they
14 How to Plot a Graph ? represent.

1. Drawing the co-ordinate axes. Take a graph (//) Mark with an arrowhead the designation of the
paper ruled in millimetre. In case all the observations variable along each co-ordinate axis and the
unit in which it is expressed.
are positive, draw two thick lines at right angles to
each other so that their point of intersection lies at the 5. Plotting the points. To plot points on the graph

w
bottom of the left hand edge of the graph paper. These paper corresponding to different pairs of the two
two lines are known as the axes of reference and their variables, mark the points on X- and Y-axes for the
point of intersection is known as the origin. The
horizontal line is taken as the X-axis and the vertical
Flo
values of the first pair and find the point of intersection
of perpendiculars on the two respective axes which

ee
line is taken as the Y-axis.
pass through these points. Similarly, locate the other
2. Selecting the variables. The quantity which is Fr
points on the graph. These points should be
made to alter at will during experimentation is known
for
represented by small dots at the correct positions with
ur
as independent variable and is plotted along X-axis, small circles around them.
while the quantity which varies as a result of this
ks

6. Fitting a curve to the plotted points :

Yo

change, is known as the dependent variable and is

oo

plotted along Y-axis. (/) If the plotted points appear to lie nearly along a
B

3. Selecting the co-ordinate scales. It is the most straight line, draw a straight line using a sharp
re

pencil and a straight edge rule so that it passes

important aspect to be taken care of while drawing a
through the maximum number of such points
ou
ad

graph paper. A poor choice of scales for the co-ordinate

and the remaining points are almost evenly
Y

axes, more than any other single factor, will make an distributed on both sides of the line,
otherwise acceptable graph unsatisfactory as a tool. To
nd
Re

select a suitable scale, examine the given data and find (ii) If the plotted points do not appear to lie on a
straight line, draw a free hand curve with a
Fi

the range of botli the variables. Select the scales so that

the graph may cover almost 90% of the ruled portion of sharp pencil making it as smooth as possible
the graph paper. The scales should not be such that the and making it pass through as many points as
possible. Due to experimental errors, some
plotted points get crowded together in a particular
portion of the graph paper. points may not lie on this curve. Wliile drawing
smooth curve, care should be taken to see that
The following points should be kept in view in such points are almost evenly distributed on
regard of these scales ; both sides of the curve. For drawing smooth
(i) It is not essential that the origiti should begin with curve, we can also use the set of 'French Curves'
zero. One should start the origin with a whole available in the market or a thin flexible spoke
number just less than the smallest value to be of a broom.
plotted along each axis. Again, each axis should
end with a whole number just greater than the A point lying far away from the best smooth curve
highest value to be plotted along that axis, indicates a gross mistake in the corresponding
(n) It is not essential that the scales chosen be same
experimental observation.
for the two co-ordinate axes, 7. Appropriate caption. Give the graph a proper
(m) It will be quite convenient and helpful in caption as "Graph of current vs. Voltage", etc. Indicate
locating the points on the graph paper if one the deductions made from the graph near the caption.
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xil

15 Uses of Graphs Draw perpendiculars PR and QS on X-axis and

PMl QS. The slope of the straight line will be
Just as no amount of a word description of a QM_y2~h
m = tan 9 =
landscape can convey the same vivid idea to mind as a PM Xi-x^
painting or a nice photograph, so also no amount of
data, howsoever nicely recorded, can give as clear an It is important to note here that both (.^2 and
idea of the relationship between two variable (i/j-i/i) n^ust be measured in the units of the scales
quantities as a graph. A graph is as much useful to a chosen along X- and Y-axes, respectively. For example,
scientist as a picture to a layman. Not only a graph if potenHal difference V (in volts) is plotted along
relates one variable with another variable, it has the
Y-axis and current I (in amperes) is plotted along X-axis,
following additional utilities : then the slope m would be measured in VA'^ or Q.
(/) A graph appeals to the attention of the reader, The intercepts of the straight line graph can be read off
(ji) It can be used to verify certain physical laws. directly by locating the points of intersection of the
(Hi) It can be used to deduce the relation between straight line with tlie two co-ordinate axes. However,
two
variable quantities if such relationship is when origin is not plotted on the graph paper, we can
not already known. take the equation of the line in the form
(/u) A graph can give the mean value of the ratio y = mx + c
between two quantities accurately without
requiring any cumbersome calculations,
If the points (ATj,y^) and (X2,y2) lie on this straight
line graph, then
(u) It can be used in the calibration of instruments
y^ = +c
and for determining their true readings,
mx- + c
(ui) It reflects the extent of error made while taking Vi 2

an individual observation. We can easily calculate both m and c from these two
(vii) From a graph we can easily visualise certain equations,
significant features like points of maxima or
17 To Calculate Slope of a Curved Graph
minima or points of inflexion of a given set of
data which otherwise cannot be easily noticed
by merely looking at the data.
The slope of a curved graph changes from point to
, point. At any point, the slope of a curve is defined as
(viii) A graph can be used to find the value of the
the slope of the tangent drawn at that point. In order to
dependent variable corresponding to such a
draw the tangent to a curve at any given point P, hold a
value of independent variable not available in
thin plane mirror at this point on the curve and look for
the data supplied.
the image of the curve. The plane of the mirror is
This can be done in two ways : (fl) by turned about till there is no break or discontinuity
interpolation if the unknown value lies in the between the curve and its image in the mirror, the
investigated range, and (b) by extrapolation if the
mirror is then along the normal to the curve. A line
unknown value lies beyond the observation
drawn along the base of the mirror is the normal to the
range of the experiment.
curve at the point P. Now if we draw a line
16 To Calculate Slope of a Straight Line Graph perpendicular to this normal at the point P, it will he a
tangent to the curve at the point of consideration. The
To calculate slope of a straight line graph, take two slope of the tangent can be determined as for any other
points P(x.j,y^)and Q{A:2,y2) well separated on this line, straight line.
Q(*2-y2)
The slope of the curve at the point P is
m = The slope of the tangent at the point P
^2-^1
= lM.=hZlL
M AM x^-x^

It may be easily noticed that:

>
O R S' X (i) The slope of a straight line graph is same at
every point.
Fig. 1.2 To calculate slope m of a straight line.

10
 Chapter I : MAJOR SKILLS IN PHYSICS PRACTICAL WORK

(n) The slope of a curved graph changes from point to point.

{in) The slope of a graph is independent of the scale chosen.
> My

Tangent

B(X2, 1/2)
Normal Nonnal
I

I
Pi.arje I
n}irr,Or r -
I

/
>
o X O X
(fl) (t)

Fig. 1.3 To calculate slope m of a curved graph at any point.

18 Some Examples of Straight Line and Curved Graphs

w
Formula Graph
I
Ohm's law

V ac 1 or V = R1
Flo
ee
Fr >
for
V
ur
specific resistance of a wire Pi V
ks

RA _R nd^
Yo

= const.
oo

P =
/' “ / ■ 4
B

i.e., specific resistance is independent of

re

diameter d. >
d
ou
ad

Qk
Joule's law of heating
Y
nd

«— Parabola
Re
Fi

¥
I

Vi .
Boyle's law
PV = constant or P oc —
y

Hyperbola

Qk
Discharge of a capacitor
t

Q=Q,‘-’
RC

Exponential decay

11
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Section E : Logarithms

“My Lord, I have undertaken this journey purposely to see your person, to know by what engine of
wit or ingenuity you came to think of the most excellent help in mathematics, viz., the logarithms."
-Briggs to Napier

19 Introduction When the base is not mentioned, it is always implied to

be 10.
The mathematics of logarithm was developed by
In general.
John Napier (1550 - 1617) in the sixteenth century. The
word 'logarithm' literally means ‘a rule to shorten If 10^ =x, then logjg x = logx = y
arithmetic. Logarithms are one of the most powerful tools
for the evaluation of expressions involving, multi Relation between natural and common logarithms
plications, divisions, powers and extraction of roots. log^x = 2.303 log^gx
Laplace emphasised the importance of logarithms in or
Inx = 2.303 logx
mathematics beautifully in the following words :
“Logarithm reduces to a few days the labour of many Laws of Logarithm
months and so doubles, as it were, the life of a Product formula : logj,mn = Iog^m+log^«
mathematician besides freeing him from the errors
m
and digest inseparable from long calculations." Quotient formula : = log^m-logj,«
The logarithm of a number to a given base is the power to
Power formula :
which the base must be raised to get that number.
For example, we know that Base charige formula : log„m = log(, mxlog„&
81=3^
logl=0, logl0=l, x=e'°^=^,
We can say that the logaritlim of 81 to tlie base 3 is 4
i.e..
!og381 = 4 Example 13 Expand by usmg logarithmic formulae :
In general. {i)V =
npr
4

{ii)T=2n
[7
8r]l
If a^ = X, then log^ x=y 4
Tcpr
Solution. (0 V=
20 8t]1
Napierian or Natural Logarithms
logV = logjr-f-logp+logr^-log8-logn-log/
In these logarithms the base 'e' is used, where
number 'e' is given by the converging infinite series : = log 71 + log p + 4 log r - log8 - log n - log/
- 1 1
e =l +_+_ +_+
1
=12.17828
r^
1! 2! 3!
(«)

The natural logarithm a number x is expressed as

loggAT or as Inx. logT = log2 + logTH- i {logr^ - logg - log ]
In general.

If ~x, then \o,g^x = \nx-y = log2 + logTC + ^[3 log r-logg -3 log R]
2i Common Logarithms 22 To Find the Logarithm of a Number

In these logarithms, the base 10 is used. These are The logarithm of a number consists of two parts: an
the commonly used logarithms. The logarithmic tables integral part and a fractional part. It is found
given in the books are also with respect to base 10. convenient to have its decimal part always positive.

12

i
 Chop/er I : MAJOR SKILLS IN PHYSICS PRACTICAL WORK

Characteristic. The integral part of the logarithm of a For example,

number after its decimal part has been made positwe is called
characteristic.
characteristic of log 430.9 =3-1=2
characteristic of log 0.0043 = -(2 +1) = -3 = 3
Mantissa. The positive decimal part of the logarithm of
a number is called mantissa. Determination of Mantissa

For example, if logx = 3.4283 For this purpose standard logarithm tables given in
Then characteristic = 3 the appendix of this book are used. The value of
and mantissa = 4283
mantissa depends only on the digits and their order in
the given number; it does not depend on the position
However, if !ogx = -3.4283 of the decimal point, i.e., all numbers which differ only
We must make first its decimal part positive as by the position of the decimal point have the same
follows : mantissa.

logjc = -3-0.4283 In order to find the mantissa of the logarithm of a

= -4 + 1-0.4283
number, remove its decimal point and round off it to
four sigruficant figures and then use the 'log tables' as
= -4+0.5717 follows :

w
= 4.5717 (i) Run down the first vertical column of the 'log
tables' and stop at the number corresponding to
Thus characteristic = 4
Flo first two significant digits in the given number,

ee
and mantissa = 5717
(u) Run along the horizontal row determined in
Determination of a Characteristic
of this Fr
step (0 and read the number at the intersection
row and the vertical column
for
ur
We follow the following rules for finding tlie corresponding to the third significant figure.
characteristic of any number : Note this number.
ks

(f) If the number is greater than 1, then the (in) Now run along the same horizontal row in the
Yo
oo

characteristic of its logarithm is a positive integer difference column and read the number at the
B

and its value is one less than the number of digits intersection of this row and the vertical column
re

preceding the decimal point. corresponding to the fourth significant number.

Note this number.
(i7) If a number is less than 1 but positive, its
ou
ad

characteristic is a negative integer and its numerical {iv) Add the numbers obtained in steps (») and {Hi).
Y

value is one more than the number of zeros The sum with a decimal point placed at the
immediately afllowing the decimal point. beginning gives the required mantissa.
nd
Re
Fi

Example 14 To find logarithms of given numbers :

Logarithms
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 123 456 789

50 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067 123 345 678

51 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152 123 345 678

52 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235 123 345 677

53 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316 123 345 667

54 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396 123 345 667

Solution. log5039 = 3.(7016 + 8) =3.7024

log51.02 = 1.(7076 + 2) = 1.7078
log5.264 = 0.(7210 + 3) = 0.7213
log 0.5328 = 1.(7259 + 6) = 1.7265
log 0.00549 = 3.(7396 + 0) =3.7396
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

23 Antilogarithm (Hi) Run along this horizontal row and read the
number at the intersection of this row and the
If the logarithm of a number x is y, then y is called the vertical column corresponding to the third digit
antilogarithm ofx and is denoted by x, i.e., of the mantissa part. Note this number.

If logx = i/, then x - antilog y (iv) Now run along the same horizontal row in the
difference column and read the number at the
The antilogarithm of the logarithm of a number is intersection of this row and vertical column
the number itself. corresponding to the fourth digit of the
mantissa part.
he., antilog (logx) =
As
(v) Add the numbers obtained in steps (Hi) and (iv).
log2 = 0.3010,
(vi) The position of the decimal point is determined
therefore. antilog (0.3010) =2 by the characteristic part. If the characteristic is
Antilogarithms are determined with the help of positive, say n, the decimal point is placed after
antilogarUhm tables in the following manner : (n + 1) digits from the left. If the characteristic is
negative, say n, we place (n-1) zeros before the
(i) We first consider just the mantissa part of the
number obtained in step (u) and then place the
given logarithm.
decimal point.
(i7) Run down the first vertical column of the
antilog table and stop at the row corresponding
to the first two digits of the mantissa part. This
is the row with which we are concerned.

Example 15 To ifnd antilogarithms of the given logarithms :

Antilogarithms
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 123 456 789

70 5012 5023 5035 5047 5058 5070 5082 5093 5105 5117 124 567 8 9 11

71 5129 5140 5152 5164 5176 5188 5200 5212 5224 5236 124 567 8 10 11

72 5248 5260 5272 5284 5297 5309 5321 5333 5346 5358 124 567 9 10 11

73 5370 5383 5395 5408 5420 5433 5445 5458 5470 5483 124 568 9 10 11

74 5495 5508 5521 5534 5546 5559 5572 5585 5598 5610 124 568 9 10 12

Solution.

Antilog 3.7024=5040.0 (5035 + 5)

Antilog 1.7178=52.22 (5212 + 10)
Antilog 0.7213 = 5.264 (5260 + 4)
Antilog 1.7365 = 0.5451 (5445 + 6)
Antilog 3.7496 = 0.005618 (5610 + 8)

Example 16 Simplify the following logarithms : (n) 2.5132x2 =3.0264

(i) 3.2314 X 3 (ii) 2.5132^2 (Hi) 2.1030 - 3 = 0.7010
(i(7) 2.1030 - 3 (iv) 6.2810-2 (ii;) 6.2810+2=11405
(z?) 1.2023-3 (vi) 5.4720-4 (y) 1.2023-3 =(-l+.2023)+3
Solution.
= (-3+2.2023)+ 3
(i) 3.2314 X 3 = 9.6942 = -1 + 0.7341 = 1.7341

14
 Chapfer ] ; MAJOR SKILLS IN PHYSICS PRACTICAL WORK

{vi) 5.4720- 4=(-5+.4720)-4 Solution. Now,

= (-8+3.4720)h-4 = -2 + 0.8680 logy = log4000 + log 981 + log400 - log 3.1416

-2 log 0.05 - log 0.1
= 2.8680
= 3.6021 + 2.9917 + 2.602_1 - 0.4970
Example 17 The area A of a circle is given by the formula -2 (2.6990) -IDOOO
A = ■Kr~,whereris the radius of the circle. Find the radius of = 9.1959 - 4.8950 = 12.3009
22
the circle whose area is 48.5 cni^. Take K = antilog(12.3009) =1.999 x lo'^ =2 x 10
12

Solution.
y=2xl0^^dyne/cm^
A = Tcr^ (7.23)'^ ^0.0064
Example 19 Simplify
A 48.5x7 ni/2 (82.0)^^0.359
n 22
Solution. Let

logr = ^[log48.5 + log7 -log22 ] {7.23fW0m _ (7.23)~^(0.0064)^^^

(82.0)^ (82.0)^(0.359)’^^

w
= ^[1.6857 +0.8451-1.3424] log:^ =
41og7.23+-log 0.0064-21og 82.0 —5 log 0.359
= -x 1.1884 = 0.5942
Flo 3

ee
2
= 4(0.8591) + -(3.8062) -2 (1.9138) -1(1.5551)
antilog(0.5942) = 3.928
Radius, r = 3.928 cm
Fr 3

= 3.4364 + 1.2688-3.8276 + 0.08898

5
for
ur
= -1.03342=196658
Example 18 Find the Youngs modulus, Y from the
ks
Yo

relation :
= 19666 (rounding off to 4 decimal places)
oo

4000x981x400
B

y =
jix (0.05)^ X 0.1 antilog (19666) = .09260
re

.v = 0.0926
ou
ad
Y
nd
Re
Fi

75

i
 Electrical
Accessories

Section A : Sources of EMF

Q Electric Current (r) Primary cells. The electrochemical cells which make
use of irreversible chemical reactions are called primary cells.
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of
In these cells, the electrodes and the electrolytes are
charge through any cross-section of a conductor. It is graduaDy used up. So primary cells cannot be
equal to the net charge passing normally through any recharged. Daniel cell, Ledanche cell and dry cell are
cross-section of a conductor per unit time. some of the examples of primary cells.
Electric current = Total charge flowing or 1=^ (b) Secondary cells. The electrochemical cells which
Time taken
f make use of reversible chemical reactions are called
The SI unit of current is ampere (A). secondary cells. Such cells can be recharged after they
1 coulomb
1 ampere = or 1 A = 1 Cs
-1
have run down by passing a current through them in
1 second the reverse direction. These cells are also known as

In metallic conductors, free electrons are the charge storage cells or accumulators. The commonly used
carriers while in electrolytic liquids, the positively and secondary cells are lead-acid storage cell, nickel-iron
accumulator or Edison cell, and nickel-cadmium cell.
negatively charged ions are the charge carriers.

Q Sources of EMF Q Daniel Cell

In order to maintain a steady current through a This cell was invented in 1836 by John Daniel,
conductor, its ends are connected to a source of Professor of Chemistry at King's College, London. As
electromotive force (emf) which does work at a steady shown in Fig. 2.1, it consists of a copper vessel
rate to take free electrons of the conductor from one containing a concentrated solution of copper sulphate.
end of the conductor to the other end. The work done per A porous pot (of fired clay or porcelain) filled with
unit charge by a source in taking the charge once round the dilute sulphuric acid (or acidulated zinc sulphate
co)nplete circuit is called electromotive force or emf of the B
source. SI unit of emf is volt (V). An electric cell, a
1 I

battery and battery eliminator are the commonly used CUSO4 crystals
sources of emf in a laboratory.
Perforated shelf

Electrochemical Cells
CUSO4 solution
An electrochemical cell is commonly used source of
electric current in the electricity experiments. It is a device Porous pot
which converts the chemical energy into electrical energy. Oil. H2SO4
Two types of cells are commonly used in the -ai--
Zinc rod

laboratories : Copper vessel

(a) Primary cells (b) Secondary cells Fig. 2.1 Daniel cell.

16
 Chapter 2 : ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES

solution) and containing an amalgamated zinc rod is (Hi) The cell has to be dismantled when not in use. If
placed in the copper sulphate solution. The porous pot this is not done, the copper sulphate solution
allows the ions pass through it but does not allow the slowly passes through porous pot and spoils the
physical mixing of the two solutions. The outer copper zinc rod with a deposit of copper.
vessel acts as the positive electrode or anode while the
Defects in a Daniel Cell
zinc rod acts as the negative electrode or cathode. In
order to maintain the strength of copper sulphate There are hvo defects in a Daniel cell :
solution, some crystals of CuSO^ are placed inside a
perforated shelf near the top of the copper vessel. (/) Polarisation. The hydrogen released during the
When the two electrodes are connected externally, electrolysis process in the Daniel cell, forms a thin
a current begins to flow from copper to zinc electrode layer on the copper electrode. This sets up a back emf.
in the external circuit. The chemical reactions which The internal resistance of the cell increases, the current
take place are as follows ; decreases and finally stops. This defect is known as
At the zinc electrode, Zn atoms are oxidised into polarisation and is remedied by using a suitable
Zn
2+ ●
10ns : depolariser which oxides H2 into water. For example,
Zn > Zn^"^ +2e manganese dioxide is used as a depolariser in
(at the cathode)

w
Leclanche cell.

These zinc ions pass into the solution : {ii) Local action. This defect is due to the presence

Zn^-" + CuSO^ ^ ZuSO^ + Cu^"^ (in the solution)

Flo
of impurities in the commercial zinc used in making
the cathode. These impurity atoms, mainly of carbon

ee
The electrons released at the zinc electrode travel

along the external circuit towards the copper electrode Fr

and iron, form tiny cells with zinc atoms in dilute
sulphuric acid. These currents are of no use and are
for
called local currents. They decrease the current in the
ur
where they neutralise the Cu ions into Cu atoms
2+

which, in turn, get deposited on the copper anode. main circuit. Tliis defect can be remedied either using a
ks

pure zinc rod or an amalgamated zinc rod. In the latter

Yo

Cu^-" +2c ^ Cu (at the anode) case, the layer of mercury does not allow impurity
oo

atoms to come in contact with the acid, thereby

B

The overall reaction can be written as :

eliminating the local action.
re

Zn + CuSO^ > ZnSO^ + Cu

ou

Qj Leclanche Cell
ad

2+ 2+
or Zn+ Cu ^ Cu + Zn
Y

It is the chemical energy released in this reaction This cell was invented by George Leclanche in 1865.
nd
Re

which gets converted into electrical energy. Tlie emf of As shown in Fig. 2.2, it consists of a glass vessel
Fi

the cell is 1.1 V. As the strength of the copper sulphate containing a solution of ammonium chloride in which
is maintained constant, the emf of the cell is constant. is dipped an amalgamated zinc rod. A porous pot
However, its internal resistance is high. Thus Daniel Vent Pitch

cell is useful only when small but constant currents are \ [£ i Irn

required. □ Glass vessel

Advantages of Daniel Cell 'J’Sg

Zinc rod
(i) Since it gives nearly a constant emf, so it can be lOo
used as a source of constant emf.
<3 o \a o o'
(ii) It is useful for experiments requiring constant Ia NH4CI solution
current for short duration.
Porous pot
{Hi) Less expensive.
Disadvantages of Daniel Cell Carbon rod

(i) Its emf is rather low. Mixture of powdered

V
{ii) It takes about half an hour after it is reset to give carbon and Mn02
a steady emf. Fig. 2.2 Leclanche cell.

77

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

containing a carbon rod and packed with a mixture of

Brass cap
powdered carbon and manganese dioxide is placed in Pitch
the solution. The zinc rod acts as the cathode and carbon
Carbon rod
rod as the anode. The manganese dioxide (depolariser) Card
prevents the formation of gaseous hydrogen which board
● Powdered
would otherwise polarise the cell and the powdered Paste of — -ai- manganese
carbon reduces the internal resistance of the cell. ammonium
dioxide and
carbon
When an external circuit is connected across the chloride

cell, the zinc atoms in contact with the electrolyte get Muslin
Zinc case (-) bag
ionised by losing two electrons per atom :
Zn ^Zn-^ +2(.>" (at the cathode) Fig. 2.3 Dry cell.

The electrons so released flow along the external would otherwise polarise the cell and the powdered
circuit towards the carbon electrode where they get carbon reduces the internal resistance of the cell. The
neutralised by the ammonium ions of the electrolyte : remaining space is filled up with a moist paste of
2NHt4 +2e" > 2 NH3 + H, (at the anode) ammonium chloride and zinc diloride. NH^Cl acts as
The gaseous hydrogen reacts with depolariser the electrolyte and ZnCl2 being highly hydroscopic
keeps the cell moist.
Mn02 at the anode :
The cell is sealed at the top by sealing wax to avoid
H2 + 2 Mn02 ^ Mn203 + H,0 (at the anode) evaporation. But a small hole is provided at the top for
In the electrolyte, Zn^"*^ ions combine with Cl" ions escape of ammonia gas.
to form zinc chloride :
The chemical reactions which take place in a dry
Zn^+ + 2 Cr > ZnCl2 (in the electrolyte) cell are the same as those in a Leclanche cell. For these
Tlie overall reaction may be represented as follows: reactions, please refer to section 6.
The emf of a dry cell is about 1.5 V. It can
Zn + 2 NH4CI + 2 Mn02 continuously supply an electric current of 0.25 A. Its
ZnCl2 + 2 NH-, + H2O + Mn203 + Energy internal resistance can vary from 0.1 Q to 1.0 Q.
Mn203 is converted back into Mn02 by the oxygen The cell is dry only in the sense that instead of a free
of the atmosphere. It is the above overall reaction liquid, it contains a moist paste. In fact, it works only so
which releases energy and dissolves ammonia and long as its contents are wet.
water into the electrolyte. Here hydrogen is not
With the usage of the cell, the zinc case is consumed
oxidised as fast by the depolariser as fast it is
produced. So, if the cell is used for a while, there is which finally develops holes and the cell begins to
polarisation of gaseous hydrogen around the anode leak. The cell can be made leak proof by covering the
and the emf of the cell drops. The cell can regain its zinc case with iron or steel layer.
original emf only after breaking it off from the external
circuit for short time. This cell is useful only in
El Lead-Acid Accumulator
situations where an intermittent current flow is
It is a secondary cell which was first invented by a
required such as in a telephone, telegraph, electric bell, French physicist, Gaston Plante in 1859 and later on
etc. Leclanche cell has a fairly high emf of about 1.5 V
modified by Fanre in 1881. It is also called a storage
but its internal resistance is quite high. battery as it stores electrical energy in the form of
chemical energy.
^9 Dt7 Cell
Tlie electrodes of the lead accumulator are
It is a portable form of Leclanche cell. It consists of a alternating parallel plates of lead dioxide (oxidised from
cylindrical zinc container which also acts as negative PbO, positive electrode) and spongy lead (reduced from
electrode. The positive electrode is the central carbon PbO, negative electrode) insulated from each other by
rod which is surrounded by a mixture of powdered porous separators made of wood, rubber, plastic or
carbon and manganese dioxide. Manganese dioxide glass fibre. All the positive electrodes are connected to
prevents the formation of gaseous hydrogen which a common terminal at the top and all the negative

18
 Chapter 2 : ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES

electrodes are connected to another common terminal The state of charging is best tested by measuring
at the top. This arrangement is immersed in an the density of the electrolyte. It varies from 1.28 when
electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid contained in a glass fully charged (sulphuric acid + water) to 1.12 when dis
or an ebonite vessel. charged (mostly water). It has a low internal resistance.
+
Vent
Anode Cathode
Advantages of Secondary Cell
(0 Its internal resistance is very low.
(it) It gives almost a constant emf.
K
\"

(m) It can deliver a high current for a longer duration.

A A A . A . Al
Acid level

(iv) It can be recharged a very large number of times

Ebonite without deterioration in its properties.
o -I vessel
: £ £
£
Porous pot n Precautions for using Lead-Acid Accumulator
separation
1. The specific gravity of the electrolyte should not
fall below 1.1 because then the cell tends to
Dii. H2SO4
dehydrate and lose capacity.

w
Fig. 2.4 Lead-acid accumulator. 2. The voltage should not be allowed, during
discharge, to fall below 1.8 V, after which the
Discharging Process Flo cell should be recharged.

ee
3. The cell should not be left in a discharged
Dilute sulphuric acid breaks up into FT and SO^"
ions. As the current is drawn from the cell, the H*' ions
move towards the anode and SO^~ ions towards the
Fr
condition as it may cause sulphonation thus
damaging the cell permanently.
for
ur
4. The two terminals of the cell should not be
cathode.
short-circuited, i.e., directly connected by a
ks

At the cathode : Pb + SO^" ^ PbS04+2e‘ connecting wire of low resistance.

Yo
oo

5. Distilled water must be added from time to time

At the anode : Pb02 + 2 FT' + 2e~ Pb0+H20
B

to make up for the water lost by evaporation as

re

PbO + H2SO4 + PbSO^ + H2O time passes on during the action of the cell.
ou

The overall reaction at the anode is

ad

10 Edison Cell or Nickel-Iron

Y

Pb02 + 4H" + SO^ + 2e~

^ PbSO^+2H20 Alkali Accumulator
nd
Re

So during discharging, Pb, Pb02 and H^SO^ are This secondary cell was invented by Thomas Edison
used up to form PbSO^ and H2O.
Fi

of U.S.A. in 1906. As shown in Fig. 2.5, it consists of a

Charging Process luckel-plated iron vessel containing a solution of 20%
KOH and 1% LiOH in distilled water as the electrolyte.
During the charging process, the PT ions move +
towards the cathode and the SO^“ ions towards the
anode and the electrode reactions get reversed.
At the cathode : Steel Nickel steel
grid tube
PbS04+2Pr +2e“ > Pb + H2SO4
At the anode :

PbS04 + S0^“+2H20- ^ Pb02-H2H2S04+2e

So during charging, PbSO^ and H20are used up to
form Pb,Pb02 and H2SO^, i.e., the materials consumed
during the discharging process are given back during
the charging process, i.e., the cell is recharged and is
ready for its reuse. Fig. 2.5Edison cell.

19
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

The positive electrode consists of perforated nickel 12 Battery Eliminator

steel tube filled with alternate layers of nickel flakes
and nickel hydroxide. The negative electrode is also a A battery eliminator essentially consists of a
steel grid packed with iron oxide and graphite, which step-down transformer, a rectifier and a filter circuit.
lowers the internal resistance of the cell. This cell The step-down transformer converts 220 V, 50 Hz a.c.
utilises the following reversible reaction during its into a low voltage a.c., the rectifier converts it into a
discharging and charging processes : fluctuating d.c. and then filter circuit removes
NifOH)^ + KOH+ Fe NifOH)^ + KOH+ FefOH)^ fluctuations, to provide a low constant d.c. voltage. A
battery eliminator is used as a good substitute for cells
Edison cells are very strong, durable and can
or batteries in the laboratory. It is handy to use and
withstand rough handling. They are lighter and robust.
Tlieir emf is 1.75 V, when fully charged and 1.2 V when requires no precharging.
discharged. They are not damaged by short-circuiting.

11 Battery
■ttry

9^
ON
o
A combination of two or more cells is called a battery. ««Tn/TVOlTS
The cells may be connected in series or in parallel or in
Dcv«.rs
a mixed grouping, depending on the requirement of - . WUCTOH

voltage/current. As shown in Fig. 2.6, a car battery

consists of six lead-acid accumulators of 2 V each so as Fig. 2.7 Front view of a battery eliminator.
to give 12 V D.C. Two different types of battery eliminators are
commonly used :
(/) Stepped output type which provide 0-12V in
steps of 1.5 and
(//) Continuously variable output type in which d.c.
12 Volts output can be continuously varied from 0-5 V
or 0-15 V at the turn of a knob. It eliminates the
need of a rheostat in the circuit.
Fig. 2.6 A car battery of 12 V.

Section B : Keys
13 Keys by two conical air gaps, as shown in Fig. 2.9. A binding
terminal is fitted on each brass strip. The middle terminal
A key is used to start or stop current in an electric B is the common terminal while the side terminals A
circuit by closing or opening the circuit. Some and C are the branch terminals. Tapering brass plugs can
commonly used keys in the laboratory are as follows: be inserted in the two gaps to fit there tightly.
1. One-way plug key. It consists of two thick brass A B C
strips mounted on an ebonite base and separated by a
conical gap between them, as shown in Fig. 2.8. A
binding terminal is fitted on each brass ^ip. To close
the circuit a tapering brass
plug, provided with an
ebonite cap, is inserted into Fig. 2.9 Two-way plug key.
the air gap. For breaking The two-way plug key is used,
the circuit, the brass plug is (i) when current is required to be passed through
taken out. Fig. 2.8 One-way plug key.
two different parts of the circuit, and
2. Two-way plug key. It consists of three thick (/;) when current is pas.sed through a circuit due to
brass strips mounted on a ebonite base and separated two different cells alternately.

20
 Chapter 2 : ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES

3. Tapping key. It has two binding terminals and reconnecting any of the wires. As shown in Fig. 2.11,
B fitted on an ebonite base, as shown in Fig. 2.10. A it consists of two semi-circular brass strips fixed on an
metallic lever is attached at its one end to the terminal ebonite base. The two strips are fitted with binding
A and carries a pressing knob of ebonite at its free end. terminals and S,. There is an ebonite arm fitted with
Below this there is a metallic stud connected to the two binding terminals and T2 at its ends, and capable
other terminal 6 by means of a metallic strip. As the of rotation about a vertical axis through its centre. The
knob is pressed, the circuit is completed and the terminals and Tj are connected with strong brass
current starts flowing. As the knob us released, the pieces fitted on the lower side of the ebonite arm.
circuit breaks and the current stops flowing. These pieces are known as brushes and make contact
Metallic lever with the semi-circular strips when the ebonite arm is
A Pressing knob
rotated.
B

Metallic
Generally, the battery is connected to the lower
stud terminals B^ and ^ and the galvanometer through
which the current is to be reversed to the upper
terminals T, and T^. As the arm is rotated to one side,
Ebonite base
the terminal Tj makes contact with By and with so
that the current flows through the galvanometer in one

w
Fig. 2.10 Tapping key.
direction, as shown in Fig. 2.12(a). Now as the arm is
Notice that a tapping key is used when the current is rotated in opposite direction, makes contact with B^,
requiredfor a short time ;ivhile the plug key is used when the
current is requiredfor a longer duration.
Flo B, so that the current flows through the
galvanometer in the opposite direction, as shown in

ee
4. Reversing key or commutator. This is an
arrangement for reversing the direction of current in
Fig. 2.12(1?).
Ti
Fr ■*
for
any part of a circuit, without disconnecting and
ur
B B.
1/ B2
G 1
T2
ks
Yo
oo
B
re

1 4- ^1- -4-

(f’)
ou

(rt)
ad
Y

Fig. 2.11 Reversing key. Fig. 2.12 Working of the reversing key.
nd
Re
Fi

Section C : Resistors

14 Resistor insulated wires of materials like constantan, eureka,

manganin, german silver, etc., which have high resistance
The property by virtue of which a material opposes the temperature coefficient of resistance. To eliminate
flozu of current through it is called resistance. Any material inductive effects, a required length of the wire is first
that has some resistance is called a resistor. The SI unit
Ebonite
of resistance is ohm (O). The commonly used resistors Binding terminal
top \
in the laboratory are resistance coil, resistance box and I ]
a rheostat. Thick copper
strip

15 Resistance Coils ●Wooden case

An unknown resistance is usually measured by Double folded

resistance wire
comparing it with a known standard resistance which
is made in the form of a coil. These coils are made from Fig. 2.13 Resistance coil.

21

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

double folded and then wound on a wooden reel or a

Precautions for using a resistance box
bobbin, as shown in Fig. 2.13. Its free ends are soldered
(/) Plugs should always be inserted or removed
to thick copper leads which are, in turn, soldered to
two terminals fitted in an ebonite sheet. The coil is
with a screwy motion as that ensures good
enclosed in a wooden case. contact and prevents the plug from fastening
tight in the gap.
16 Resistance Box (») See that the plugs in position are tight.
(Hi) Keep the brass portions of the plug and the
It is an arrangement for introducing any known brass blocks very clean and do not rub them
resistance in an electrical circuit. It consists of a with a sand paper.
number of coils of different resistances connected in
(iv) No dust particles should be present in the air gaps
series and enclosed in a wooden box. A resistance coil as otherwise they will introduce their own
consists of an insulated wire of eureka or manganin resistance.
wound non-inductively on a wooden bobbin. The free
ends of each resistance coil are soldered to thick brass
{v) Strong current or even a feeble current of longer
duration should not be allowed through the
blocks fixed on the ebonite sheet whicli forms tlie top
resistance box which will heat up and thus
of the resistance box. Tlie brass blocks are separated by damage the resistance coils.
conical gaps into which tapering brass plugs can be
inserted to fit tightly. 17 Rheostat

It is an adjustable resistance used to vary current in

a circuit or for getting variable potential difference. It
enables us to alter the resistance of an electrical circuit

in a continuous manner instead of in steps. It consists of

a long resistance wire of eureka or manganin wound
on an insulated cylinder of porcelain in such a way that
the neighbouring turns do not touch each other. The
two ends of this wire are connected to the front

Metal rod Sliding contact

Fig. 2.14 Resistance box. i
z s
■T
When all the plugs are in position, the current flows
through the thick copper blocks which do not offer any
resistance. When any plug is removed, the current can
flow from one brass block to the next only via the ^ A B IT
Resistance wire
corresponding resistance coil. Tlie effective resistance
between the two terminals of the resistance box will be
Fig. 2.16 Rheostat
equal to the sum of all the resistance coils whose plugs
have been taken out. The infinity plug is just an air gap terminals A and B. A metal rod is fitted above and
between the two copper blocks. parallel to the cylinder. This rod carries a terminal T at
Terminal Brass plugs one end and a sliding contact S which can be slided
along the wire from one end to the other.

A rheostat can be used in different ways :

Brass
strip 1. As a variable resistor. For changing current in a
electric circuit, a rheostat is used as a variable resistor.

As shown in Fig. 2.17(a), one end of the circuit is

connected to the upper terminal T and other end to the
front terminal A (or B). As we move the sliding contact
S, the resistance of the wire between the terminal A
Resistance coils
and sliding contact S changes which changes the
Fig. 2.15 Resistance coils in a resistance box. current in the circuit.

22
 Chapter 2 : ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES
T
2. As a potential divider. To use rheostat as a
A B
potential divider arrangement, a battery is connected
across the front terminals A and R There is uniform fall
of potential along the wire from end A to end B. When a
-

(«)
S
circuit is connected between the terminals A and T, a

A B potential difference proportional to the resistance

vww between A and S sends current in the circuit.

NOTE
nnnT
The maximum safe current and the maximum
Battery
resistance of a rheostat are marked on its sliding
{b)
contact. So a suitable rheostat should be selected in
Fig. 2.17 Rheostat (a) as a resistor (b) as a potential divider. accordance with requirement.

Section D : Galvanometer, Ammeter and Voltmeter

the middle and 30 divisions on either side. A

w
18 Galvanometer
screw-lever arrangement is attached to one of the hair
Galvanometer is a basic instrument for electrical springs so that the pointer can be set to zero position,
measurements. It is a sensitive current detector. It can be Flo when current is not flowing,

ee
easily converted into an ammeter or a voltmeter for (",atvanomefer

Fr
10 0 10
measuring current or voltage. 20

There are two types of galvanometers :

for
Pointer
ur
1. Moving coil type galvanometers. In these types Hair
spring
of galvanometers, the coil through which current flows Soft iron
ks

core

is free to rotate between the pole pieces of a strong

Yo
oo

fixed magnet. They are generally of two types : N S

B

(?) suspended coil type, e.g., D'Arsonval moving coil

re

galvanometer and Coil

ou

(i/) pivoted coil type, e.g., Weston moving coil

ad

Fig. 2.18 Weston Fig. 2.19 Section diagram of

Y

galvanometer.
galvanometer. Weston galvanometer.
2. Moving magnet type galvanometers. In these
nd
Re

types of galvanometers, the coil through which current A galvanometer is connected in series in a circuit.
Fi

flows is fixed while a small magnetic needle pivoted at When a current flows through the coil, it experiences a
the centre is free to rotate, e.g., tangent galvanometer, torque. Tlie coil rotates and the pointer moves over the
scale. The deflection of the pointer is proportional to
19 Weston or Pivoted-Type the current passed. A galvanometer is a sensitive
Moving Coil Galvanometer device which gives a large deflection even for a small
current of few milliamperes.
A common form of the moving coil galvanometer
used in the laboratory is the pointer type Weston 20 Ammeter

galvanometer. It consists of a rectangular coil of thin

insulated copper wire pivoted on jewelled end An ammeter is a deince for measuring current in a
bearings. It is held in position between the cylindrical drcifif. Since an ammeter is required to measure the
pole pieces of a strong permanent horse-shoe magnet current through a circuit element, so it is connected in
by two phosphor bronze springs. The two springs, series with that element. In order that the current in the
soldered to the two ends of the coil, provide the circuit does not change, an ammeter should have zero
restoring torque and also serve as the current leads. A resistance. Therefore, an ammeter is designed to have
light pointer attached to the coil measures the very small effective resistance. In fact, an idea! ammeter
defection on a suitable scale. Tlie scale has zero mark in should have zero resistance.

23

J
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Amperes
the range of the potential difference which the
\w" instrument is required to measure. The scale of the
Pointer instrument is calibrated to read the potential difference
Hair directly in volts.
.Soft iron
spring NOTE
core

The terminals of voltmeters and ammeters are marked

N S positive (+) and negative (-), so that their positive
terminals must be connected to the positive terminal of
Coil the battery.
>VW
s
22 General Instructions for
Fig. 2.20 An Ammeter. Fig. 2.21 Ammeter as a
Electricity Experiments
shunted galvanometer.
A moving coil galvanometer gives a full scale 1. Always draw a neat and clear circuit diagram
deflection with a very small current. It can be used to showing the scheme of connections before starting
measure large currents by connecting a small resistance, the experiment and get it checked by the teacher.
called shunt, in parallel with it, so that only a small Show the direction of current by arrowheads.
part of the current passes through the galvanometer 2. Use sand papers to remove the insulation from
and the remaining current passes through the shunt. the ends of connecting wires and to clean the ends.
Tlie value of the shunt resistance depends on the range 3. Arrange the apparatus on the working table in
of the current required to be measured. The scale of the
accordance with the circuit diagram.
instrument is calibrated to read the current directly in
amperes (A), milliamperes (mA) or microamperes (pA). 4. Connections should be neat and tight. Use straight
and short connecting wires as far as possible.
21 Voltmeter
5. A plug-key should always be inserted in the
circuit.
A voltmeter is a device for measuring potential difference 6. Ammeter should always be connected in series
across two any points in a circuit. It is connected in parallel
and voltmeter in parallel with the circuit. Note
with the circuit element across which the potential their zero errors or set their pointer in the zero
difference is intended to be measured. As a result, a
position before starting the experiment.
small part of the total current passes through the volt
meter and so the current through the circuit element 7. Always connect the positive terminals of the
galvanometer, ammeter and voltmeter to the
decreases. This decreases the potential difference
required to be measured. To avoid this, the voltmeter positive terminal of the battery.
should be designed to have very high resistance. 8. Pass the current through the circuit for the
In fact, an ideal voltmeter should have infinite resistance. duration it is absolutely essential for taking the
observations.
A moving coil galvanometer can be converted into
9. The battery should never be short-circuited
a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series
otherwise it will get discliarged.
with it. The value of the series resistance depends on

Volts 10. The galvanometer should be shunted before

passing current through it.
Pointer “
''MfJ 11. The readings of ammeter, voltmeter and
Hair
galvanometer should be taken smartly and
.Soft iron spring without the error of parallax. Stop the current
core
before the next reading is taken.
12. Do not use an ammeter to check a battery or a
cell. This may short-circuit the battery or cell
and may also damage the ammeter.
13. While taking out a plug from a resistance box,
press the neighbouring plugs. Insert and
Fig. 2.22 A Voltmeter. Fig. 2.23 Voltmeter as a high remove the plugs with a gentle twist
resistance galvanometer.
24
i
 Chopper 2 : ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES

14. If the experiment does not proceed, try to locate 15. After finishing the experiment, dismantle the
the defect in any part of the apparatus. Even apparatus and return it back to the laboratory
then if it does not work, disconnect all wires assistant.
and make connections afresh.

23 SI Units of Some Electrical Quantities

Expression in Expression in
S.No, Quantity Unit Name Symbol terms terms of other
of basic units units
1. Electric current A
ampere
2.
Electric charge coulomb C As
3. Electric power watt W m^kgs ^ VA

^kgs“^A
4. -1
Electric potential, potential volt V m W/A
difference, electromotive force
5. Electric resistance ohm a. m^kgs"*^A“^ V/A
6. Conductance siemens S m"^kg"^s^A' A/V

w
7. Inductance henry H m^kgs“^A'^ Wb/A
m kgs“^A
8. -I
Electric field volt per metre V/m N/C
9.
Electric flux density coulomb per
Flo C/m 2 m"^sA

ee
square metre
10. Permittivity farad per metre F/m
Fr
m ^kg ^s^A C^N-^m"^
for
ur
24 Symbols used in Circuit Diagrams
ks
Yo

e
oo

m
B

Cell Battery A.C. source Earthing

re

■VvV ttb:
ou
ad

Resistor Variable resistor Rheostat Resistance box

Y
nd
Re

< y <●}
Fi

Plug key open Plug key (closed) Tapping key Reversing key
+ +
G
<!> mA,

Galvanometer Voltmeter Ammeter Milliammeter

Joined wires Crossed wires Lamp

Two-way key

Fixed capacitor Variable capacitor Electrolytic Voltameter

capacitor

9
O 9
O 9 C 9
"TJOIT- o c
c
Inductor Variable Inductor ■o o-

(air core) inductor

(iron core) Step-up Step-down
transformer transformer

25
 LAB MANUAL PHY5ICS-XII

VIVA VOCE
A. Sources of EMF 9. What are the two common defects of primary cells ?
1. What is a cell ? (/) Polarisation and (n) Local action.
A cell is a source of emf which is generated due to the 10. What is polarisation of a cell ? How is it remedied ?
chemical reaction taking place inside it. Hydrogen released during the electrolysis process in
2. What are the different types of cells used in the a cell forms a thin layer on the copper electrode. This
laboratory ? sets up a back emf and so emf of the cell falls off
Primary and secondary cells. quickly. The defect is known as polarisation and can
be remedied by using a depolariser which oxidises
3. What is the difference between the primary and
H2 into water.
secondary cells ?
11. Name the depolariser used in (/) Daniel cell and
In a primary cell the electric energy is directly (//) Leclancho cell.
obtained from an irreversible chemical reaction
taking place inside the cell. In a secondary cell the (/) CuSO^ in a Daniel cell and
electric energy is first converted into chemical energy (//) Mn02 in a Leclanche cell.
which is reconverted into electrical energy when the 12. What is local action in a cell ? How is it remedied ?
current is drawn from it. This cell makes use of a
This defect is due to the presence of impurities in the
reversible reaction.
commercial zinc used in making the cathode. These
A primary cell is not chargeable whereas a secondary impurity atoms, mainly of carbon and iron, form tiny
cell can be recharged. cells with zinc atoms in dilute sulphuric acid. They
4. Give some examples of primary cells. set up local currents which decrease the current in the
Daniel and Leclanche cells are the primary cells main circuit. This defect can be remediedeither using
which are widely used because of their low cost of a pure zinc rod or an amalgamated zinc rod. In the
working. Dry cell is another example which is a latter case, the layer of mercury does not allow
portable form of Leclanche cell. impurity atoms to come in contact with the acid,
5. Name the essential parts of a cell. thereby eliminating the local action.
13. What is the function of the porous pot in a primary
The main parts of a cell are its two electrodes : anode
cell ?
and cathode ; and the electrolyte.
6. What are the various parts of a Daniel cell ? A porous pot permits the flow of ions through it but
does not allow the physical movement of the
It consists of an outer cylindrical vessel of copper
electrolyte from one side to another.
containing a saturated solution of copper sulphate.
The copper vessel acts the anode and the copper 14. Which cell is used for getting a constant current ?
Daniel cell.
sulphate solution as depolariser. A porous pot of
porcelain containing dilute sulphuric acid and an 15. Which cell is used for getting intermittent currents
amalgamated zinc rod is placed in the copper (currents of short duration) ?
sulphate solution. The zinc rod acts as a cathode. Leclanche cell.
7. What are the various parts of a Leclanche cell ? 16. What is partial polarisation in a Leclanche cell ? What
A Leclanche cell consists of a glass vessel con- taining is its effect on the working of the cell ?
a solution of ammonium chloride in which is dipped In a Leclanche ceU, hydrogen is not oxidised as fast
an amalgamated zinc rod. A porous pot containing a by the polariser as fast it is produced. So if the cell is
carbon rod and packed with a mixture of powdered
used for a while, there is polarisation of gaseous
carbon and manganese dioxide is placed in the
solution. The zinc rod acts as the cathode and the hydrogen around the anode. Tliis is called partial
carbon rod as the anode. polarisation of the cell due to which emf of the cell falls.
17. How does resting help in removing partial
8. What is the utility of powdered carbon and that of Or
polarisation ?
manganese dioxide in a Leclanche cell ?
Tlie powdered carbon reduces the internal resistance Why is a Leclanche cell not used when a constant
of the cell while manganese dioxide (depolariser) current is required ?
prevents the formation of gaseous hydrogen which When the Leclanche cell is broken off from the
would otherwise polarise the cell. external circuit for a short time, hydrogen bubbles

26
 Chapter 2 : ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES

escape from the anode and the cell regains its original (iv) It can be recharged a very large number of times
emf. This is called resting. So this cell is useful for without the deterioration in its properties.
getting intermittent currents and a constant emf.
28. Name the various parts of a lead accumulator.
18. Can we draw any amount of airrent from a primary The electrodes of the lead accumulator are alter
cell ? What limits the current drawn from it ?
nating parallel plates of lend dioxide (oxidised from
No, we cannot draw any amount of current from a PbO, positive electrode) and spongy lead (reduced from
primary cell. The maximumvalue of currentthat can be PbO, negative electrode) insulated from each other by
drawn is limited by the internal resistance of the cell.
porous separators of wood, rubber or glass fibre. All
19. Which cell is used in a torch ?
the positive electrodes are connected to a common
Dry cell. terminal at the top and all the negative electrodes are
20. What is a dry cell ? Is it really a dry cell ? connected to another common terminal at the top. This
Dry cell is a portable form of Leclanche cell which arrangement is immersed in an electrolyte of dilute
uses electrolyte in the form a paste. The cell is dry sulphuric acid contained in a glass or an ebonite vessel.
only in the sense that instead of a free flowing liquid 29. What is an alkali accumulator ?

it contains a moist paste. In fact, it works only so long Nickel-iron accumulator or Edison cell consists of a
as its contents are wet.
steel vessel containing a solution of 20% KOH and 1%
21. Which cell is used in a motor car ?

w
LiOH in distilled water. The positive plate is a steel
Lead-acid accumulator. grid stuffed witli nickel hydroxide and flaked nickel
and the negative plate is also a steel grid containiiig
22. Is lead-acid accumulator a primary or secondary cell ?
It is a secondary cell.
Flo iron hydroxide having traces of mercuric oxide which

ee
lowers the internal resistance.
23. Can you name any other secondary cell ?
Yes, Edison cell or Nickel-iron alkali accumulator. Fr
30. What is the minimum emf beyond which a lead
accumulator should not be used and why ?
for
ur
24. Why are the secondary cells also called storage cells The emf of the lead-acid accumulator should not be
or accumulators ? Do they store electricity ?
allowed to fall below 1.8 V. If the discharging is con
ks

Secondary cells do not store electricity. The only tinued below this emf, hard lead sulphate is formed
Yo

effect is that the electrical energy is converted into

oo

which increases the resistance of the cell and is likely

chemical energy during the charging process
B

to cause buckling or bending of the plates which may

which, in turn, is converted into electrical energy
re

lead to short circuiting. This shortens the life of the cell.

during the discharging process. Since currents can be
drawn from them whenever desired and for much 31. When is a cell short-circuited ?
ou
ad

longer durations, so in a way they act as store-houses When the two electrodes of a cell are connected
Y

or accumulators of electricity and hence they are directly by a wire of negligible resistance, a very large
called storage cells or accumulators.
nd

current is drawn from the cell. The cell is said to be

Re

25. Wliat type of current do you use for charging the short-circuited.
Fi

secondary cell ? 32. How is a cell damaged when short-circuited ?

Direct current.
When a cell is short-circuited, a very large current is
26. A storage battery is to be charged from a d.c. supply. drawn from it. Its electrodes and electrolytes are
Should the positive or the negative terminal of the consumed up immediately, causing a permanent loss
battery be connected to the positive side of the line ? to the laboratory.
For charging a storage battery, the charging current 33. Can you give an estimate how much current is drawn
must flow from positive terminal to the negative from lead-acid accumulator when it is short-circuited ?
terminal inside the electrolyte. So the positive Yes, the emf of this cell is 2.2 V and internal resistance
terminal of the battery should be connected to the
is 0.01 f2. Therefore, the current through the cell at
positive side of the line. 2.2 V
the time of short-circuiting is / = = 220 A,
27. What are the advantages of a secondary over that of a 0.01/n
primary cell ? which is very large and will discharge the cell
Advantages of a secondary cell: immediately.
(/) Its internal resistance is low. 34. What do you mean by ampere hour capacity of a cell ?
(ii) It gives almost a constant emf. The term ampere hour capacity of a cell refers to the
(in) It can deliver high airrent for a longer duration. total quantity of electrical energy it can supply. It is

27

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

equal to the product of amperes and hours. For 8. Resistors

example, a cell marked 3.5 Ah at 1 h discharge rate
45. What is resistance box?
will supply 3.5 A.
Resistance box is a device for introducing any known
35. Which type of cell would you want to use if your resistance in an electrical circuit. It consists of a number
device required (i) a current of 100 A for 20 s (ii) a of standard resistance coils of various values mounted
current of 10 mA occasionally? in a box. The upper ends of these resistances are
(1) A lead acid accumulator with low internal resis­ connected to brass studs fixed on an eborute top in
tance. such way that they can be joined together in series by
(i1) A 'dry battery', say the carbon-zinc celJ. inserting brass plugs in the gaps between the studs.
36. A primary and a secondary cell have the same emf, 46. l low are the resistance coils of a resistance box
which of these will pro, ide the higher value of designed?
current that can be drawn? A calculated length of an insulated resistance wire of
The internal resistance of a primary cell is more than manganin or constantan is taken. The wire is doubled
that of a secondary cell, so a secondary cell will on itself at its middle and then wound over a
provide a higher value of maximum current. wooden bobbin. The two free ends are soldered to
37. ;\lame the cell used for obtaining a large current. brass studs.

Lead-acid accumulator. 47. Why is the resistance wire doubled over itself, before
38. What is a standard cell? Name one such cell. fixing in a resistance box ?

A cell whose emf remains constant with lime if the This is done to prevent inductive effects.
temperature does not change is called a standard cell. 48. Why alloys, constantan and manganin are used to
For example, Weston's mercury cadmium cell is a make standard resistances?
standard cell with emf 1.0184 V at 20° C. f
This is because the temperature coeficients of resis­
39. Which primary cell can be used as J substitute for a tance for constantan and manganin are very low.
standard cell ? Give reason. 49. Why are standard resistances not made of copper?
Daniel cell, because it gives a constant current for a Copper has very low value of specific resistance. So it
longer duration. is not useful for making standard resistances.
40. What do you mean by emf of a cell? 50. Why should the material of a standard resistance
The potential difference across the terminals of the possess high specific resistance ?
cell when no current is drawn from it (i.e., p.d., Because then a small length of the wire will be
measured in an open circuit) is called emf of the cell. sufficient for making a standard resistance.
41. What arc the emfs of Daniel and Lcclanchc cells? 51. Whal is infinity plug? What happens when it is taken
The emf a Daniel cell is 1.1 V and that of a Leclanche out from a resistance box ?
cell is 1.5 V. It is that plug which introduces infinite resistance
42. What is a battery? when removed from the resistance box. There is no
A number of cells connected in series so as to gel a resistance coil between the brass studs separated by
desired value of emf form a battery. this gap and so this gap acts like a plug key. When the
infinity plug is taken out, the circuit breaks and
43. What is a ballery eliminator?
current stops flowing in it.
A battery eliminator is an electronic circuit which
52. What will be the result of passing a strong current
converts the alternating voltage of 220 V from the
through the resistance box ?
main into direct voltages of lower values like 1.5 V,
3 V, 6 V, 9 V and 12 V, etc. So it can be used as a A strong current will heat up and damage the
substitute for a battery. It consists of mainly a step resistance coils of the resistance box.
down transformer, a rectifier and filter circuits. 53. Why are the plugs made of stout and thick brass
44. How is a battery eliminator more useful than a pieces?
battery? So that their resistance is negligible.
A battery eliminator runs on the ac mains and docs 54. How will it affect the resistances in the resistance box, if
not require the day-to-day maintenance like the dust particles are in the gaps between the brasc; <;tudc;?
replacement of electrolytes or electrodes and the Dust particles will introduce their own resistance and
precharging of the cells, etc. It can be used to get any will thus change the value of the resistance as marked
desired value of direct voltage. on the resistance box.

28
 Chopper 2 : ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES

55. What is a rheostat ? (?) Suspended coil type e.g., D'Arsonval moving coil
It is a variable unknown resistance used to regulate galvanometer and (?7) Pivoted type galvanometer,
the flow of current in a circuit. e.g., Weston's moving coil galvanometer.
56. Wliich material is chosen for rheostat wire ? 67. What is an ammeter ?

Constantan or manganin, because of their high An ammeter is a low resistance galvanometer used to
measure current in a circuit.
specific resistance and low temperature coefficient of
resistance. 68. Does it mean that there is no difference between a

57. What is the material of the cylinder over which galvanometer and an ammeter except for tlie scale
resistance wire is wound ? graduations ?
Insulating materials like slate, porcelain, enamelled No, the resistance of the ammeter is very low as
iron, etc. compared to that of the galvanometer.
58. The resistance wire is closely wound in a rheostat.
69. Why should an ammeter have a low resistance ?
Will these windings not cause short-circuiting ? An ammeter is connected in series in a circuit so that

No, the resistance wire has a coating of insulating whole of the current, which it is required to measure,
oxide over it. This prevents short-circuiting. passes through it. In order that its insertion in the circuit
does not affect the current in the circuit, the ammeter

w
59. Tlien how does the slider make contact with the
resistance wire ? must have least possible resistance.
70. What is the resistance of an ideal ammeter ?
Insulating oxide is removed from that portion of the
wire which can make contact with the slider. Flo Zero.

ee
60. What will happen if we connect the two binding
71. How do we convert a galvanometer into aji ammeter ?
terminals at the base of the rheostat in the circuit ?

The entire length of the resistance wire will be

Fr
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter of
given range by connecting a small resistance in parallel
for
ur
included in the circuit and rheostat will not act as a with the galvanometer. The small resistance connected
variable resistance. in parallel with the galvanometer is called shunt.
ks

61. Can we use a resistance box in place of a rheostat ?

72. What precautions should we observe while
Yo
oo

If not, why ? connecting an ammeter in a circuit ?

B

No, we can introduce resistance from a resistance box (?) Ammeter should always be connected in series
re

with the circuit.

in certain known steps whereas with a rheostat, we
can change the resistance in a continuous manner. (;7) Its range should be slightly more than the
ou
ad

current to be measured,
C. Galvanometer, Ammeter and Voltmeter
Y

(m) Positive terminal of the ammeter should be

62. What is a galvanometer ? connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
nd
Re

It is a sensitive instrument used to detect current in a 73. What is a voltmeter ?

Fi

circuit.
A voltmeter is a device for measuring potential
63. What are the two main types of galvanometers ? difference across any two points in a circuit. It is a
(i) Moving magnet type galvanometers,and high resistance galvanometer.
(j’i) Moving coil type galvanometers. 74. Why should the resistance of a voltmeter be high ?
64. What is difference between the two types of A voltmeter is a connected in parallel with the
galvanometers ? component across which the p.d. is required to be
In a moving coil type galvanometer, the coil through measured. The voltmeter must have very high
which current flows is free to rotate between the pole resistance so that a very small current passes through
pieces of a strong fixed magnet; while in a moving it and the p.d. across that component is not affected.
magnet type galvanometer, the coil through which the 75. What is the resistance of an ideal voltmeter ?

current flows is fixed and a small magnetic needle To measure the exact value of p.d., an ideal voltmeter
pivoted at the centre is free to rotate. must have infinite resistance.
65. Can you name a moving magnet type galvanometer ? 76. How is a galvanometer connected into a voltmeter ?
Yes, tangent galvanometer is a moving magnet type A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter of
galvanometer. given range by connecting a high resistance in series
66. What are the two types of moving coil galvano with it.

meter ? Give example of each type.

29

i
 chapter

Ohm's Law

KB Ohm's Law 2. Area of cross-section. The resistance R of a

uniform conductor is inversely proportional to its area

This law states that the current flozuing through a cross-section A
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference 3. Nature of the material. The resistance of a
applied across its ends, provided the temperature and other
conductor also depends on the nature of the material of
physical conditions remain unchanged. which it is made of.
Potential difference x Current
Combining the above factors, we get
V oc I I
R X
or V= RI A

The proportionality constant R is called the /

or R=p-
resistance of the conductor.

where p is the constant of proportionality called

Wi Resistance
resistivity or specific resistance of the material of the
The property of a conductor by virtue of which a conductor. It depends on the nature of the material
conductor opposes the flow of charges through it is called its of the conductor and the physical conditions like
resistance. It is equal to the ratio of the potential temperature and pressure.
difference applied across the conductor to the current
flowing through it. Qj Resistivity or Specific Resistance
R = If we take / = 1 unit, and A = 1 square unit, then
}
I pxl
R=p^ =
A
El SI Unit of Resistance is Ohm (f2)
Thus, the resistivity of a material inay be defined as the
The resistance of a conductor is 1 ohm if a current of resistanceof a conductor of that material, having unit length
1 ampere flows through it on applying a potential difference and unit area of cross-section. Or, it may be defined as the
ofl volt across its ends. resistance offered by the unit cube of the material of a
Ivolt conductor.
1 ohm =
1 ampere RxA
As p =
I
-1
or in = lVA
ohmx metre
.’. SI unit of p = = ohm metre (Om)
Qj Factors Affecting the Resistance metre

At a constant temperature, the resistance of a

conductor depends on the following factors :
1. Length. The resistance R of a conductor is
directly proportional to its length 1.

30

i.
 Chapter 3 : OHM'S LAW

EXPERIMENT A1

I Aim
To determine resistivity of two/three wires by plotting a graph of potential
difference versus current.

|_Apparatus and Materials Required

Two resistance wires (of constantan and nichrome and of about 1 m length), a voltmeter (0-3 V), a
milliammeter (0 - 500 mA), a low resistance rheostat, two dry cells (or a battery eliminator), plug
key, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper, screw gauge and a metre scale.

i Theory

w
According to Ohm's law, the current / flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference V applied across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature and
pressure) of the conductor remain unchanged,
Flo
ee
V
Vccl V=IR R =-

Fr
or or
/

where R is the resistance of the conductor. Obviously, the graph between the current I and the applied
for
ur
voltage V will be a straight line passing through the origin.
ks

1
Yo

R =
oo

Slope of /-V^ graph

B

But the resistance Rof a wire of length /,area of cross-section A and specific resistance p is given by
re

/ /
ou
ad

R = P-=P where ris the mean radius of the wire.

,2
Y

TV

Rx Kr^
nd
Re

Specific resistance, p=
/
Fi

I Circuit Diagram
E2
Plug key
K Battery
Rheostat
1
V/yr* 5
+
£
E
mA
0 Resistance Connecting wire
Dry cells Resistance wire

wire
■wv
R

Ammeter Voltmeter

Fig. 3.1 Circuit to study I-V relationship Fig. 3.2 Assembly circuit diagram.
for a resistance wire.

31

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XIl

I Procedure
(a) To measure resistance of the wire :
1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.1.
2. Let us label the two resistance wires as A (constantan wire) and B (nichrome wire). Arrange
the required apparatus on the working table in accordance with Fig. 3.2.
3. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires with the help of a sand paper.
4. Remove the plug from the key K and make neat and tight connections as shown in Fig. 3.2.
Ensure that the resistance wire A is connected in series with a milliammeter mA, battery E, a
key K and a low resistance rheostat Rh, while the voltmeter V is joined in parallel with it.
5. See that the positive terminals of the milliammeter and the voltmeter have been connected to
the positive terminal of the battery and the rheostat is connected through its upper terminal
at one end and through one of its lower terminals at the other end.
6. Record the ranges and the least counts of the milliammeter and the voltmeter.
7. Note that the pointers of the milliammeter and the voltmeter are at the zero mark when the
key Kis 'off'. If it is not so, adjust their pointers to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting
the screw provided near the base of the front penal using a screw driver. Even then if the
error persists, note the zero errors of the milliammeter and voltmeter.
8. Insert the plug in the key K and adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat at one extreme,
away from the lower terminal from which one connection of the rheostat has been made.
This allows only a small current to pass through the wire. If required, slightly adjusting the
sliding contact so that the pointer of the milliammeter lies exactly on same marking of its
graduated scale and not in between two markings. Note the readings of the voltmeter and
the ammeter.

9. Now increase the current in steps by adjusting the sliding contact of the rheostat and in each
step note the readings of the voltmeter and the milliammeter for at least six-sets of such
observations. Note thnt the plug in the key is inserted only at the time of taking a reading, so that
the resistance wire does not get heated,

ib) To measure length of the resistance wire : Experimental wire

10. Mark sharp marks on the resistance wire at Binding

the points where it just comes out of the screw

binding terminals. Measure the length / of

the wire between these two marks with a

metre scale, keeping the wire fully stretched, Fig. 3.3 To measure length of a resistance wire.
(c) To measure diameter of the resistance wire :

11. Find the pitch and least count of the screw gauge. Determine its
zero error and zero correction. d

12. Measure the diameter of the resistance wire with screw gauge at b'

four different positions of the wire and that also in two mutually
perpendicular directions aa' and bb', as shown in Fig. 3.4.
13. Find mean corrected diameter by applying zero correction to the a'

observed diameter.
Fig. 3.4
14. Repeat all the above observations for second wire B.
15. Record all the observations in a tabular form.

52
 Chapter 3 : OHM'S LAW

Observations and Calculations

A. For determination of resistances of wires A and B

Range of voltmeter = to V

Range of milliammeter =_ to mA

Least count of voltmeter = V

Least count of milliammeter = mA

Zero error for voltmeter, gj = V

Zero correction for voltmeter. = -e

1 ”
A

Zero error for milliammeter. H ~ mA

Zero correction for milliammeter, C2=-e 2 “

mA

Least count of metre scale = cm

Length of the resistance wire, / = cm

w
Table 3.1 : Voltmeter and milliammeter readings

Wire
Voltmeter reading V (V) Flo Milliammeter reading I (mA)

ee
S.No. Corrected Corrected
used Observed
Observed Iq
1.
V = 7.a + c a
Fr ~ Tn
for
ur
Wire A 2.

3.
ks

1.
Yo
oo

Wire B 2.
B

3.
re
ou
ad

Choosing suitable scales, plot

Y

current-voltage graphs by taking

corrected values of V along X-axis
nd
Re

and corrected values of / along

Fi

Y-axis for both wires A and B. We

obtain straight line graphs passing
through the origin, as shown in
Fig. 3.5 and 3.6, respectively.
From V-I graph for wire A

Slope of the graph = ^ = 1.

AV R

●●● =
AV^AC_ (^2-^1)^
A/ BC (i2-/i)mA
{V2~ViW
(/2-/,)x10"^A
n

Fig. 3.5 Graph between current J and potential difference V for wire A.

33
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

From V-I graph for wire B

AI _ 1
Slope of the graph = AV~ R

RB ~
AV _ PR _
A1~QR

(V2-V^l)V

Fig. 3.6 Graph between current I and potential difference V for wire B.
B. For determination of specific resistances of wires A and B
Length of the wire A, = cm = m

Length of the wire B, /g = cm = m

Pitch of the screw gauge =. cm

Number of divisions on circular scale = 100

pitch
Least count of the screw gauge = cm = cm
100

Zero error of the screw gauge, e = cm

Zero correction of the screw gauge, c = -e = cm

Table 3.2 : Diameter of the resistance wires

Observed diameter * MSR + CSR x LC
Mean diameter =
Wire
used
S.No. in one direction in perpendicular direction 2

(cm) dg (cm) (cm)

1.

Wire A 2.

3.

1.

WireB 2.

3.

For wire A :

Mean observed diameter, dg = cm

Mean corrected diameter. d = dr,0 +C = cm

d
Mean radius of the resistance wire, r = - cm = m
2

RrA xTir^
Qm
Specific resistance of the material of the wire, p=- I

Standard value from the table of specific resistances, Hm

pg =

% Error = xl00 = %
Po
 Chapter 3 : OHM'S LAW

For wire B:

Mean observed diameter, = cm

Mean corrected diameter, d = dn+c

0 = cm

Mean radius of the resistance wire, r = — cm = m

2

Rr,x7cr^
B
Specific resistance of the material of the wire, p =
I
Qm

Standard value from the table of specific resistances, Pq = Qm

% Error =ill£o>clOO = %
Po
Result

1. The current through the given resistance wire varies linearly with the potential difference
across its ends.

2. Specific resistance of wire A = Qm

w
3. Specific resistance of wire B = Q m

^ECAUTIONS Flo
1. All the connections should be neat and tight.

ee
Fr
2. The ends of the connecting wires must be cleaned with a sand paper.
3. The resistance wire should be wound on a card-board strip (- 3 cm x 6 cm) so that two distant
for
ur
points on it may not get short-circuited.
4. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel with the circuit. The pointers
ks

of the ammeter and the voltmeter should be adjusted for zero deflection when no current passes
Yo
oo

through them. If it is not possible, then zero corrections should be determined for the two meters.
B

5. Always connect the positive terminals of the ammeter and voltmeter to the positive terminal
re

of the battery, so that current enters at a +ve terminal and leaves at a ^e terminal.
ou
ad

6. Use a low resistance rheostat to change the current and not a resistance box as smooth
Y

variation of current is possible only with a rheostat and not with a resistance box.
nd

7. The ammeter and voltmeter used should be of suitable range. For low currents, a
Re

milliammeter should be used.

Fi

8. Current should be passed for a short time only while taking a set of readings, otherwise the
resistance of the wire may change due to excessive heating.
9. The length of only that portion of the experimental wire should be measured which lies
outside the binding terminals.
10. As the diameter of the wire is a small quantity and its'Second power occurs in the expression
for specific resistance, it should be measured accurately at a number of places along the
length of the wire and that also along two mutually perpendicular directions.
^URCES OF Error
1. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
2. Resistance of the wire may change due to excessive heating.
3. There may be an error in the measurement of length / if the wire is not taut or it is not along
the scale in the metre bridge.
4. There may be an error in the measurement of radius of the wire due to backlash error in the
screw gauge.

35

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

VIVA VOCE

1. What is electric current ? 11. What is the difference between resistance and

It is the rale of flow of charge across any section of the resistivity ?

conductor. Resistanceof a conductor is the ratio of the potential
Q difference applied across its ends to the current
t flowing through it. Resistance of a conductor
depends on its shape, size and on the nature of its
2. Which particles are responsible for the flow of electric material. Resistivity of a material is the resistance
current through a metallic conductor ? offered by a unit cube of that material. It depends on
Electrons.
the nature of the material and on the physical
3. What is the difference between conventional current conditions like temperature and pressure.
and electronic current ? 12. Does the resistance of a conductor change with
The conventional current is in the direction of motion temperature ?
of positive charges. The electronic current is in the Yes, the resistance of a metallic conductor generally
opposite direction of conventional current. increases with temperature.
13. Name two substances whose resistance decreases
4. What is the SI unit of current ?
with temperature.
Ampere. Germanium and Silicon.

5. Can you define ampere 7 14. What is the difference between resistance and resistor ?
Yes, if a charge of 1 coulomb passes through a The property by virtue of which a material opposes
conductor is one second through any section of the the flow of current through it is called resistance and
conductor, then the current through the conductor is any material which has some resistance is called a
said to be 1 ampere. resistor.
6. What is Ohm's law ? 15. What are ohmic resistors ?
Ohm's law states that the current flowing through a The resistors which obey Ohm's law are called ohmic
conductor is directly proportional to the potential resistors. A pure metal and electrolyte like CuSO^
difference applied across the ends of the conductor, solution with copper electrodes are ohmic resistors.
provided the physical conditions like temperature, 16. What are non-ohmic resistors ?
etc., remain unchanged.
VozI or V = RI
The resistors which do not obey Ohm's law are called
non-ohmic resistors. Water voltameter, vacuum
where R is the resistance of the conductor.
valve, a p-n junction, gas discharge tube, etc. are
7. What do you mean by the term resistance ? non-ohmic resistors.

Resistance is the property of a conductor by virtue of 17. What is the resistance of an air gap ?
which it opposes the flow of current tlirough it. Infinity.
8. Name and define the unit of resistance.
18. What happens if the current is aUowed to flow through
SI unit of resistance is ohm (D). The resistance of a the circuit continuously for a long time ? Why ?
conductor is one ohm if on applying a potential If the current flows continuously through the circuit,
difference of 1 volt across it, a current of 1 ampere the resistance wire will get heated up and its
flows through it. resistance will change.
9. On what factors does the resistance of a conducting 19. Why are copper wires are used for connecting
wire depend ? different components in an electric circuit ?
Resistance of a conducting wire (i) is directly Copper has low resistivity and the resistance offered
proportional to its length, (i7) inversely proportional by a thick copper wire is negligibly small as
to its area of cross-section, and (Hi) depends on the compared to the resistance of the circuit.
nature of the material of the wire.
20. If we use thin cormecting wires, will it change the
10. Do bends in a wire affect its resistance 7
readings of ammeter and voltmeter ?
No, because mean free path of the free electrons in Yes, thin wires have high resistance. The current in
the wire is less than the radius of curvature of the the circuit will decrease. Consequently, the potential
bend and so they can easily go round the bends. drop across the resistance wire will decrease.

36

i
 Chapter 3 : OHM'S LAW

21. Will the use of thin connecting wires in the An ammeter is a low resistance device. When it is

experiment affect the result ? placed in parallel with the circuit, the resistance
decreases and the current in the circuit increases to a
V
No, the ratio —I will remain unchanged. large extent. Moreover, it then measures the current
flowing through it only and not the current in the
22. What is conductance ? What is its SI unit ? circuit.

The reciprocal of the resistance offered by a 30. What happens when a voltmeter is connected in
-1
conductor is called its conductance. Its unit is ohm series in a circuit ?

or mho or siemen (S). A voltmeter is a high resistance device, when it is

23. What is an ammeter ? connected in series with a circuit, the resistance of the
circuit becomes very high and the current in
An ammeter is a low resistance galvanometer used to
measure current in a circuit.
the circuit reduces to a very small value. So voltmeter
will not measure the actual value of potential
24. Why is an ammeter connected in series in a circuit ? difference.

An ammeter is a galvanometer. When connected in 31. What are milliammeter and millivoltmeter ?
series, it does not affect the total resistance of the A millimeter is the ammeter that measures currents
circuit and hence the current in the circuit does not of the order of mA {i.e., 10"^ A) while millivoltmeter is

w
change appreciably. Consequently, ammeter reads the voltmeter that measures p.d. of the order of mV
nearly the actual value of current in the circuit. (Le., 10"^V).
25. Why should an ammeter have a low resistance ? Flo 32. What is the difference between emf and p.d. ?
The emf is the potential difference across the battery

ee
An ammeter is connected in series in a circuit so that
when no current is being drawn from it while p.d. is
whole of the current, which it is required to measure,
passes through it. In order that its insertion in the Fr
the difference of potentials across any two points in
the circuit when current is flowing through it.
for
ur
circuit does not affect the current in the circuit, the
33. What is the unit of potential difference ?
ammeter must have least possible resistance. Volt (V).
ks

26. What is a voltmeter ?

Yo

34. Can you define potential difference of one volt ?

oo

A voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer used to Yes, the potential difference between two points in an
B

measure potential difference between two points of a electric field is said to be one volt if one joule of work
re

circuit. has to be done in' bringing a positive charge of

1 coulomb from one point to another against the
ou

27, Why is a voltmeter connected in parallel across

ad

a
electric field.
component of the circuit ?
Y

A voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer. When 35. What is the purpose of the rheostat in the circuit ?
nd
Re

it is connected in parallel across any component of Tlie rheostat is used to vary current in the circuit.
Fi

the circuit, a very small current passes through it and 36. The windings of a rheostat wire are very close to each
most of the current passes through that component. other. Why don't they get short-circuited on passing
Hence potential difference across that component is current through them ?
not affected appreciably. Voltmeter reads nearly the The wire is coated with a layer of insulated oxide. So
the various turns of the wire get insulated from each
actual value of the potential difference across that other.
component.
37. How does the slider make a contact with the
28. Why should a voltmeter have a very high resistance ?
windings when we use a rheostat ?
A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the Just below the slider, the layer of insulating oxide is
component across which the p.d. is required to be removed from the entire length of the rheostat.
measured. The voltmeter must have high resistance 38. Which material'is used for the rheostat wire ? Give
so that a very small current passes through it and the reason.

p.d. across that component is not affected. To Constantan or manganin. These alloys have high
measure the exact value of the p.d., the voltmeter resistivity and very low temperature coefficient of
must have a very high resistance. resistance.

29. What happens when an ammeter is connected in For more questions based on cells, rheostat and meters,
parallel with a circuit ? refer to the Viva Voce of Chapter 2 on pages 26 to 29.

37 '

i
 /r^

Metre Bridge

Q Wheatstone Bridge Principle Applying Kirchhoffs second law to the loop

ABDA we get
Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement offour resistances
fP+ I^G-I^R=0
used to determine one of these resistances quickly and
where G is the resistance of the galvanometer.
accurately in terms of the remaining three resistances. This
method was first suggested by a Britisli physicist Sir Again applying Kirchhoff's second law to the loop
Charles F. Wheatstone in 1843. BCDB, we get
=0
A Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistances P,
Q, R and S ; connected to form the arms of a In the balanced condition of the bridge, =0. The
quadrilateral ABCD. A battery of emf 6 is connected above equations become
between points A and C and a sensitive galvanometer fP-I^R=0 or ...(I)
Gbetween Band D, as shown in Fig. 4.1. and Q - /2s 0 or
fiQ=y ...(n)
On dividing equation (i) by equation (ii), we get
P R

Q S

Q Sensitivity of a Wheatstone Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge is said to be sensitive if it shows a
I I
large deflection in the galvanometer for a small change of
resistance in the resistance arm.

The sensitivity of the Wheatstone bridge depends

on two factors :
Fig. 4.1 Wheatstone bridge. (i) Relative magnitudes of the resistances in the four
The resistance R is so adjusted that no current flows arms of the bridge. The bridge is most sensitive
when all the four resistances are of the same order.
through the galvanometer. In this balanced condition of
the bridge. {ii) Relative positions of battery and galvanometer.
R
According to Maxzvell for the greater sensitivity of
Q S the Wlieatstone bridge, out of the battery and the
This is Wlieatstone bridge principle. galvanometer, the one having the higher resistance should be
Knowing the ratio of resistances P and Q, and the connected between the junction of the two highest resistances
resistance R, we can determine the imknown resistance S. and the junction of the tzoo lowest resistances.
That is why the arms containing the resistances P and Q Q| Advantages of Wheatstone Bridge Method
are called ratio arms, the arm AD containing R the standard
arm and the arm CD containing S the unknown arm. The bridge method has following advantages over
Derivation of balance condition from Kirchhoff's other methods for measuring resistance ;
laws. In accordance with Kirchhoff's first law, the 1. It is a null method. Hence the internal resistance

currents through various branches are as shown in of the cell and the resistance of the galvano
Fig. 4.1. meter do not affect the null point.

38
i
 Chopter 4 : METRE BRIDGE

2. As the method does not involve any measure Let total length of wire AC = 100 cm and AB = I cm,
ment of current and potential difference, so the then BC = (100-/) cm. Since the bridge wire is of
resistances of ammeters and voltmeters do not uniform cross-section, so.
affect the measurements.
resistance of wire <x length of wire
3. The unknown resistance can be measured to a
P _ Resistance of wire AB
very high degree of accuracy by increasing the or

ratio of the resistances in arms P and Q. Q Resistance of wire BC

a / /

J1 Metre Bridge or Slide Wire Bridge a (100-0 100-/

It is the simplest practical application of Wheatstone whereoistheresistanceperunitlengthof the wire.

bridge that is used to measure an unknown resistance. ^ ^
}
qj. ^__^_(100j^
I
s m-i
Principle. Its working is based on the principle of
Wheatstone bridge. Knowing / and R, unknown resistance S can be
determined.
When the bridge is balanced,
P R
H Series and Parallel
Q S

w
Combinations of Resistances
Construction. It consists of usually one metre long
combination of
manganin wire of uniform cross-section, stretched Flo Equivalent resistance
along a metre scale fixed over a wooden board and resistances. If a combination of two or more resistances in
of a

ee
with its two ends soldered to two L-shaped thick any electric circuit can be replaced by a single resistance
Fr
copper strips A and C. Between these two copper such that there is no change in the current in the circuit and
strips, another copper strip is fixed so as to provide in the potential difference between the terminals of the
for
ur
two gaps flb and A resistance box R.B. is connected combination, then the single resistance is called the equivahit
in the gap ab and the unknown resistance S is resistance of the combination.
ks
Yo

connected in the gap A source of emf 6 is Resistances in series. Figure 4.3 shows three
oo

cormected across AC. A movable jockey and a galvano- resistances R^ R^ and Rg connected in series. When a
B

meter are connected across BD, as shown in Fig. 4.2. potential difference V is applied across the
re

combination, the same current I flows through each

ou

e
ad

K resistance.
<●>
Y

R1 ^3
{M] -VvV
nd
Re

R D s
V1 + V^2 ^3
Fi

^ G(J
0 10 20 30 40 5 ' 60 70 80 90 <4- I
4^

_ #

Jockey/
2 C
V

A
1 cm i (100 - /) cm Fig. 4.3 Resistances in series.
By Ohm's law, the potential drops across the three
Fig. 4.2 Metre bridge. resistances are

Measurement of unknown resistance. After taking V^ = /Ri, V^ = IR^, V^ = IR^

out a suitable resistance R from the resistance box, the If Rj is the equivalent resistance of the series
jockey is moved along the wire AC till there is no combination, then we must have
deflection in the galvanometer. If P and Q are the V= IR.
resistances of the parts ABand BC of the wire, then for But K= + Vg
the balanced condition of the bridge, we have
or
fR^ = /Rj + JRg + IR3
P_^R
Q s
or
Rj = Rl + R2 + Rg

59

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xll

Thus, when a number of resistances are connected in Since all the resistances have been connected between
series, their equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the the same tw'O points A and B, therefore, potential drop
individual resistances. V is same across each of them. By Ohm's law, the
Resistances in Parallel. Figure 4.4 shows three currents through the individual resistances will be
resistances Ry and R^ connected in parallel V
^1 = h ~ h~
between points A and B. Let V be the potential
difference applied across the combination.
R1 If is the equivalent resistance of the parallel
/1 MAr combination, then we must have
V
A k B 1 =
Wy ►
^3 ^3
But
AA\
>r/
^ “ -^1 ^2 ^3
or K K + _y
R
1

V
1 1 1 1
or H H
Fig. 4.4 Resistances in parallel. R
1

Let ly and be the currents through the

Thus, when a number of resistances are connected in
resistances Ry R2 and R^ respectively. Then the
current in the main circuit must be parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of the
parallel combination is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of
/ = /i + /2 + ^3 the individual resistances.

EXPERIMENT A2
Aim

To find resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using metre bridge.

Apparatus and Material Required

A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, a resistance wire about 1 m long (of material whose
resistance is to be determined), resistance box, a dry cell (or a battery eliminator), plug key,
jockey, connecting wires, sand paper and a screw gauge.
n
Theory

With the known resistance P in the left gap and the unknown resistance S in the irght gap of the
metre bridge, suppose the null point Bis obtained at a distance of I cm from the left end A By the
principle of Wheatstone bridge>
_P^R
Q S
Resistance of wire AB R
or
Resistance of ware BC S
I R
or
100-/ s [*.● Resistance « Length of wire]
or S= R
rioo-/i a
/

40
i
 Chapter 4 : METRE BRIDGE

Circuit Diagrams
g K
+
<●>

{M AA/V
R D s

a a
i I’l

0 10 20 30 40 5 ) 60 70 80 90 100
(«) ihIm“
P

A Jockey / C
k I cm (100 -1)
Plug key

f
Leclanche cell
E

w
S
Flo AA/WV=t

ee
D

^
Fr
a
1
(100-0 cm
90 100^
for
10 20 40 50 60 70 80
ur
iuluMi ilmJimi.
P 6^
C
ks

A
Yo

Bridge wire
oo
B
re

K
ou
ad

g Galvanometer
Y

(c) (b)

Fig. 4.5 Measurement of resistance by a metre bridge.

nd
Re

Procedure
Fi

1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 4.5(a).

2. Assemble the required apparatus on the working table in accordance with Fig. 4.5(/i).
3. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with a sand paper.
Tighten all the plugs in the resistance box by giving them a gentle twist.
4. Connect the resistance box R.B. across the left gap ab and the unknown resistance S across
the right gap a^b.^ of the metre bridge. Connect a jockey and a sensitive galvanometer
between the points B and D. Connect a dry cell between the points A and C through a plug
key K. This arrangement forms the Wheatstone bridge shown in Fig. 4.5(c).
5. To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box
R.B. and insert the plug in the key K. First press the jockey at the left end A and then at the
right end C of the metre bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite
directions. If there is one-sided deflection, check up the circuit again, particularly the
continuity of the junctions.

41

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xll

6. Take out a suitable resistance R from the resistance box so that when the jockey is nearly in
the middle of the wire (i-e., between 30-70 cm divisions), there is no deflection in the
galvanometer. Note the position of the null point B from the metre scale. Also note the
resistance R introduced from the resistance box R.B.

If the current through the galvanometer is large and its deflection gets out of scale, a shunt of a low
resistance wire should be connected across the galvanometer for obtaining an approximate nidi point.
However, the shunt must be removed for obtaining the exact balance point.
7. Repeat the experiment three more times by changiiig slightly the value of resistance R and
taking care that the null point always lies between 30 - 70 cm divisions.
8. Record all the observations in a tabular form.

Observations and Calculations

Table 4.1 : Resistance of the given wire

Known resistance Position of null Ratio arms P,Q Resistance of wire

S. 100-l\ Q
from resistance point B ■
No. Length AB = l Length5C =(100-/) S =R
box = RQ /
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean value of S = Q.

Result

Resistance of the given wire = n

Precautions

1. All the connections should be neat and tight

2. Tire plugs in tire resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting.
3. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the
uniformity of the metre bridge wire.
4. The battery circuit should be closed first before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire and
reverse order should be followed at the time of break.

5. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire.
6. The current through the bridge wire should be passed for only as much time as is essential
for getting a null point.
7. The known resistance R should always be adjusted in such a way so as to get the null point
between 30-70 cm divisions.

8. The galvanometer should be shunted by a low resistance wire to avoid excessive current and
hence out of scale deflection in it when the bridge is not balanced. The shunt must be
removed while getting the exact balance point.

^URCEs OF Error
1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.

42
i
 Chopter 4 ; METRE BRIDGE

2. End corrections. The resistance offered by the copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire
are called end resistances, errors due to these resistances are called end errors and corrections are
called end corrections. To avoid this error, the balance point should be obtained near the midpoint of
the wire. This error can be totally eliminated by interchanging positions of resistances R and S.
3. Due to prolonged flow of current, the wire gets heated up and its resistance changes.
4. The galvanometer pointer may not be exactly at the zero mark. It must be adjusted to zero
by gently moving the screw at the bottom of tlie front panel with the help of a screw driver.

»« ❖ »«

EXPERIMENT A3

w
Aim

To verify the law of series combination of resistances using a metre bridge.

Flo
ee
^ Apparatus and Material Required
A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two resistance wires about 50 cm each (or two Fr
for
resistance coils and R2), a resistance box, a jockey, a plug key, a dry cell or battery eliminator,
ur
thick connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
ks
Yo

Theory
oo

(fl) Measurement of unknown resistance. With the known resistance R in the left gap and the
B

unknown resistance S(R^ or or series combination of Rj and R2) in the irght gap of the metre
re

bridge, suppose the balance point is obtained at a distance / cm from the left end, then the
ou
ad

unknown resistance is given by

Y

rioo-n
S=R
nd

/
Re

(Ii) Law of series combination of resistances. When two resistances R^ and R2 are connected in
Fi

series, their equivalent resistance R^ is given by 1 R, = Ri-hR2

Circuit Diagram
€ K
+
<●>
R1 %
rV\Ar-^^vn
D s
R
£1 □£
a b a
1 i’l

0 10 20 30 40 51 60 70 80 90 100
JJJX

P B

T Jockey } ‘■ C

K / cm -►j4-(100 -/) cm-^j

Fig. 4.6 Circuit to study law of resistances in series.

43

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Procedure

1.
Draw neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 4.6 and assemble the required apparatus on the
working table accordingly.
2.
Connect the resistance box R.B. across the left gap ab and the unknown resistance R 1 across
the right gap a-^b^ of the metre bridge. Connect a jockey and a sensitive galvanometer between
the points B and D. Connect a dry cell between the points A and C through plug key K.
3. To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box
R.B. and insert the plug in the key K. First press the jockey at the left end A and then at the
right end C of the bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite directions.
4. Adjust the resistance R from the resistance box R.B. in such a way that the balance point is
obtained nearly in the middle of the wire AC. Note the value of the resistance R and the
position of the balance point R Take three sets of observations by slightly changing the value
of resistance R every time.
5.
Now connect resistance across the right gap in place of resistance Rj. Obtain null
point for it. Again take three sets of observations for resistance R2.
6.
Now connect both the resistances Rj and R2 in series (end to end), as shown in Fig. 4.6,
across the right gap a■^b^. Ensure that the effective length of each resistance wire remains
unchanged. This means that at the point where the two wires are joined end to end, the
lengths of the ends that were inserted into the binding terminals in steps 5 and 6 should be
twisted together. Take three sets of observations for the null point of this combination.
7. Record your all observations in a tabular form.

Observations and Calculations

Table 4.2 : For determining resistances i?^, i?2 ^nd

Known Position of Ratio arms P, Q Unknown
S. resistance resistance Mean
Resistance null point Length Length
No. from 100-r unknown
B AB = l
R.B. = Rn
RC = (100-0 S = R Q resistance
(cm) (cm) (cm) I
1.
2. n
3.

1.

R, 2.
i?2 = n
3.

Rj and 1.

^2 2. n
m senes 3.

Experimental value of series combination of resistances R^ = n

Theoretical value of series combination of resistances R' = R^ + R2 = a

Difference = R^ - R' = Q

Result

Within the limits of experimental error, the experimental and the theoretical values of the series
combination of resistances are equal. So the law of combination of series stands verified.

44
i
 Chapter 4 : METRE BRIDGE

I Precautions

1. All the connections should be neat and tight.

2. The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting
them.

3. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the
uniformity of the metre bridge wire.
4. The battery circuit should be closed first before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire and
reverse order should be followed at the time of break.

5. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire.
6. The current through the bridge wire should be passed for only as much time as is essential
for getting a null point.
7. The known resistance R should always be adjusted in such a way so as to get the null point
between 30-70 cm divisions.

8. Tire galvanometer should be shunted by a low resistance wire to avoid excessive current and

w
hence out of scale deflection in it when the bridge is not balanced. The shunt must be
removed while getting the exact null point.
Flo
9. Ensure that the same lengths of resistance wires and R2 are used for determining R^ as

ee
have been used for determining R^ and R2 individually.

I ^URCES OF Error
Fr
for
ur
1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
2. There may be end errors due to resistances of copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire.
ks
Yo

3. Due to prolonged flow of current, the resistance wires may get heated up and their
oo

resistances may change.

B
re

4. The effective lengths of the resistance wires used while measuring R^ may not be exactly
same as those used while measuring R^ and R2 individually.
ou
ad
Y

»« ❖ »«
nd
Re
Fi

EXPERIMENT A!
3 Aim
To verify the law of parallel combination of resistances using a metre bridge.

_^PARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, tw'o resistance wires about 50 cm each (or two
resistance coils Rj and R2), a resistance box, a jockey, a plug key, a dry cell or battery eliminator,
thick connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

I Theory
(a) Measurement of unknown resistance. With the known resistance R in the left gap and the
unknown resistance S(Rj or R2 or parallel combination of R^ and R2) in the right gap of the

45

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

metre bridge, suppose the balance poiiit is obtained at a distance / cm from the left end, then the
unknown resistance is given by
fioo-n
S=R
I

{b) Law of parallel combination of resistances. When two resistances and R2 are connected in
parallel, their equivalent resistance is given by
1 1 1
or
R^ Rj
R
1 ^2 R1 + R2
Circuit Diagram
€
K

VAWV
R1
{mJ
R
D ^2
ID ] s
a b a
1

0
^0 I I 3p
4( 60 100
I, I, I I ilm
P B
4
A G
Jockey } C Fig. 4.7 Circuit to study law of
resistcuices in parallel.
I cm >K (100 -1) cm ■H

Procedure

1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 4.7 and assemble the required apparatus on the
working table accordingly.
2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with a sand paper.
Tighten all the plugs in the resistance box by giving them a gentle twist.
3. Connect the resistance box R.B. across the left gap ah and the unknown resistance R^ across
the right gap of the metre bridge. Connect a jockey and a sensitive galvanometer between
the points B and D. Connect a dry cell between the points A and C through a plug key K
4. To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box
R.B. and insert the plug in the key K First press the jockey at the left end A and then at the right
end C of the metre bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite directions.
5. Adjust the resistance R from the resistance box R.B. in such a way that the balance point is
obtained in the middle of the wire AC. Note the value of the resistance R and the position of
the balance point R Take three sets of observations by slightly changing the value of
resistance R every time.
6. Now connect resistance R2 across the gap a.^b^ in place of resistance R2. Obtain null point for
it. Again take three sets of observations for resistance R2.
7. Now connect both the resistances R^ and R2 in parallel in the same gap a^b^ of the metre
bridge. Ensure that the effective length of each wire is same as it was while taking the
observations of these resistances separately, i.e., the length at the ends of each of which is
inserted into the binding terminals should be kept the same. Take three sets of observations
for the null point of this parallel combination.
8. Record all your observations in a tabular form.
 Chapter 4 : METRE BRIDGE

Observations and Calculations

Table 4.3 : For determining resistances , R2 and R^

Ratio arms P, Q Unknown
Known Position of
resistance Mean
S. resistance null point Length
Resistance Length lOO-T
unknown
No. from B AB=l BC = {100-1) S = R n resistance
R.B. = RQ (cm) I
(cm) (cm)
1.
2. Q

3.
1.

^2 2. «2 = Q

3.

R,1 and 1.
Q
Rz 2.
in series 3.

w
n
Experimental value of parallel combination of resistances, —
^1^2 __
Flo
Theoretical value of parallel combination of resistances, R'^ =
R] + R2
Q

ee
n
Difference = ^p~
Q Result Fr
Within the limits of experimental error, the experimental and the theoretical values of the parallel
for
ur
combination of resistances are equal. So the law of parallel combination of resistances stands verified.
ks
Yo

Precautions
oo

1. All the connections should be neat and tight.

B

The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting.
re

2.

3. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the
ou
ad

uniformity of the metre bridge wire.

Y

4. The battery circuit should be closed first before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire and
nd
Re

reverse order should be followed at the time of break.

Fi

5. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire.
6. The current through the bridge wire should be passed for only as much time as is essential
for getting a null point.
7. The known resistance R should always be adjusted in such a way so as to get the null point
between 30-70 cm divisions.
8. The galvanometer should be shunted by a low resistance wire to avoid excessive current and
hence out of scale deflection in it when the bridge is not balanced. The shunt must be
removed while getting the exact null point.
[_SouRCES OF Error
1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
2. There may be end errors due to resistances of copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire.
3. Due to prolonged flow of current, the resistance wires may get heated up and their
resistances may change,
4. ●phe effective lengths of the wires used while measuring may not be exactly same as
those used while measuring Rj and R2 individually.
47

J
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

s.

VIVA VOCE

A. Wheatstone Bridge 9. What will happen if the galvanometer and the cell are
1. What is a Wheatstone bridge ? interchanged at the balance point of the bridge ?
Would the galvanometer show any current ?
It is an arrangement of four resistances used to
determine one of these resistances quickly and accu When the galvanometer and the cell are interchanged
rately in terms of the remaining three resistances. at the balance point, the conditions of the balanced
bridge are still satisfied and so again the galvano
2. What does a Wheatstone bridge consist of ?
meter will not show any current.
It consists of four resistancesP, Q, R and S, connected
in series so as to form a closed network ABCD. A
10. Name some important applications of wheatstone
bridge.
battery is connected between the points A and C
while a galvanometer is connected between the Metre bridge, Carey-Foster's bridge and Post Office
Box.
points Band D.
3. Why is the Wheatstone bridge so called ?
B. Metre Bridge
It is so called because this method was first suggested
by a British Physicist, Sir Charles F. Wheatstone in 11 What is a metre bridge ?
1843. It is called a bridge because the galvanometer Metre bridge is the simplest practical application of
circuit forms a kind of bridge by connecting two Wheatstone bridge used for measuring an unknown
points having the same potential. resistance.

4. When is a Wheatstone bridge said to be balanced ? 12. On what principle is the working of metre bridge
based ?
A Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced if no
current flows through its galvanometer arm. The working of a metre bridge is based on the
In this condition, —= — principle of Wheatstone bridge. WTien the bridge is
Q s balanced,

5. What condition must be satisfied to get a balance point ?

Q s
When the potential at the common junction of
resistors P and Q is the same as that at the common 13. Why is a metre bridge named so ?
junction of resistors R and S, the bridge is in the Since the bridge uses one metre long wire, so it is
balanced condition.
called a metre bridge.
6. What do you mean by sensitiveness of the 14- Why is a metre bridge also called a slide wire bridge?
Wheatstone bridge ? In a metre bridge, a jockey is made to slide over the
A Wheatstone bridge is sensitive if it produces large bridge wire, so it is called a slide wire bridge.
deflection in the galvanometer for a small change of 15. Why are the copper strips on the metre bridge made
resistance in resistance arm. thick ?

7. When is a Wheatstone bridge most sensitive ? Thick copper strips offer negligibly small resistance.
When all the resistors P, Q, R and S are nearly of the 16. What is the material of metre bridge wire generally ?
same magnitude. Constantan or manganin, because these alloys have
8. What are the advantages of a Wheatstone bridge high resistivity and low temperature coefficient of
resistance.
method of measuring resistance over other methods ?
(0 Being null method, it is easier to detect a small 17. Why should the wire of the metre bridge be uniform
?
change of deflection than to read a deflection
accurately. If the wire is not uniform, the resistance per unit
(//) Being null method, the internal resistance of the length of the wire will be different at its different
cell and the resistance of the galvanometer do positions. Consequently, the working formula of the
not affect the null point, metre bridge :
iiii) As the method does not involve any P _R _ I
measurement of current and potential Q~ S ~1Q0-1
difference, so the resistances of ammeter and
voltmeters do not affect the measurements. will no longer be valid.

48
 Chapter 4 : METRE BRIDGE

18. If the metre bridge wire is not made of material of 25. Why is it not desirable to press the jockey too hard
uniform density, how will it affect the observations ? over the bridge wire ?
If the density is not uniform, resistance per unit If done so, it will spoil the uniformity of the bridge
length of the wire will not be same throughout. The wire.
relations P « / and Q «: (100- /) will not be valid.
26. Why do we introduce a plug key in the battery
19. What is a null point ? circuit ?
Null point is the position of the jockey on the bridge It is done so that the current through the bridge wire
wire at which no current flows through the
may be passed for the duration it is essential for the
galvanometer and so galvanometer shows no
deflection.
experiment, otherwise it will heat up the wire which,
in turn, will change its resistance.
20. Why should we get the null point in the middle of the
wire ? 27. Why do we close the battery circuit first and then the
galvanometer circuit ?
The metre bridge is most sensitive when the four
This is done to avoid kick due to self-induction of the
resistances forming the Wheatstone bridge are equal.
This is possible only if the balance point is galvanometer coil.
somewhere near the middle of the wire. Tlie
28. Which circuit will you break first: battery circuit or
resistances due to copper strips at the ends of the galvanometer circuit ?

w
wire are almost eliminated and the error in the
Galvanometer circuit.
measurement of balancing length is least.
21. What is end error in a metre bridge ? How can it be Flo 29. What is a 'shunt' ?
A shunt means a small resistance connected in

ee
avoided ?
parallel with any component of an electrical circuit.
The end error in a metre bridge arises due to :
(i) Ends of the wire not coinciding with the Fr
However, it commonly refers to a low resistance
connected in parallel to a galvanometer.
for
ur
0 cm/100 cm marks on the metre scale.
(») Presence of contact resistance at the joints of the 30. Why do we use a shunt across the moving coil
ks

metre bridge wire with the copper strips. galvanometer ?

Yo

A galvanometer should be shunted because an

oo

The end error can be avoided by finding balancing

excessive current may damage it. But near the null
B

lengths with two interchanged positions of R and S

point, current through the galvanometer is very
re

and taking the average value of S from the two

small, so shunt must be removed to find the null
readings.
ou
ad

point accurately.
22. How can we obtain null point at 50 cm position of the
Y

bridge wire ? 31. Why is metre bridge method considered unsuitable

for the measurement of very low resistances ?
nd

By adjusting the value of known resistance R from

Re

the resistance box in one gap very close to the value For measuring low resistance, all other resistances
Fi

of unknown resistance Sin the other gap. used should have low value to ensure the sensitivity
23. If the same experiment is performed with AC = 50cm of the bridge. This requires a galvanometer of very
wire instead of 1 m, what changes would be there in low resistance which itself would be very sensitive.
the result ?
Moreover, the end resistances become comparable to
Permissible error in the measurement of length the unknown low resistance which cannot be
A!
/ = —xlOO
neglected.
I
32. Why is metre bridge method considered unsuitable
Here Al = least count of metre scale, which is constant for the measurement of very high resistance ?
Wlien / decreases, the percentage error in the For measuring high resistances, all other resistances
measurement of length / increases. forming the bridge should be high so as to ensure the
24. Why is the metre bridge preferred for determining sensitivity of the bridge. But this reduces the current
the resistance of a wire over the Ohm's law circuit ?
through the galvanometer which itself becomes
Metre bridge method is a null method. It is highly insensitive.
sensitive near the null point. It makes easier to detect
a small deflection in metre bridge than to read a 33. Why is metre bridge method suitable for comparing
deflection directly in Ohm's law. the resistancesof same order of magnitude?

49
 lAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

This is because metre bridge is based on the principle As specific resistance formula involves the square of
diameter, a small error in its measurement will
of Wheatstone bridge which is most sensitive when
introduce an appreciable error.
all the resistances are nearly of the same magnitude.
34. Can we measure a resistance of 0.1 O using a metre 44. What do you mean by connecting the resistances in
series ?
bridge ? Give reason also.
If a number of resistances are connected end to end so
No, the resistance of connecting wires and the end
that the same current flows through each of them in
resistances of copper strips are of the order of the
resistance (0.1 Q) to be measured. It would cause a
succession, then they are said to be connected in
series.
large error in the measurement of low resistance.
Such a low resistance can be measured by using 45. What is the equivalent resistance in a series
Carey-Foster bridge. arrangement ?
35. Why should the wire under the binding screws be not The equivalent resistance of a series combination is
included in its length ? equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
The portion of the resistance wire under the binding R^ = R^ + R^ + Rj+
screws is not significant because most of the current 46. What do you mean by connecting the resistances in
passes through the binding screws due to their parallel ?
negligibly small resistance. If a number of resistances are connected in between
36. Why should the resistance wire be kept well two common points so that each of them provides a
stretched during experimentation ? separate path for current, then they are said to be
To avoid short-circuiting. connected in parallel.
37. What happens if no resistances are used in the ratio 47. What is the equivalent resistance in a parallel
arms, Pand Q? arrangement ?
Due to short-circuiting, the cell may get damaged. The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a
parallel combination is equal to the sum of the
C. Specific Resistance and Laws of reciprocals of the individual resistances.
Combination of Resistances 1 1 1 1

38. Define specific resistance. Rp R, R, R3

The resistivity or specific resistance of a material may
48. How are the resistances arranged in a resistance box :
be defined as the resistance of a conductor of that
in series or parallel ?
material having unit length and unit area of In series.
cross-section.
49. We connect two resistance coils first in series and
39. How is specific resistance related to resistance ?
then in parallel in a circuit. In which case the current
I RxA
R=p— or p= in the main circuit will be higher ?
A /
Total resistance in series is higher than the total
40. What is the SI unit of specific resistance ? resistance in parallel. Hence, the current is higher
Dm. when the resistances are connected in parallel.
41. What is conductivity ? What is its unit ? 50. Why does resistance become more in series
combination ?
The reciprocal of specific resistance is called
conducti- vity and its unit is D”'m"^ or mho m'^ In series combination, the effective length of
conductor increases.
42. Which wire has more resistivity : a thick or a thin
wire of the same material ? As Reel, so resistance increases.

Both wires have the same resistivity ; it does not 51. Why does resistance become less in parallel
depend on the size and shape but depends only on combination ?
the nature of the material.
In parallel combination, the effective area of cross-
43. Why do we measure the diameter of resistance wire section of the conductor increases.

at a number of places while determining its specific As R cc

1
resistance ? so resistance decreases.
a'

50
 .. .«S ..

Potentiometer

Q Electromotive Force (emf) electrolyte inside the cell move from one electrode to
another against the background of other ions and
The emf of a source may be defined as tlie work done neutral atoms and hence experience some resistance.
by the source in taking a unit positive charge from its
lower potential terminal to the higher potential Q| Factors on which
terminal. Or, it is the energy supplied by the source in Internal Resistance of a Cell depends

w
taking a unit positive charge once round the complete circuit.
It is equal to the terminal p.d. measured in open circuit. (i) Nature of the electrolyte,

EMF =
Work done
or g=—
w Flo (n) It is directly proportional to the concentration of
the electrolyte.

ee
Charge
(Hi) It is directly proportional to the distance between
The term emf is a misnomer. Literally, emf means a
force that pushes the electrons in a circuit. But emf has
Fr
the two electrodes.
for
(iv) It varies inversely as the common area of the
ur
the nature of work done per unit charge and not that of
force.
electrodes immersed in the electrolyte,
ks

(u) It increases with the decrease in temperature of

Yo

Wi Factors on which EMF of a Cell depends

oo

the electrolyte.
B

The emf of a cell depends on : H Terminal Potential Difference and

re

1. Nature of the material of the electrodes. Relation between r, E and V

ou
ad

2. Nature of the electrolyte. The potential drop across the terminals of a cell when a
Y

3. Concentration of the electrolyte. current is being drawn from it is called its terminal potential
nd
Re

4. Temperature of the electrolyte. difference (V).

Fi

AAAr
However, the emf of a cell is independent of the R
following factors : I
1
1. Area of the electrodes. /i; + - B
HAW ■4
2. Separation between the electrodes. 6
3. Amount of electrodes and electrolytes used. Cell

Fig. 5.1 Cell of emf 6 and internal resistance r.

B 51 Unit of EMF is Volt
Relation between r, € and V. Consider a cell of emf
If an electrochemical cell supplies energy of 1 joule for S and internal resistance r connected to an external
the flow of 1 coulomb of charge through the whole circuit resistance R, as shown in Fig. 5.1. Suppose a constant
(including the cell), then its emf is said to be one volt. current / flows through this circuit. Then,

Q Internal Resistance of a Cell 6 = Work done in carrying a unit charge

from A to B against external resistance R
The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to the + Work done in carrying a unit charge
flow of current between its electrodes is called internal from 6 to A against internal resistance r
resistance of the cell. This is because the ions of the or g = V + V'

51
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

By Ohm's law, V=IR and V’ = Ir Principle. The basic principle of a potentiometer is that
i=IR+lr = l{R+r) when a constant current flows through a wire of uniform
6 cross-sectional area and composition, the potential drop across
/ =
R + r any length of the wire is directly proportional to that length.
Sr In Fig. 5.2, if we connect a voltmeter between the
Terminal p.d. of the cell, V = 1R = R+r end A and the jockey /, it reads the potential difference
A\soV=E-V =t-Ir V across the length / of the wire AJ.
=> Terminal p.d. = emf - potential drop across By Ohm's law,
P ^ I
the internal resistance V = IR = I. ^ V R^p~
A A
Again, from the above equation, we get
For a steady current / flowing through a wire of
r = 6-v_€-v_|^ E-v R=
s
—-1 R. uniform cross-section and composition.
1 "v/r" y y Ip ,
— = a constant, k
SPECIAL CASES A

V = kl or y Qc/
(/) When cell is on open circuit, i.e., / = 0, we have
y =s This is the principle of a potentiometer. A graph of
open
y vs. I will be a straight line passing through O, as
Thus, the potential difference across the terminals of shown in Fig. 5.3.
the cell is equal to its emf when no current is being
y
drawn from the cell.
(«) A real cell has always some internal resistance r,
so when current is being drawn from cell, we
have y < S.
Thus, the potential difference across the terminals of
the cell in a closed circuit is always less than its emf.
Fig. 5.3
m Potentiometer
Potential gradient. The potential drop per unit length
A potentiometer is a device used to measure an unknown of the potentiometer wire is known as potential gradient. It is
emf or potential difference accurately. given by
Construction. As shown in Fig. 5.2, a potentiometer
/
consists of a long wire AB of uniform cross-section,
usually 4 to 10 m long, of constantan or manganin. SI unit of potential gradient = Vm"^
Usually, 1 m long separate pieces of wire are fixed, Practical unit of potential gradient = V cm"^.
parallel to each other, on a wooden board with 100 cm
wooden scale alongside. The wires are joined in series Qj Comparison of EMFs of Two Primary Cells
by thick copper strips. The ends A and Bare connected
As shown in Fig. 5.4, a constant current is
to a battery, a plug key Kand a rheostat Rh. This circuit
sends a constant current / through the wire AB, A maintained in the potentiometer wire AB by means of
ei
jockey can slide along the length of the wire. +.
h
~^a G
©
+

"ILo 100 „
-

E I
+ }
+ A /, h
Battery ^ P^2QQ <■
Battery t g
300
KQ *■
KZ

Rh e Rh
B 400

Fig. 5.2 Principle of a potentiometer. Fig. 5.4 Comparing emfs of two cells by a potentiometer.

52
 Chapter 5 : POTENTIOMETER

a battery of emf 6 through a key K and rheostat Wi. for the terminal potential difference V of the cell. If J2 is
The positive terminals of two primary cells of emfs Sj the balancing length, then
and ^2 connected to the end A and their negative
V = kl2
terminals are connected to a galvanometer G and a
jockey } through a two-way key. S 1.
When a plug is inserted in the gap between a and c h
and the jockey /is pressed on wire /lB,thecell6j sends Let rbe the internal resistance of the cell. If current I
a current through AB in the direction opposite to that flows through the cell when it is shunted with
due to emfs 6. If 8 > a position /^ of jockey on wire resistance R, then from Ohm’s law, we get
AB can be obtained at which galvanometer shows no
deflection. Let A]^ = /,. If /r is the potential gradient, then 8=/(R + r)
and V=IR
8j =kl^
8 R + r_l^
By inserting the plug between b and c, the null
V R h
point is again obtained for cell 82- balancing
length be A]2 =l2- Then 1+^=^ or
L-hsJl
^2

w
R R

^2 =
Flo Internal resistance, r=R i fz
^2 .

ee
Internal Resistance of a

Primary Cell using a Potentiometer 10 Fr

Superiority of a
Potentiometer to a Voltmeter
for
ur
As shown in Fig. 5.5, the -i-ve terminal of the cell
whose emf 8 is to be measured is cormected to the end
Potentiometer is a null method device. No current
ks

A of the potentiometer wire and its negative terminal

Yo

is drawn from the cell at null point, thus there is no

oo

to a galvanometer G and jockey /. A resistance box R.B. potential drop due to the internal resistance of the cell.
B

is connected across the cell through a key

So it measures the p.d. in an open circuit. But voltmeter
re

G requires a small current for its operation. So voltmeter

ou

yL
<z> measures the p.d. in a closed circuit which is less than
ad

\-r
) the actual emf of the cell.
Y

8
nd
Re

A 11 Sensitivity of a Potentiometer
Battery _x_
Fi

A potentiometer is sensitive if
k, ±
(/) it is capable of measiirmg very small potential
differences, and
Rh B
(ii) it shows a significant change in balancing length for a
small change in the potential difference being measured.
Fig. 5.5 To determine the internal resistance of The sensitivity of a potentiometer depends on the
a cell by a potentiometer. potential gradient along its wire. Smaller the potential
Close the key K,. A constant current flows through gradient, greater will be the sensitivity of the potentiometer.
the potentiometer wire. With key K, kept open, move The sensitivity of a potentiometer can be increased
the jockey along AB till it balances the emf 8 of the cell, by reducing the potential gradient.
Let /j be the balancing length of the wire. If k is the This can be done in hvo ways :
potential gradient, then emf of the cell will be (?) by increasing the length of the potentiometer
8 = W1 wire.

With the help of resistance box R.B., introduce a (//) by reducing the current in the circuit with the
resistance R and close key K2. Find the balance point help of a rheostat.

53

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSiCS-Xll

EXPERIMENT A5
Aim

To compare the emfs of two given primary cells (Daniel and Leclanche cells)
using a potentiometer.

Apparatus and Material Required

Potentiometer with jockey, a Daniel cell, a Leclandie cell, a battery of two cells/a battery eliminator,
a moving coil galvanometer, a low resistance rheostat (about 20 Q), a resistance box (0 -1000
two one-way keys, a two-way key, a voltmeter (0-3 V), connecting wires and sand paper.
Formula Used

If and are
emfs of Leclanche and Daniel cells respectively, and f and I2 are their
corresponding balancing lengths on the potentiometer wire, then
and ^2=^2
Where k is the potential gradient along the wire ARThe ratio of the emfs of the two primary cells
will be

/
1

^2 ^2
Circuit Diagram
€1
Two-way 2
G

cj 0
6 >6
B>62 A
^2 I
-I- 0 100

_200
± o
h
Y^l ’'
300 _
o

400
B
B
' ’

20
^.„J50 70 90 100
Rh

Fig. 5.6 Circuit for comparison of emfs of two primary cells.

Procedure

1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 5.6 and arrange the required apparatus on the
working table according to tliis diagram.
2. Note the terminal voltages of the given battery and the two cells (Leclanche and Daniel) with
the help of a voltmeter. Let these beS,£j and 62/ respectively. Check that 6 >6^ and 6 >62-
3. Connect the positive terminal of the battery of constant emf € to the end A of the potentiometer
and its negative terminal to end 6, through a one-way key iC. and a low resistance rheostat R}i.
54
 Chop/er 5 : POTENTIOMETER

4. Now connect the positive terminals of Leclanche and Daniel cells to the end A of
potentiometer and their negative terminals to the branch terminals a and & of a two-way key.
Connect the common terminal c, through resistance box R.B. and a sensitive galvanometer
G, to the jockey J which slides along the wire AB. Connect one-way key K2 across the
resistance box R.B.

5. Leave the key K2 open. Set the rheostat Rh at minimum resistance and introduce a high
resistance of about 1000 il from the resistance box R.B. for the safety of the galvanometer.
6. To check the connections, insert the plugs in the one-way key and in the gap ac of the
two-way key so as to introduce the cell 6^ in the galvanometer circuit. First press the jockey
at the end A and then at the end B of the potentiometer wire. If the deflections in the
galvanometer in the two cases are in opposite directions, then the connections are correct.
In case the deflections in the two cases are in same direction, one or more of the following
faults are possible :
(i) The positive terminals of the three cells t, i ^ and 62 n^ay not be connected to the same

point A of the potentiometer,

(ii) The emf of the auxiliary battery S may be less than that of the cell or 82-

w
(m) The rheostat used in the circuit may be of high resistance. To check this, try to get the
Flo
null point of removing the rheostat from the auxiliary circuit,
(ft?) The connections may be faulty or they may not be right. Dismantle the circuit and

ee
make connections afresh.
Fr
Make the required changes to get deflections in the galvanometer in opposite directions.
for
ur
7. Move the jockey along the wire AB (from end A towards end B), find the point where
there is no deflection in the galvanometer. This gives an approximate position of null point
ks

with a high resistance from resistance box which limits the current through the
Yo
oo

galvanometer. Short-circuit the resistance box by inserting plug in the key K2.This increases
B

the current through the galvanometer and improves the sensitivity to detect balance point.
re

Note the exact position of on the metre scale which gives length =/j.
8. Repeat the detecUon of balance point by sliding the jockey in the opposite direction (from
ou
ad

Bto A). Record the second value of ly

Y

9. Now introduce the cell 82 iri th^ galvanometer circuit by inserting plug in the gap be of the
nd
Re

two-way key. Obtain the balance point /2 by moving the jockey first from A to B and then
Fi

from B to A in the same way as in steps 7 and 8, and record the two values of A/2 = l2-
10. Remove the plugs from the keys fC^ and K2 also from two-way key and wait for a minute.
Slightly shift the contact point of rheostat to change the current through wire AH Obtam a
new set of observations for and I2 for the two cells. Take three such sets of observations.
11. Record all your observations in a tabular form.
Observations and Calculations

For preliminary checking

V
Least count of voltmeter = V ; Range of voltmeter = to

Terminal p.d. of the auxiliary battery, 8 V

Terminal p.d. of Leclanche cell, 8j = V

Terminal p.d. of Daniel cell, 82 = V

It is observed 8 > 8 ^ and 8 > 8 2

8
Approximate ratio =
^2

55

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Table 5.1 : Comparison of emfs

Position of null point with emfs ratio

S.No. of
Leclanche ce Llg 1 Daniel cell
rheostat
setting 1 2
Mean
1 2
Mean
(cm) (cm)
1.

2.

3.

S1 _
Mean value of
62
Result
g 1 emf of Leclanche cell

^2 emf of Daniel cell

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. The emf of the auxiliary battery should be constant and always greater than the emfs to be
compared.
3. The positive terminal of the auxiliary battery and the positive terminals of the cells should
be connected to the zero end of the potentiometer wire.
4. Jockey should be moved gently on the potentiometer wire and must not be rubbed against
the wire.

5. The rheostat should be of low resistance and whenever the deflection is one sided when
jockey is pressed at both ends of the potentiometer wire, the current must be increased to
obtain null point at a suitable length.
6. Position of rheostat must not be changed while taking the set of observations for balancing
lengths with both the cells.
7. The current should remain constant for each set of observations.
8.
The current in the auxiliary circuit should be passed only for the duration it is absolutely
essential for taking the observations. This prevents unnecessary heating and the consequent
change of resistance of the potentiometer wire.
9. The balancing length should be measured from the zero end where all the positive terminals
have been connected.
10.
The null points should be obtained at fairly large distances from the common end (at more
than half of the total length) alternately with the two cells, as this will increase the
percentage accuracy in the measurement of length.
11. A high resistance should be connected in series with the galvanometer to prevent any
damage to the galvanometer due to excessive current. However, it decreases the
sensitiveness of the galvanometer and must be shunted or removed for obtaining the exact
balance point.
12.
To avoid any change in the emfs of the cells due to polarisation, there must be a time gap of
about 1 minute between any two sets of observations.

56

i
 Chapter 5 : POTENTIOMETER

^URCES OF Error
1. The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section throughout its length.
2. The auxiliary battery may not provide a constant emf.
3. The measurement of balancing length may have error if the potentiometer wire is not taut
and along the metre scale on the board.
4. The resistance of the potentiometer wire may change due to heating.
5. The end resistances of copper strips may not be negligible.
»« ❖ »«

EXPERIMENT A6

w
Aim

To determine the internal resistance of the given primary cell using potentiometer.
Flo
ee
Apparatus and Material Required
Fr
Potentiometer with jockey, a Leclanche or dry cell, a battery of two cells/a battery eliminator, a
moving coil galvanometer, an ammeter, a low resistance rheostat (about 20 H), a low resistance box
for
ur
(0-50 Q)and high resistance box(0 -10 kQ),three one-way keys, connecting wires and sand paper.
ks
Yo

_Formula Used
oo

If r is the internal resistance and R is the shunt resistance in parallel with the given cell, then.
B
re

r =
h h R
h
ou
ad
Y

where = balancing length of the potentiometer wire without shunt, and

I2 = balancing length of the potentiometer wire with shunt.
nd
Re
Fi

Circuit Diagram

Battery ion _

A I

A0
+ /1
0

300 _

h
400
0
B

vww— 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1

R/i

Fig. 5.7 Circuit for finding the internal resistance of a cell.

57

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Procedure

1. Draw a neat diagram of the experimental arrangement shown in Fig. 5.7 and arrange the
apparatus on the working table accordingly.
2. Connect the positive of the auxiliary battery to the end A and its negative terminal through
ammeter A, a one-way key and a low resistance rheostat R/i to the other end B of the
potentiometer.
3. Connect the positive terminal of the given primary cell t to the end A and its negative
terminal to the jockey through a high resistance box H.R.B. and a galvanometer G. Also
connect a low resistance box L.R.B. across the cell 6 through a one-way key Kj. The high
resistance box H.R.B. can be shunted by means of one-way key Ky
4. To test the connections, introduce a series resistance = 1,000 H from the high resistance box
H.R.B. and insert the plug in key Kj. Press the jockey first at the end A and then at the end B
of the potentiometer wire. If the galvanometer deflections in the two cases are in opposite
directions, then the connections are correct. If the deflections are in the same directions, then
increase the current in the auxiliary circuit by adjusting the rheostat till the above condition
is satisfied or check the connections.
5. Move the jockey gently along the wire and find a point where galvanometer shows no
deflection. Shunt the resistance box H.R.B. by inserting plug in the key and find the exact
position of the null point /j and note the length A}^ =1^.
6.
Remove the plug from key and insert it in the key ^2- Take out a plug of 2 H from the
resistance box L.R.B. and make all other plugs tight by giving them a gentle twist. Find the
null point /2 in this condition. Determine the exact position of the null point J2 by shimting
the high resistance box with key and note the length A/2 = 12-
7.
Take out the plugs from keys K^, K2 and Ky Wait for a minute. Take three more sets of such
observations with shunt resistances (R) of 3, 4 and 5 Q.
8. Record all the observations in a tabular form.

● Observations and Calculations

Table 5.2 : Internal resistance of a primary cell

Position of null point Internal resistance

Shunt resistance without shunt (K^ open) with shunt closed)
S.No.
Rn T =
1,-1, .RQ
Mean Mean
1 2 1 2
(cm) (cm)
1. 20

2. 30

3. 40

4. 50

Result

The internal resistance of Leclanche (or Daniel) cell varies with the current drawn from the cell and it lies
between O and O.

NOTE As the internal resistance of a primary cell varies with the current drawn from it, so mean value of
internal resistance r should not be determined.

58
 Chapter 5 : POTENTIOMETER

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. The emf of the auxiliary battery should be constant and always greater than that of the
primary cell whose internal resistance is to be measured.
3. The positive terminal of the auxiliary battery and that of the given primary cell should be
connected to the same end A of the potentiometer.
4. During experimentations, the current passing through the potentiometer wire must remain
constant. This can be ensured by using an ammeter in the auxiliary circuit. If the current
changes, it should be readjusted with the help of the low resistance rheostat.
5. The balancing lengths should be measured from the zero end A of the potentiometer.
6. The primary cell should not be disturbed during the course of the experiment as it may
change the internal resistance of the cell.
7. A freshly arranged primary cell should be used for the experiment,
8.
insert plugs in keys and K2 only when observations are taken otherwise the wires may

w
get heated up due to continuous flow of current and may also affect the internal resistance
of the cell.

9. Flo
The internal resistance of a Leclanche cell varies with the current drawn from it. The shunt

ee
resistance R must be varied by a small value to get concordant readings.
10.

damage to it due to excessive currents.

Fr
A high resistance box should be connected in series with the galvanometer to prevent any
for
ur
i Sources of Error
ks

1. The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section throughout its length.
Yo
oo

2. The auxiliary battery may not provide a constant emf.

B

3. The measurement of balancing length may have error if the potentiometer wire is not taut
re

and along the metre scale on the bound.

ou
ad

4. The resistance of the potentiometer wire may change due to heating.

Y

5. The end resistances of copper strips may not be negligible.

nd
Re
Fi

VIVA VOCE

A. EMF of a Cell The emf is not a force all. It is a special case of

potential difference, so it has the nature of work done
1. What is meant by emf of a cell ? per unit charge.
The electromotive force or emf of a cell is the
4. What is the difference between emf and potential
potential difference across the terminals of the cell difference ?
when it is on open circuit, i.e., when no current is
The emf is the difference of potentials between the
being drawn from it.
two terminals of the cell when the cell is open, i.e.,
2. Does emf represent force or something else ? when no current is being drawn from it, while
The term emf is a misnomer. Literally, emf means the potential difference is itie difference of potentials
force that pushes the electrons in a circuit. But emf is between any two points in a closed circuit, i.e., when
not a force at all. It has the nature of work done per current is being drawn by the circuit.
unit charge. 5. What is terminal potential difference of a cell ?
3. Why is the term emf a misnomer ? The potential drop across the terminals of a cell when
Literally, emf means the force wliich causes the flow of a current is being drawn from it is called its terminal
electric charges in a circuit. The term emf is a misnomer. potential difference (V).

59

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xll

6. Name and define the 51 unit of emf. B. Potentiometer

SI unit of emf is volt. If an electrochemical cell
16. Name the device used for measuring emf of a cell.
supplies energy of 1 joule for the flow of 1 coulomb of
Potentiometer.
charge through the whole circuit (including the cell),
then its emf is said to be one volt. 17. What is a potentiometer ?
7. What is the relation between the terminal difference A potentiometer is a device which is used to measure
V and emf of a cell ? accurately an unknown emf or a potential difference
If current / is drawn from the cell of internal by balancing it against a variable potential difference,
resistance r, then the value of which may be known in terms of a stan
dard emf. It consists of a uniform wire of constantan
V =B~lr
or manganin fixed along a metre scale and across
8. Why is the terminal voltage of a cell is less than its which a constant potential difference is maintained
emf when it is sending current ? by connecting it to a source of constant emf.
Because a part of the emf is used in doing work 18. Why is it called a potentiometer ?
against the internal resistance of the cell. Because it is used to measure potential difference.
9. When is the terminal potential difference V less than,
19. What is the principle of a potentiometer ?
equal and greater than the emf of a cell ?
The basic principle of a potentiometer is that when a
(i) When a current is drawn from a cell,
constant current flows through a wire of uniform
V =B-Ir =:> V <B. cross-sectional area and composition, the potential
(ii) When no current is drawn from a cell. drop across any length of the wire is directly
proportional to that length,
v = B.
V<xl
{Hi) When a cell is being charged,
20. What is meant by potential drop ?
V=B+Ir => V>B. When a source of constant emf is connected across a
10. When is a cell said to be in an open circuit and when wire AB, the end A of the wire connected to the
in a closed circuit ? positive terminal of the battery is at higher potential
When no current is drawn from a cell, it is said to be than the other end B. Thus, the potential drops as we
move from the end A to the end B of the wire.
in an open circuit and when some current is drawn
from it, it is said to be in a closed circuit. 21. How does the potential drop vary along the length of
the wire from end A to B ?
11. Can we measure emf of a cell by a voltmeter ?
No. A voltmeter requires a small current for its The potential drop varies with the length in a
operation. So voltmeter measures the p.d. in a closed continuous and regular manner, i.e., the potential
ciraiit i.e., it measures terminal p.d. of the cell which drop between any two points is proportional to the
is less than its emf. length of the wire between those two points.
12. A voltmeter connected across the terminals of a 22. What are the requirements of a potentiometer wire ?
battery measures the potential difference. How is it The wire should be of uniform cross-section and
different from emf ? composition throughout its length. The material of
Refer answer to the above question. the wire must have high specific resistance and low
13. Is there any voltmeter which can measure emf ? temperature coefficient of resistance.
Yes, an electronic voltmeter or vacuum tube 23. Why should the potentiometer wire be of uniform
voltmeter (VTVM) offers nearly infinite resistance ● cross-section and composition ?
and draws a negligibly small current from the cell, so Because only then the potential drop across any
it nearly measures the emf of the cell. length of the wire will be proportional to that length
14. On what factors does the emf of a cell depend ? and this is the basic principle of the potentiometer.
(i) Nature of the material of the electrodes. 24. Why should the material of the potentiometerwire be
of high specific resistance ?
{ii) Nature of the electrolyte, its concentration and
temperature.
So that the resistance of the entire length of the wire is
sufficiently large and hence for a given current, there
15. Does the emf of a cell depend on area of the electrode
is an appreciable potential drop across the wire.
plates or separation between them ?
25. Why should the material of the potentiometer wire
No, it does not depend on these factors.
have low temperature coefficient of resistance ?

60
 Chapter 5 : POTENTIOMETER

As the current flows through the potentiometer wire, For this the potential gradient has to be reduced
it gets heated up and its resistance changes. But a either by increasing the length of the wire or by
material having low temperature coefficient of reducing the current in the main circuit with the help
resistanceensures that its resistancedoes not change of a rheostat.
appreciably due to heating.
35. Why is a ten-wire potentiometer more sensitive than
26. Which material is preferred for making a four-wire one ?
potentiometer wire ?
Constantan or manganin, because of high specific As the potential gradient decreases with the increase
resistance and low temperature coefficient of in length of the potentiometer wire, so a ten-wire
resistance. potentiometer with lesser potential gradient is more
27. Can we use a copper wire as a potentiometer wire ? sensitive than a four-wire potentiometer.
No, copper wire will have low resistance because of 36. Can we reduce the potential gradient indefinitely by
its low specific resistance. Hence there would not be reducing the current in the main circuit gradually
an appreciable potential drop across the ends of the and thus attain a high degree of sensitiveness ?
wire.
No, the potential gradient cannot be reduced
28. What do you mean by the sensitivity of a indefinitely because the total potential drop across
potentiometer? the wire has to be more than the potential difference

w
A potentiometer is sensitive, if required to be measured. Moreover, the galvano
meter used may not be so highly sensitive as to detect
(i) it is capable of measuring very small potential
differences, and
Flo such a small potential gradient.

ee
(ii) it shows a significant change in balancing length 37. On what factors docs the accuracy of the
for a small change in the potential difference
being measured. Potentiometer
Fr
potentiometer depend ?
is a most accurate device for the
for
ur
29. What do you mean by potential gradient along the comparison or measurement of emf or potential
difference.
potentiometerwire ?
ks
Yo

The potential drop per unit length of the Its accuracy depends on :
oo

potentiometer wire is known as its potential (0 the constancy of the potential difference between
B

its ends,
gradient.
re

30. Suppose two potentiometer wires have different

(i/) the uniformity of the cross-section of the wire,
ou

and
ad

values of potential gradients, which one is more

(i7j) the sensitiveness of the galvanometer used.
Y

sensitive ?

The potentiometer wire with smaller potential 38. Why should we use a sensitive galvanometer ?
nd
Re

gradient. A sensitive galvanometer can detect even a small

Fi

31. On what factors does the potential gradient depend ? departure from the balance point and thus enables us
to locate the balance point quite accurately.
It depends directly on the strength of the current and
39. How is the accuracy of a potentiometer affected by
the resistance per unit length of the wire.
increasingthe length of its wire ?
32. Can we determine the specific resistance of the
material of potentiometer wire ? Larger the length of the wire, more is the probability
of the wire being non-uniform and the potentiometer
Yes, by measuring the potential drop across a length
no longer remains quite accurate, although its
of the potentiometer wire. sensitiveness is increased.

k = -=—=- -=^
I I A A C. Comparison of EMFs of Two Primary Cells
VA 40. How does a potentiometer enable as to measure
P = emf ?
11
Potentiometer is a null method device. No current is
33. What is the use of the rheostat in the main circuit ?
drawn from the cell at the null point, thus there is no
It is used to vary the potential gradient. potential drop due to tine internal resistance of the
34. How can we increase the sensitiveness of a cell. So, it measures the p.d. in an open circuit, i.e., it
measures emf.
potentiometer ?

61
 LAB MANUAL PHYSIC5-X1I

41. What is the formula for comparing emfs of two The galvanometer should show deflections in the
primary cells by a potentiometer ? opposite directions when the jockey is placed
alternately on the two ends of the potentiometer
, where Sj and €2 are the emfs of the two wire.
^2 h
50. If you get the deflection only in one direction in the
cells and ij and I2 are the balancing lengths of
above step, what inference will you draw from this ?
the potentiometer wire for the two cells, respectively.
This may be due to any one of the following reasons:
42. Why do we use a protective resistance or shunt along
with a sensitive galvanometer ? (i) the positive terminals of all the cells may not be
connected to the same end of the wire.
To prevent the galvanometer from getting damaged
due to excessive airrents. (ii) the emf of the auxiliary battery may be less tlnan
the emf to be balanced,
43. Does the above protective resistance or shunt affect
the position of null point ? (Hi) the rheostat used in the auxiliary circuit may be
of high resistance, or
No, it only decreases the sensitivity of the circuit, so it
(iu) there may be some loose connections.
should be removed while noting the exact position of
null point. 51. What do you conclude if galvanometer needle keeps
shaking in your experimental set up ?
44. Why do we connect the positive terminal of the
auxiliary battery as well as that of the primary cell to Either the emf of the auxiliary battery fluctuates or
the zero end of the potentiometer wire ? there may be a loose connection somewhere in the
circuit.
So that the currents due to the auxiliary battery and
of the primary cell flow through the galvanometer in 52. The galvanometer shows no deflection when the
opposite directions. jockey is pressed against the potentiometer wire.
Under what circumstances, this may happen ?
45. What happens if we connect all the negative
(j) Either the experimental cell is totally discharged
terminals to the zero end of the potentiometer wire ?
to have infinite resistance, or
It does not matter, if the negative terminals are
(ii) The connecting wires are broken somewhere in
connected at one point, even in this case the currents
the galvanometer circuit.
due to auxiliary battery and the primary cell through
the galvanometer will be in opposite directions but 53. Does the position of balance at null point mean no
lengths should be measured from the other end, as current through the potentiometer wire ? Elaborate.
fall of potential starts from that end. No, the current continuously flows the potentiometer
wire. But at null point, the potential difference across
46. Why should the emf of the auxiliary battery be
greater than the emf of either of the cells to be the balancing length of potentiometer wire becomes
compared ? equal and opposite to the emf the cell.
The emf of the auxiliary battery should always be 54. Why should the null point be obtained at fairly large
greater than 6, or 62- Otherwise at no point on the length (more than half of the total length) from the
wire, the current in the galvanometer will be zero. zero end of the potentiometer ?
The balance point will not lie within the length of This will increase the percentage accuracy in the
the wire and the galvanometer will show deflection measurement of length.
in the same direction throughout the length of the 55. Can we use tangent galvanometer in place of moving
wire.
coil galvanometer in this experiment ?
47. Which source of emf should be used as the auxiliary No, the current through the galvanometer is very
battery ? small near the null point. Tangent galvanometer is
A freshly changed lead acid accumulator which gives not so sensitive for very small values of current.
fairly constant current and hence acts as a source of
constant emf. D. Measurement of Internal Resistance

48. Is the cell circuit open or closed when the balance 56. What is meant by internal resistance of a cell ?
point is located in the potentiometer experiment ? It is the resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell
Open circuit. to the flow of current between its electrodes.

49. What is the test that the potentiometer set up is ready 57. On what factors does the internal resistance of a cell
for its use ? depend ?

62
 Chapter 5 : POTENTIOMETER

The internal resistance of a cell depends on the 64. How can we know the value of the emf or voltage by
following factors : simply noting the null point ?
(i) Nature of the electrolyte. Tlus can be determined by knowing the potential
(ii) It is directly proportional to the distance gradient that exists along the potentiometer wire. If k
between the electrodes. is the potential gradient and / the balancing length,
(Hi) It is inversely proportional to the common area then emf or voltage will be k / volts.
of the electrodes dipped in the electrolyte. 65. Does the potentiometer method give an accurate
value of internal resistance ?
(iv) It is directly proportional to the concentration of
the electrolyte. Since the internal resistance of a cell is proportional to
58. Is the internal resistance same for all cells ? the current drawn from the cell, it is difficult to

No, it is different for different cells.

determine it accurately. However, for a given value
of current, it can be measured accurately if the null
59. Which cell do we use to find the internal resistance ?
point is obtained quickly.
Leclanche cell.
66. Does the internal resistance of a cell depend on the
60. Can we find the internal resistance of a Daniel cell current drawn from the cell ?
accurately ? Yes, the internal resistance increases as we draw
No, because the internal resistance of a Daniel cell more current from the cell.

w
changes quite rapidly. 67. If the external resistance used in parallel with the cell
61. Why should the cell be not disturbed during is increased, what effect would it have on the internal
experimentation? Flo resistance of the cell ?

ee
Tlie internal resistance of the cell changes when it is The increase of external resistance in parallel will
disturbed. decrease the current drawn from the cell. So the

62. What is the basic principle involved in the Fr

internal resistance will also decrease.
for
measurement of internal resistance ?
ur
68. Can we vary the shunt resistance over a wide range
The terminal voltage of a cell on open circuit is higher while determining the internal resistance of a cell ?
ks

than when a current is being drawn from it. Its No, a wide variation in the value of shunt resistance
Yo

terminal voltage falls due to the internal resistance of will cause a significant change in the current drawn
oo

the cell. By measuring the terminal voltage both in from the cell and hence the internal resistance of the
B

open and closed circuits in terms of balancing lengths cell will change appreciably.
re

of the potentiometer wire, we can determine the 69. Over what range should the shunt resistance be
ou

internal resistance of the cell.

ad

varied ?
Y

flh -I^2 ) About 4-5 Q, say, between 2 to 7 H.

r = R
70. Can we measure the internal resistance of a lead-acid
h
nd
Re

accumulator using a potentiometer ?

Fi

63. That can be easily done by means of an ammeter and No, the internal resistance of a lead acid accumulator
voltmeter method. Is it not ? Then why all this
is very small (0.02 Q) and the end resistances and the
unnecessarily elaborate method ? resistances under the terminals are of the same order.
Yes, but due to the inherent shortcomings in these
instruments, the ammeter and voltmeter method is
71. Name some other uses of potentiometer.
not an accurate one. Potentiometer, being much more A potentiometer can be used to measure and control
sensitive and accurate has, therefore, been used here. stress, temperature, radiation, pH, frequency, etc.
 Galvanometer, Ammeter
AND Voltmeter

Qj Moving Coil Galvanometer insulated copper wire wound on a light aluminium

frame. Tlie axle of this frame is pivoted on jewelled
A galvanometer is a device used to detect current in a bearings. The coil is held in position between the
circuit. The commonly used moving coil galvanometer cylindrical pole pieces of a permanent horse-shoe
is named so because it consists of a current-carrying magnet by a pair of hair springs of phosphor bronze.
coil that rotates (or moves) in a magnetic field due to The inner ends of the springs are connected to the two
the torque acting on it. In Weston type galvanometer, the ends of the coil and outer ends are connected to the
coil is pivoted between two jewelled bearings. It is binding terminals. The springs provide the restoring
rugged and portable though less sensitive, and is torque and serve as current leads. A light aluminium
generally used in laboratories. pointer attached to the coil measures its deflection on a
Principle. A current-carrying coil placed in a magnetic suitable scale.
field experiences a current dependent torque, which tends to As shown in Fig. 6.1(b), a cylindrical soft iron
rotate the coil and produces angular deflection. cylinder is mounted symmetrically between the
Construction. As shown in Fig. 6.1(a), a Weston concave poles of the horse-shoe magnet. This makes
galvanometer consists of a rectangular coil of fine the lines of force pointing along the radii of a circle.
Such a field is called a radial field. The plane of the coil
in such a field remains parallel to the field in all
Pointer
positions. Also, the soft iron cylinder due to its high
permeability, intensifies the magnetic field and hence
increases the sensitivity of the galvanometer.
Terminals
Theory and Working
In Fig. 6.2(a), we have
●Jewelled
bearing I - current flowing through the coil PQRS
spring
a,b = sides of the rectangular coil PQRS
A= ab~ area of the coil

N = number of turns in the coil.

Since the field is radial, the plane of the coil always

remains parallel to the field B. The two vertical arms
PQ and SR experience equal and opposite forces of
magnitude NJbB. The two forces form a couple which
exerts a torque given by
T = Force x Perpendicular distance
= NlbBx asin90°= NIB(ah) = NIBA
Here 0 =90°, because normal to the plane of the coil
Fig. 6.1 (a) A pivoted-type galvanometer.
(b) Radial magnetic field. remains perpendicular to B in all positions.

64

i
 Chapter 6 :GALVANOMETER, AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

a NBA
Current sensitivity. J T
I k

Voltage sensitivity. It is dejined as the direction produced

F = lbB
hi the galvanometer when a unit potential difference is
. I
applied across its ends.
NBA
■►B a sin 0 Voltage sensitivity, V
^
IR kR
1
up
a
Current sensitivity
0 B Clearly, voltage sensitivity =
1 down R
(
R
m
Factors on which the sensitivity of a moving coil
galvanometer depends :
F = Wb
1. Number of turns N in its coil.

2. Magnetic field R
(b) 3. Area A of the coil.

Fig. 6.2 (fl) Rectangular loop PQRS in a uniform 4. Torsion constant C of the springs and suspension

w
wire.
magnetic field, (b) Top view of the loop.

The torque x deflects the coil through an angle 0. A

restoring torque is set up in the coil due to elasticity of
Flo
El Resistance of a Galvanometer by

ee
Half Deflection Method
the springs such that
^restoring
oc 0 or
^restoring
= C0 Fr
Figure 6.3 shows the circuit diagram for the deter
for
ur
where C is the tension constant of the springs and is mination of resistance of a galvanometer by half
equal to the torque required to produce unit angular deflection method. A galvanometer of resistance G is
ks

twist. In equilibrium position. connected to a cell of emf S through a high resistance

Yo
oo

box R and a key . A low resistance box S is connected

Deflecting torque = Restoring torque
B

in parallel with the galvanometer through key f^.

re

NIBA = CQ
g
^1 R
ou
ad

±.
/ = —Q = ke => / oc 0 11^ t-) tKO.j
Y

NBA

Thus, the deflection produced in the galvanometer is

nd
Re

I G
proportional to the current passing through its coil. This is
0^
Fi

the working principle of a galvanometer. The

galvanometer constant k is called figure of merit or
current reduction factor of the galvanometer. It is an s

inverse measure of the sensitivity of the galvanometer.

Fig. 6.3 Determination of galvanometer resistance
Figure of merit of a galvanometer. It is defined as the by half deflection method.
current required to produce a deflection of one scale division
in the galvanometer and is given by A high resistance (»5kf2) is introduced through
resistance box R. The key fCj is closed and is kept
0 NBA open. The current through the galvanometer will be
6
El Sensitivity of a Galvanometer R + G
= cf0 ...(0

A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if it shows large where 0 is the deflection in tlie galvanometer.
scale deflection even when a small current is passed through Now, if the is also closed and the value of the
it or a small voltage is applied across it. shunt resistance S (aSOkH) is so adjusted that the
Current sensitivity. It is defined as the deflection produced deflection is reduced to half of the previous value 0,
in the galvanometer when a unit current flows through it. then current through the galvanometer will be

65
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

& .
S = k.-
, e If n is the total number of divisions on the galvano
R + GS G+S 2 meter scale, then current required for full scale
G+S
deflection in the galvanometer \vill be
€S
or ...{fi) I^^nk
R{G+S) + GS 2

Dividing equation (/) by (ii), we get

n Graphical Method for the
Determination of C and k
g
R(G+S)+GS_^
R + G ts From the above derivation, we can write

or RG+RS+GS = 2RS + 2GS

or G{R-S)= RS
KS
or G =
R-S

Knowing the values of R and S, the resistance G of

the galvanometer can be determined.

n Determination of Figure of
Merit of a Galvanometer

The figure of merit of a galvanometer is defined as the

current required to produce a deflection of one scale division
I Intercept = ^ ■►X
R(ohm)
in the galvanometer. It is given by
1 Fig. 6.5
k = -
0
1
If we plot a graph of — along Y-axis and R along
The unit of k is ampere per division (A division ^). 6

To determine the figure of merit of a galvanometer, X-axis, we get a straight line having
the galvanometer of resistance G is connected in series
with a battery of emf 6 and a high resistance R (» 5 kQ) slope, m = ^€
through a key K, as shown in Fig. 6.4.
kG
g and Y-intercept =
R c
+
I
H.R.B.
Y-intercept
/' ’ Clearly, G =
G slope
0 By knowing the values of emf g of the battery and
Fig. 6.4 Determination of figure of merit slope m, we can determine figure of merit k. By
of the galvanometer. measuring Y-intercept, we can find galvanometer
resistance G.
The current through the galvanometer will be
g
= kQ
R + G

So the figure of merit of the galvanometer is

g
k =
(R+G)0
The emf g of the cell is measured with the help of a
high resistance voltmeter.

66
 Chapter 6 : GALVANOMETER, AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

EXPERIMENT A7
Aim

To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find

its figure of merit

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A Weston type galvanometer, a battery of 3 V/a battery eliminator, a high resistance box
(O-lOkQ), a low resistance box (0-200 H), two one-way keys, a voltmeter (0-3 V), connecting
wires and a piece of sand paper.
n
Working Formuue

1. The resistance G of a galvanometer by half deflection method is given by

w
RS
G=
R-S
Flo
where R is the resistance in series with the galvanometer and S is the shunt resistance.

ee
2. The figure of merit of the galvanometer is given by
k =
Fr
for
(R + G)Q
ur
where 0 is the deflection produced with series resistance R and 6 is the emf of the battery.
ks
Yo
oo

Circuit Diagrams
B

g K, R K (0 -10 kn)
re

+
■(●) lH.R.B.1- 11^ —IH.R.B.1—
R
ou

(O-lOkO)
ad

/■ ’ 1' ■ ‘'1
■ ‘1
Y

I G G

T ^ 0 0
nd
Re

I-|L.R.B.[—<●) 1
Fi

(0-200 0) ^2
Fig. 6.6 Determination of galvanometer resistance Fig. 6.7 Determination of figure of merit
by half-deflection method. of the galvanometer.
Procedure

A. Resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method

1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 6.6 and arrange the required apparatus on the
working table accordingly.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with a sand paper. Connect the battery €,
galvanometer G, high resistance box R and key in series. Connect a low resistance box S
and key in parallel with the galvanometer.
3. Introduce a high resistance R (» 5000Q) from the resistance box R. Close the key (keeping
^2 open). Adjust the value of resistance R till the deflection 0 in the galvanometer is almost
full scale and is an even number of divisions. Note the deflection 0 and the value of
resistance R.

67
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

4. Introduce a small resistance (*50 H) through low resistance box S and close the key K2.
Keeping R fixed, adjust the value of shunt resistance S till the deflection in the galvanometer
is reduced to exactly half the value of 0 obtained in step 3, i.e., deflection becomes 0/2. Note
the deflection and the value of shunt resistance S.

NOTE As the value of S increases, deflection also increases.

5. For different values of R and S, take three more sets of observations by repeating steps 3 and
4 so that 0 is even number of divisions. Record the observations of R,S, 0 and 0/2 in a
tabular form.
RS
6. Calculate the value of galvanometer resistance using the formula, G =
R-S

B. Figure of merit of the galvanometer

7. Find the emf S of the battery by connecting it across a high resistance voltmeter. See that the
+ve terminal of the battery is connected to the +ve terminal of the voltmeter.
8. As shown in Fig. 6.7, connect the battery S, galvanometer G, high resistance box R and a key
K in series.

9. Introduce a resistance of about 5000 Q from resistance box R. Insert the plug in key K and
adjust the resistance R so that almost a full scale deflection of certain complete number of
divisions is obtained in the galvanometer. Note the values of R and 0.
10. Repeat the experiment for three more values of R so that deflections lie between 20-30
divisions. Record the values of R and 0 in a tabular form.

11. Calculate the figure of merit of the galvanometer using the formula, k
(R + G)0
Observations and Calculations

Table 6.1 Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

High Shunt resistance
0
Half deflection - Galvanometer resistance
Deflection 0
S.No. resistance 2 RS
(divisions) S(Q) G = n
R(a) (divisions) R-S
1.
2.

3.
4.

Mean value of G = Q

EMF of the battery, S = V ; Resistance of the galvanomter, G = Q

Table 6.2 Figure of merit of the galvanometer

Figure of merit
S.No.
High resistance Deflection 0
g
R{Q) (divisions) k = A div'^
{R + G)0
1.

2.

3.
4.

-1
Mean value of k = A div

68

k
 Chapter 6 : GALVANOMETER, AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

Total number of divisions on either side of zero mark of the galvanometer scale, M =
divisions

Current required for full scale deflection, I 8 =nk = A

Result

1. Resistance of galvanometer by half-deflection method, G = n.

2. Figure of merit of the galvanometer, k = A div'^ .

3. Current required for full scale deflection in the galvanometer, I = d

A.

a Precautions

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs of the two resistance boxes should be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist
3. The value of the series resistance R should be large. This ensures correct value of G.
4. The plug in the key should be inserted only after a resistance R of high value has been

w
taken out from the resistance box otherwise the galvanometer coil may bum.
5. The value of R should be adjusted so that deflection 0 is equal to an even number of
Flo
divisions. Then the value of 0 / 2 can be obtained exactly with shunt S.

ee
6. To decrease the deflection in the galvanometer, the shunt resistance S should be decreased.
7. Fr
The emf the battery should remain constant.. For this, a freshly charged battery must be
for
ur
used.

8. For determining figure of merit, a high resistance voltmeter should be used to measure the
ks
Yo

emf of the battery.

oo
B

Sources of Error
re

1. The plugs in the resistance boxes may not be clean or tight.

ou
ad

2. The emf of the battery may not be constant.

Y

3. The divisions on the galvanometer scale may not be of equal size.

nd
Re
Fi

»« ❖ »«

Conversion of a To overcome these difficulties, a small resistance S,

Galvanometer into an Ammeter called shunt resistance, is connected in parallel with the
galvanometer coil, so that most of the current passes
An ordinary galvanometer cannot as such be used through the shunt.
as an ammeter to measure current in a circuit.
Ammeter
This is because of truo reasons :
S
(0 Galvanometer is a very sensitive device, it gives AAV
a full-scale deflection with a small current of
few )iA.
/ ;
(n) For measuring currents, the galvanometer has >●
—i—©
A L B
to be connected in series, and as it has a large X

resistance, this will decrease the value of

current in the circuit. Fig. 6.8 Conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter.
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xll

Let G = resistance of the galvanometer Its effective resistance is

= the current with which galvanometer GS

<S
gives full scale deflection c+ s

0 - / = the required current range of tine ammeter

S = shunt resistance Q Shunt
I - I = current through the shunt
o
A shunt is a low resistance which is connected in parallel
As galvanometer and shunt are connected in with a galvanometer (or ammeter) to protect it from strong
parallel, so currents.

Uses of shunt;
P.D. across the galvanometer =P.D. across the shunt
1. To prevent a galvanometer from being
LG=(I-L)S
g g
or S= I-I
X G
damaged due to large current.
g
2. To convert a galvanometer into ammeter.
So, by connecting a shunt of resistance S across the 3. To increase the range of an ammeter.
given galvanometer, we get an ammeter of desired
range. Hence, an ammeter is a shunted or lozv resistance
galvanometer.

EXPERIMENT A8
Aim

To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into an
ammeter of desired range (say 0 to 30 mA) and verify the same.

i~ Apparatus and Material Required

A Weston type galvanometer of known resistance and figure of merit, a constantan or manganin
wire, a battery of two cells or a battery eliminator, a one-way key, a rheostat of resistance 200 Q, a
milliammeter of range 0-30 mA, a screw gauge, a metre scale, connecting wires and a piece of
sand paper.
Working Formulae

1. If n is the total number of divisions on either side of the zero mark of the galvanometer and k
its figure of merit, then current required for full scale deflection in the galvanometer is
I^=nk
2. To convert the galvanometer of resistance G into an ammeter of range 0 - / ampere, a shunt
of resistance S is connected across it so that only current I flows through it, as shown in
Fig. 6.9.
Then,

P.D. across the galvanometer = P.D. across the shunt

/ g G=(/-7 8 )S S =
I-I
8

70
 Chopfer 6 : GALVANOMETER, AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

3. The length 1 of the resistance wire to be used as shunt S is determined as follows :

I I nr^S
s = p-=p 1 =
Tir^ P

Circuit Diagrams
Rh

Ammeter
r ■
I
/ G 1
o- » o A I I G

-1
o
s
wv wv
Shunt resistance s

Converted ammeter

w
Fig. 6.9 Conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter. Fig. 6.10 Circuit to verify conversion of galvanometer
into an ammeter.

Procedure Flo
ee
1. Record the values of the resistance G of the galvanometer and its figure of merit k.
2. Count the total number of divisions n on either side of the zero mark of the galvanometer
scale.
Fr
for
ur
3. Calculate the current L required to produce full scale deflection in the galvanometer by
o
ks

using the relation, = nk.

Yo

4. For conversion of galvanometer into ammeter of range (0 - /), ampere, calculate the value of
oo
B

shunt resistance S using the formula,

re

LG
S =
ou

I-I
ad
Y

5. Take a screw gauge. Note its least count, zero error and zero correction.
nd

available in the laboratory) and measure

Re

6. Take a resistance wire of constantan/manganin (as

its diameter with the help of screw gauge at four different locations along its length that also
Fi

in two mutually perpendicular directions. Find the mean radius of the wire.
7. Knowing the specific resistance p of the material of the wire from the standard table, we
calculate the length I of the wire required for shunt resistance S as follows :
I I Kl^S
s = p—= or 1 =
A nr P

8. Cut a length of the wire 3 cm more than the calculated length /. Carefully mark in ink, two
points 1.5 cm from each end. Connect the wire to the two terminals of the galvanometer
such that marked points just project out of the terminals of the galvanometer. This ensures
that the length of wire just outside the binding terminals is exactly equal to /. The
galvanometer is now ready for its use as an ammeter of range (0-f) ampere.
Verification. (To check the accuracy of the converted ammeter)
9. To check the accuracy of the converted ammeter, connect in series the battery, standard
ammeter, converted ammeter, rheostat and a one-way key, as shown in Fig. 6.10. See that
-i-ve terminal of the battery is connected to the +ve marked terminal of the ammeter,

f I 71
k
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

10. Note the least counts of itie standard ammeter and

that of the converted ammeter (k' = ^gl «)-
11.
Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat in the position of maximum resistance and insert
the plug in the key IC Note the reading of the galvanometer scale and the corresponding
reading of the ammeter A Find the difference, if any, between the two readings.
12.
Repeat the experiment three more times by adjusting the rheostat in new position so that the
current covers the entire range of the converted ammeter.

I Observations and Calculations

Step 1. Determination of the shimt resistance S
Resistance of the given galvanometer, G = a
-1
Figure of merit, k = A div

Total number of divisions on either side of zero mark, n =

Current required for full scale deflection, I^=nk

S
= A

Required range for converted ammeter, / = mA = A

IG
8
Shunt resistance, S = n
I-I
8

Step 2. Determination of length of wire for shunt resistance

Pitch of the screw gauge = cm

Number of divisions on circular scale =

Pitch
Least count = cm
No. of divisions on circular scale
Zero error, e = cm

Zero correction, c = -e = cm

Table 6.3 : Diameter of the resistance wire

Observed diameter = MSR + CSR x LC Mean diameter

S.No. in one direction in perpendicular direction _ ^1+^2 cm
dj (cm) dj (cm) 2
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean observed diameter, = cm

Mean corrected diameter, d = d 0 + c = cm.

Mean radius of the resistance wire, r = — cm

2

Specific resistance of the material of the wire, p = cm

[p manganin «44xl0‘^ncm, p constantan «49xl0'*n cm]

72
 Chapter 6 : GALVANOMETER, AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

Step 3. Verification (To check the accuracy of the converted ammeter)

-1
Least count of the standard ammeter = A div

/ -1
Least count of the converted ammeter, k' = — A div
n

Table 6.4 : Verification of the converted ammeter

Converted ammeter readings

Standard ammeter
S.No. Deflection 0
Cunent
reading Difference ={I^ -J2)
=k'Q (A)
(divisions) (A)

1.

2.

3.

4.

w
I Result

A = n.
Flo
1. Shunt resistance S required for conversion of given galvanometer into ammeter of range 0 to

ee
2. Shunt resistance is a wire of material, of length
Fr cm and of SWG no.

3. Within the limits of experimental error, the difference (/j -) is small. So the accuracy of the
for
ur
converted ammeter is satisfactorily verified.
ks

I
Yo

Precautions
oo
B

1. The radius of the resistance wire to be used as shunt resistance must be measured accurately.
re

2. Length of tlie shunt resistance wire should neither be too small nor inconveniently too large.
ou
ad

3. The length of the wire required for shunt resistance should be carefully calculated.
Y

4. Cut about 3 to 4 cm extra to the calculated length the wire. While connecting this wire across
nd

the galvanometer, see that the length of the wire coming out of the galvanometer terminals is
Re

exactly equal to the calculated length.

Fi

5. The different parts of the shunt wire should neither get coiled nor touch each other.
6. The standard ammeter used in the verification part of the experiment should preferably be
of nearly the same range as that of the converted galvanometer.
7. The ammeter should always be connected in series in the circuit with its positive marked
terminal connected to the positive terminal of the cell.

^URCEs OF Error
1. The area of cross-section of the wire may not be uniform.
2. There may be error in the measurement of radius and hence the calculation of length of the
resistance wire.

3. There may be a backlash error in the screw gauge.

4. The divisions on the galvanometer scale may not be of equal size.
»« ❖ »«

73

4
 LAB MANUAL PHYSIC5-XII

El Conversion of a
Galvanometer into a Voltmeter

A galvanometer can be used as a voltmeter to By Ohm's law.

measure voltage across any circuit element. For this, it Potential difference V
I
must be connected in parallel with that element. g Total resistance R + G
Further, it must draw a very small current, otherwise
the voltage required to be measured will decrease or R + G= —
substantially. To ensure this, a large resistance R is
connected in series with the galvanometer.
or K= —-G
Voltmeter I
8

R
■« So, by connecting a high resistance R in series with
A B
the galvanometer, we get a voltmeter of desired range.
Hence, a voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer.
V
Its effective resistance is
Fig. 6.11 Conversion of a galvanometer into an voltmeter.
R,,
V
= R + G» G

Let G = resistance of the galvanometer

I = the current with which galvanometer
gives full scale deflection
0-V = required range of the voltmeter, and
R = the high series resistance which restricts
the current to safe limit I

Total resistance in the circuit = R + G

EXPERIMENT A9

I Aim
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a
voltmeter of desired range (say 0 to 3 V) and to verify the same.

Apparatus and Material Required

A Weston type galvanometer of known resistance and figure of merit, a battery of three cells or a
battery eliminator, a high resistance box of range 0-10 kQ, a one-way key, a rheostat of resistance
200 n to be used as potential divider arrangement, a voltmeter of 0 - 3 V range, connecting wires
and a piece of sand paper.
n
Working Formulae

1. In n is the total number of divisions on eitherside of the zero mark of the galvanometer and
k its figure of merit, then current required for full scale deflection in the galvanometer is
I^ = nk.

74
i
 Chapter 6 : GALVANOMETER, AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

2. To convert the galvanometer of resistance G into a voltmeter of range 0 - V volt, a high

resistance R is connected in series with it so that only current I flows through it, as shown
o

in Fig. 6.12. From Ohm's law.

I or R = ^-G
R + G

I Circuit Diagrams

Batter)' K
±.
tt i-y

Rh
A B

Voltmeter
©
+
(" t'
r

w
I G R > /
i
I
G R I

Flo 1
0—
I

ee
V volts Converted voltmeter

Fig. 6.12 Conversion of galvanometer into a voltmeter. Fr

Fig. 6.13 Circuit to verify conversion of
galvanometer into a voltmeter.
for
ur
I Procedure
ks
Yo

1. Record the values of the resistance G of the galvanometer and its figure of merit k.
oo

Count the total number of divisions n on either side of the zero mark of the galvanometer scale.
B

2.
re

3. Calculate the current / required to produce full scale deflection in the galvanometer by
using the relation, = nk.
ou
ad

4. For conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter of range (0-V) volt, calculate the value of
Y

series resistance R using the formula,

nd
Re

R = —-G
Fi

5. Connect a high resistance box of range 0 - 10 kH in series with the galvanometer and
introduce a resistance equal to the calculated value of R. The galvanometer is now ready for
its use as a voltmeter of range (0-V) volt.
Verification (To check the accuracy of the converted voltmeter)
6. As shown in Fig. 6.13, coimect a battery of three cells through a key K to the fixed terminals
A and Bof the rheostat. Here rheostat AS is being used as a potential divider. Cis its sliding
contact. Connect the converted voltmeter and a standard voltmeter of same range between
the points A and C. See that the +ve marked terminal of the voltmeter is connected to the
terminal A of the rheostat where the +ve terminal of the battery has been connected.
7. Note the least counts of the standard voltmeter and that of the converted voltmeter {k' = V/ n).
8. See that the resistance equal to the calculated value of R has been introduced from the
resistance box. Insert the plug in the key K and adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat so
that deflection in the galvanometer is maximum. Simultaneously the voltmeter will also
show a maximum reading (say 3 V).

75

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

9. Note the readings of standard voltmeter and of the galvanometer scale. Convert the
galvanometer reading into volts and find the difference, if any, between the two readings.
10. Repeat the experiment three more times by adjusting the rheostat in different positions so
that entire range of converted voltmeter is covered.

i Observations and Calculations

Step 1. Determination of the series resistance R
Resistance of the given galvanometer, G = a
-1
Figure of merit, k = A div

Total number of divisions on either side of zero mark. n =

Current required for full scale deflection, I =nk = <v

A

Required range for converted voltmeter, V= V

Series resistance, R= —-G = Q

I
s

Step 2. Verification (To check the accuracy of converted voltmeter)

-1
Least count of the standard voltmeter = V div

V -1
Least count of the converted voltmeter, k’ = — V div
n

Table 6.5 : Verification of the converted voltmeter

Converted voltmeter readings

Standard voltmeter
S.No. Deflection 0
Potential difference
reading Difference = (Vj -V^)
(V)
(divisions) (V)
(V)
1.

2.

3.

4.

Result

1. Series resistance R required for conversion of given galvanometer into voltmeter of range 0
to V = n.

2. Current required for full scale deflection, = A.

3. Within the limits of experimental error, the difference (V^ - V2) is small. So the accuracy of
the converted voltmeter is satisfactorily satisfied.
Precautions

1.
The standard voltmeter used should have nearly the same
range as that required for
converted voltmeter.
2.
The resistance box used should be used of high resistance.
3.
Low resistance rheostat should be used as potential divider.

76
i
 Chapter 6 : GALVANOMETER, AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

4. The exact high resistance (correct to the nearest ohm) equal to the calculated value should be
introduced from the resistance box connected in series with the galvanometer. Only after
introducing the high series resistance, the battery key should be closed to avoid any damage
to the galvanometer.
5. Both the standard and the converted voltmeters should be connected in parallel with the
rheostat. See that the positive marked terminal of the standard voltmeter is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery.
6. Zero error, if any, of the galvanometer should be eliminated or accounted for in the calculations.

I ^URCEs OF Error
1. The divisions marked on the galvanometer scale may not be of equal size.
2. Plugs in the resistance box may be loose or they may not be clean.
3. The emf of the battery may not be constant.

VIVA VOCE

w
A. Gaivanometer 9. What is torsion constant of the suspension wire ?
1. What is a galvanometer ?
Flo It is defined as the torque required to produce unit

ee
It is a device used to detect current in a circuit. angular twist in the suspension wire.

2. Which type of galvanometer are you using ?

Weston type moving coil galvanometer.
galvanometer ?
Fr
10. What do you mean by the figure of merit of a
for
ur
It is defined as the current which produces a
3. Why is a moving coil galvanometer named so ? deflection of one scale division in the
ks

This is because a moving coil galvanometer consists galvanometer.

Yo

of current-carrying coil that rotates (or moves) in a

oo

magnetic field due to the torque acting on it. Figure of merit, k = -e .

B

4. What type of Weston type moving coil galvanometer

re

is ? 11. What is the order of figure of merit of Weston type

ou

galvanometer ?
ad

In Weston type galvanometer, the coil is pivoted on

10 - 20 pA per division.
Y

an axle which is free to rotate between two jewelled

bearings. 12. How is sensitivity of a galvanometer related to its
nd
Re

5. Is there any other type of moving coil galvanometer ? figure of merit ?

Fi

Yes, suspended coil type such as D'Arsonval moving Sensitivity of a galvanometer is inversely related to
coil galvanometer. its figure of merit.
6. What is moving magnet type galvanometer ? 13. What is meant by current sensitivity of a
In such a galvanometer, the coil through which the galvanometer ?
current flows is fixed while a small magnetic needle It is the deflection produced in the galvanometer
pivoted at the centre is free to rotate. when a unit current flows through it.
7. Can you name a moving magnet tyjje of galvanometer ? 9 _ NBA
Yes, a tangent galvanometeris a moving magnet type ^ ” C
galvanometer.
14. What is meant by voltage sensitivity of a
8. What is the principle of a moving coil galvanometer ? galvanometer?
It is based on the principle that a current carrying coil, It is the deflection produced in the galvanometer
suspended freely in a magnetic field, experiences a when a unit potential difference is applied across it.
torque. The deflection produced in the coil is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it.
C CR
/ = 6, where C is the torsion constant of the
NBA
15. How can we increase the sensitivity of a
springs and the suspension wire. galvanometer ?

77

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XIl

Sensitivity of a galvanometer can be increased by 25. What is the formula for half deflection method ?
making The resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection
method is
(0 N large (ii) B large (Hi) A large and (iv) C small.
RS
G =
16. What material is used for the suspension wire of the R-S
moving coil galvanometer and why ?
Suspension wire of the moving coil galvanometer is where R is the high series resi.stance for deflection 0
0
made of phosphor bronze because for this material and S is the shunt resistance for getting deflection -.
torsion constant C is very small which increases the
sensitivity of the galvanometer. 26. Why do we connect a high resistance box in the
battery circuit of half deflection method ?
17. What is the nature of the magnetic field in a moving
High series resistance R protects the galvanometer
coil galvanometer ?
from any damage due to excessive current.
Radial magnetic field.
RS
Moreover, when R » G, G = -R
18. How is a radial magnetic field obtained in a moving R-S
coil galvanometer ?
27. How much should be the deflection in the galvano
A soft iron cylinder is fixed within the coil between
meter when only high resistance is used in series ?
the concave pole pieces of the horse-shoe magnet.
It should be maximum but within the gaWanometer
The magnetic lines of force concentrate into the soft
scale, and preferably the total number of divisions
iron cylinder with their directions along tlie radius of
the cylinder. Such a field is called radial field. In all should be divisible by 2.
positions of the coil, the plane of the coil remains 28. The battery circuit should be closed only after intro
parallel to the field. ducing a high resistance R from the resistance box.
Why ?
19. Why do we need a radial magnetic field in a moving Otherwise the excessive current flowing in the circuit
coil galvanometer ?
may bum the galvanometer coil.
Radial magnetic field makes arm of the couple fixed
and hence the torque on the coil is always same in all 29. Is it possible to find the galvanometer resistance by
positions of the coil in the magnetic field. This 1/3 deflection ? If so what changes would be required
in the formula for calculation of G ?
provides a linear current scale.
Yes, it is possible to find the galvanometer resistance
20. How is a galvanometer made dead heat ?
by noting - deflection. Then with high series
Eddy currents set up in the soft iron cylinder oppose
the movement of the coil in the magnetic field. resistance R,
Induced currents set up in the coil itself also help to €
= kQ
make the galvanometer dead beat. R + C

21. What do you mean by a dead heat galvanometer ? With series resistance R and shunt S,
A galvanometer is said to be dead beat if on passing €
current through it, its pointer comes to rest -Hi)
G+S 3
R+
immediately instead of oscillating to and fro. G+S

22. Why does a galvanometer scale has zero mark in the Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we get
middle ?

This helps a galvanometer to detect both positive and

g
R + G'
R{G+S)+GS_^
tS
negative currents and hence in the detection of null
RG+RS+GS = 3RS + 3GS
point.
G(R-2S) = 2RS
2RS
B. Half-Deflection Method G =
R-2S

23. What do you mean by resistance of a galvanometer ?

C. Conversion of a Galvanometer Into an Ammeter
It is the resistance offered by the coil of a galvano
meter to the flow of current through it. 30. What is origin of the word ammeter ?
24. By which method you are determining the resistance ? An ammeter is named so because it is an

By half deflection method. ampere-meter.

78

i.
 Chop/er 6 : GALVANOMETER, AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

31. Why we cannot use an ordinary galvanometer as 39.

How do we decide about the required length of shunt
such as ammeter to measure current in a circuit ? wire ?

This is because of two reasons : (’) Galvanometer is a Shunt resistance is

very sensitive device, it gives full scale deflection I I
with a small current of few pA. (i7) For measuring S = p- = p
jrr
2

currents, the galvanometer has to be connected in

series, and as it has a large resistance, this will Sn
decrease the value of current in the circuit. Required length, / =
P

32. How can we convert a galvanometer into an ammeter ? 40.

Why do we take shunt wire of length slighty greater
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by than the calculated length ?
connecting a small resistance, called shunt, in parallel Because a small part of the shunt wire is used in
with the galvanometer. making terminal connections.
33. Can we use a shunt resistance of any arbitrary value 41. In a circuit where current is I, only current flows
to convert a galvanometer into an ammeter ? through the galvanometer ? How is it then possible to
No, the value of shunt resistance depends on the measure I with the converted ammeter ?
required range (0- /) of the converted ammeter and S
I .1 i.e.,
is given by

w
8 G + S
LG
S = As G and I remain constant for the converted
l-I.
ammeter, therefore, the converted ammeter directly
where is the maximum current with which the
Flo measures / after proper calibration.

ee
galvanometer gives full scale deflection. 42. Suppose we want to increase the range of an ammeter
34. How does the resistance of the galvanometer becomes
very low, when a shunt is connected across it ? resistance ?
Fr
from 1 A to 3 A, what should be done to the shunt
for
ur
When a number of resistances are connected in The value of shunt resistance should be decreased as
parallel, the equivalent resistance is smaller than the more current is required to be passed through the
ks

smallest individual resistance. Thus, the resistance of

Yo

shunt.
oo

the shunted galvanometer is even less than the value 43. If an ammeter reading upto 1 A is to be converted
B

of shunt resistance.
into a milliammeter reading upto 100 mA, what
re

35. Is there any additional advantage of shunting the should be done to the shunt resistance ?
galvanometer ?
ou

The value of shunt resistance should be increased

ad

Yes, most of the current passes through the shunt and

Y

because we now want only a smaller current to pass

only a very small part of the current passes through
through the shunt.
the galvanometer. This prevents the galvanometer
nd
Re

from getting damaged due to excessive current. 44. Which will have a greater resistance - a milliameter
Fi

or an ammeter ?
36. Which material is used for making shunt resistance ?
Milliammeter.
Usually manganin.
37. Manganin has high specific resistance while copper
45. What is the minimum range of an ammeter into
has very low specific resistance. Should we not prefer which a given galvanometer can be converted ?
It is obvious from the formula
a shunt of copper than that of manganin ?
I,
Because of very low specific resistance, shunt of S = G
copper should be preferred. But copper has high I~I

temperature coefficient of resistance. Appreciable

that at the most the range (0- /) can be equal to I8
currents will change its resistance appreciably and so
the calibration of the instrument will not be reliable. because S cannot have a negative value.
Manganin is useful for the purpose because of its 46. If a shunt of resistance 0.001 n is cormected across a

very' small temperature coefficient of resistance. galvanometer, what can we say about the resistance
38. Once you know the value of the shunt resistance to be of the resulting ammeter ?
The effective resistance will be less than 0.001 Q.
connected, then in what form will you connect it ?
The shunt is taken in the form of a resistance wire of 47. What is the order of resistance of the ammeter you
suitable length and material and is connected across are using in the experiment ?
the galvanometer. 0.01 n.

79
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XH

48. What information we need to know about the so rapidly that it appears to be stationary at zero
galvanometer for converting it into an ammeter ? mark due to persistence of vision. So a dc ammeter
We need to know cannot be used for measuring alternating current.
(/) the resistance G of the galvanometer, and 58. What type of ammeters are used for measuring
alternating currents ?
(//) its figure of merit k.
The hot wire ammeters.
49. Why is an ammeter connected in series in a circuit ?
An ammeter is connected in series in a circuit so that
59. On what principle these ammeters are based ?
whole of the current, wliich it needs to measure, The hot wire ammeters are based on heating effect of
passes through it. current which depends on the square of current and
is thus independent of the direction of current.
50. Why should an ammeter have a low resistance ?
60. What is the difference between the scales of dc and ac
When a low resistance ammeter is connected in series
ammeters ?
in a circuit, its insertion does not affect the total
resistance and hence the current in the circuit which Tlie scale of dc ammeter is linear and so its divisions

the ammeter reads is nearly the actual value of current. are of equal size but the scale of an ac ammeter is
51. What is the resistance or an ideal ammeter ?
squared one (as heat produced, H x I^) and so the
Zero.
spacing between the scale divisions goes on
increasing from the zero end towards the other end.
52.
What happens when an ammeter is placed in parallel 61. The magnitudes of an alternating current continues
with a circuit ?
to change. Then what value of an alternating current
An ammeter is a low resistance device. When it is is read by an ac ammeter ?
placed in parallel with a circuit, the resistance An ac ammeter reads the root nitim square value of the
decreases and current in the circuit increases to a
alternating current which is times the peak or
large extent. Moreover, it measures the current V2
flowing through it only and not the current flowing maximum value of the alternating current.
in the circuit.
62. What is meant by the rms or effective value of an
53. When an ammeter is put in a circuit, does it read alternating current ?
slightly less or more than the actual current in the
circuit ? Give reason. The rms or effective value of an altemating current is
that magnitude of direct current which produces the
An ammeter reads slightly less than the actual same heating effect in a given resistance as the given
current. It has a small resistance. When it is connected
alternating current.
in a circuit, it decreases the current slightly. 63.
Can an ac or hot wire ammeter be used for measuring
54. The zero mark of the ammeter is at one end. Can't we direct current ?
have it in the middle ?
Yes.
We can easily have the zero mark in the middle. In 64. If S « G, then what is the order of resistance of the
fact, in that case we need not to bother about the
converted galvanometer ?
choice of the terminals. But by doing so, the range of GS
the ammeter is reduced to one-half.
—.
G+S For S«C, Rfy-S.
55. Can we increase/decrease the range of an ammeter ?
We can only increase the range of an ammeter by D. Conversion of a Galvanometer into a Voltmeter
connecting a suitable resistance in parallel with the 65. Why is a voltmeter named so ?
ammeter. We cannot decrease the range of an A voltmeter is named so because it is a volt-meter i.e.,
ammeter because for / < I^, the value of shunt it measures volts.
resistance becomes negative.
56. Why should an ammeter have a large current 66. Why should the resistance of a voltmeter be high ?
carrying capacity ? A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the
Due to large current carrying capacity, an ammeter is
component across which the p.d. is required to be
measured. The high resistance voltmeter will draw
not damaged by excessive currents.
very small current from the main circuit and the p.d.
57. Can a dc ammeter be used for measuring alternating across that component will be least affected.
current ?
67. What is the resistance of an ideal voltmeter ?
No, the direction of the alternating current changes To measure the exact value of p.d., an ideal voltmeter
very rapidly. The coil oscillates about the zero mark must have infinite resistance.

80
i
 Chopfer 6 : GALVANOMETER, AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

68. An ideal voltmeter should have infinite resistance. 75. Can we increase/decrease the range of a voltmeter ?
Do we have such a voltmeter in practice ? Yes. The range of a voltmeter can be increased by
Yes, an electronic voltmeter VTVM (Vacuum Tube connecting a suitable resistance in series with it. Its
Voltmeter) has a high resistance of mega ohm (MQ). range can be decreased by connecting a suitable
69. How is a galvanometer connected into a voltmeter ? resistance in parallel with it.
A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter of One voltmeter has a resistance 0 to 2,000 fl and
given range by connecting a high resistance in series another voltmeter has a resistance of 6,000 fl. Which
with the galvanometer. The value of the series of the two you will prefer to measure a p.d. across
a
resistance R is given by resistance of 1,000 O.
V V The voltmeter of resistance 6,000 Q should be
= J, or R=—-G
R + G I preferred which draws very small current as
compared to the voltmeter of resistance 2,000
where G is the galvanometer resistance, 1^ its full when connected across the 1,000 Q resistance.
scale deflection current and V, the range of voltmeter
to be made.
77. A galvanometer is first converted into a voltmeter of
range 0-3 V and then into a voltmeter of range 0^ V.
70. If a series resistance of 5,000 D is connected in series In which case the resistance will be higher one ?
with a galvanometer, what can you say about the The voltmeter with range 0-6 V will have a higher
resistance of the resulting voltmeter ?

w
resistance. This is because a higher range voltmeter
The resistance of the voltmeter so formed will be requires a higher resistance to be put in series with
more than 5,000 Q. the galvanometer.
71. What precautions do we observe while connecting a
Flo 73, How can we convert a voltmeter into millivoltmeter ?

ee
voltmeter in a circuit ?
By suitably decreasing the resistance connected in
(/) Voltmeter should always be connected in
parallel with that circuit element across which
Fr
series with the galvanometer.
79. When a voltmeter is put across a part of the circuit,
for
ur
the p.d. is to be measured, does it read slightly less or more than the actual
(li) Its range should be slightly more than the p.d. to voltage drop'across that part ? Give reason.
ks

be measured.
Voltmeter reads slightly less than the actual voltage
Yo
oo

(Hi) The positive terminal of the voltmeter should drop. When it is connected across a part of the circuit,
B

always be connected to the positive terminal of it draws same current from that part. As a result,
re

the battery. potential drop across that part decreases.

72. Why should a voltmeter be connected in parallel gO. Which one has the lowest and which one has the
ou
ad

across a component of the circuit ? highest resistance : an ammeter, a voltmeter or a

Y

A voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer. When galvanometer ?

it is connected in parallel across any component of
nd

Ammeter has the lowest resistance and voltmeter has

Re

the circuit, a very small current passes through it and the highest resistance. Since an ammeter is obtained
Fi

most of the current passes through that component. by connecting a small resistance in parallel with the
Hence potential difference across that component is not galvanometer, its effective resistance is less than that
affected appreciably. Voltmeter reads nearly the actual of the galvanometer. The voltmeter is obtained by
value of potential difference across that component, connecting a high resistance in series with the
73. What happens when a voltmeter is connected in galvanometer, so its resistance is higher than that of
series in a circuit ? the galvanometer.
A voltmeter is a high resistance device, when it is 81. Which of the two, a voltmeter or a millivoltmeter
connected in series with a circuit, the resistance of the converted from the same galvanometer, has a higher
circuit becomes very high and the current in the resistance and why ?
circuit reduces to very small value. So voltmeter will Voltmeter has a higher resistance because it requires
not measure the actual value of the potential difference. a larger resistance to be put in series with the
74. Why should a voltmeter have a low current-carrying galvanometer than the millivoltmeter.
capacity ? 82. Can a d.c. voltmeter measure alternating voltages ?
Due to low current-carrying capacity, the voltmeter No, the average value of alternating voltage over a
will draw only a small part of the total current. The cycle is zero. So, a d.c. voltmeter will show zero
potential difference (V = Rl) to be measured will not reading with alternating voltage.
be much different from the actual value.

81
 chapter

Frequency
OF A.C. Mains

Formation of Stationary Waves in Laws of Vibrations of Stretched Strings

Stretched Strings
The fundamental frequency of vibration of a
On a stretched string, transverse stationary waves stretched string fixed at both ends is
are formed due to superposition of direct and reflected 1 ff _J_ [T
waves. Consider a string of length I, stretched under 2l\rti Idv Kp
tension T. Let m be the mass per unit length of the
string. Speed of transverse waves on the string will be where p is the density and d is the diameter of the
r string.
V =
m The above equation gives the following laws of
First three normal modes of vibration of a stretched vibrations of strings :
1
string are shown in Fig. 7.1. There is a node at each of 1. Law of length. For constant T and m, v oc
/
the two fixed ends.

2. Law of tension. For constant 1 and m, v oc -JT.

1
3. Law of mass. For constant 1 and T, v oc
Vw
1
4. Law of diameter. For constant T, / and p, v oc —
^ d

5. Law of density. For constant T, I and d, v oc

Alternating Current
An alternating current is that current whose magnitude
Fig. 7.1 Normal modes of vibrations of a stretched string. changes cojitinuouslx/ zoith time and direction reverses
V 1 IT
periodically. In contrast to it, a direct current is that current
For fundamental mode: =21, v 1 “ — =v (say) which flows with a constant magnitude in the same
X1 21 V m
direction, as shown in Fig. 7.2.
For second mode:
X^=l, V2 = 2v I

This frequency is called second harmonicor first overtone Direct current

21
For third mode:
^3 ~ 3' V3 =3v
●Alternating current
I,
This ft-equency is called third harmonicor second overtone
T
For pth mode : When string vibrates in p modes, 0
T
P 2
''p^ = 21 \ ~
m = P'^ -1 0 r

This frequency is called pthharmonicor (p-l)th overtone Fig. 7.2 Alternating and direct currents.

S2

i.
 Chapter 7 ; FREQUENCY OF A.C. MAINS

The value of a.c. at any i.istant t is given by A solenoid having a large number of turns of insulated
I - Iq sin (ot = fp sin2 n/t copper wire and carrying a soft iron core along its axis
is clamped near the middle of the segment of the wire
where Iq is the peak value and f is the frequency of a.c.
between the two bridges. The free end of tlie wire carries
Amplitude. The maximum value attained hy an a hanger on to which slotted weights can be slipped.
alternating current in either direction is called its amplitude
A step-down transformer is used to supply 6 V a.c. to
or peak value
the electromagnet.
Time period. The time taken by an alternating current When an alternating current is passed through the
to complete one cycle of its variations is called its time period coil of the electromagnet, its core is temporarily magne
(T). It is equal to the time taken by the coil of a.c. gene tised twice during each cycle of a.c. In one half cycle of
rator to complete one rotation in the magnetic field. a.c., north polarity is developed at the lower face of the
Angular displacementin one completecycle core and in other half cycle, south polarity is developed.
Time period -
Angular velocity Whatever is the nature of the polarity of the electro
2n magnet, the iron wire is always attracted towards it. So
or T=--
0) in each cycle of a.c., the wire is pulled and released
Frequency. The number of cycles completed per second twice. If the length / and tension T in the wire are so

w
by an alternating curreiit is called its frequency (/). The adjusted that the wire is set into resonant vibrations by
frequency of a.c. is same as the frequency of rotation of the a.c., then the frequency of vibration v of the wire
the coil of generator in the magnetic field. Flo will be twice the frequency / of a.c. Therefore,

ee
The alternating current supplied to our homes from
the mains has a frequency of 50 cps or 50 Hz.
Fr
But the frequency of the fundamental mode of
IQ Theory for finding Frequency of A.C. Mains
for
vibration of the string of length I, mass per unit length
ur
m and stretched under tension T is given by
using a Sonometer and an Electromagnet
ks

1 ff
Yo
oo

As shown in Fig. 7.3, the apparatus consists of a 2l\m

sono- meter over which a soft iron wire is stretched.
B

1 T
Frequency of a.c. mains, /= —
re

41 \m
Step-down
ou

transformer
ad

ff
Y

. o
nd
Re

Electromagnet—► »6Va.c. o
9
220 V a.c.
Fi

Wedge A Wedge B

eg—7^
2)jPulley P
Wires
G
IT7T1
— Soft iron
o o wire

r r ry Hanger
H

EF

Slotted
weights

Fig. 7.3 Experimental setup for finding frequency of a.c. mains using a sonometer and an electromagnet.
83

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII
—-1

EXPERIMENT

Aim

To the frequency ofa.c. mains using a sonometer and an electromagnet

Apparatus and Material Required

A sonometer with a soft iron wire stretched over it, two sharp edge wedges, an electromagnet, a
step-down transformer {220 V - 6 V), slotted ^ kg weights with hanger, a clamp stand, a physical
balance and weight box with fractional weights.
Working Formulae

1. The frequency of fundamental mode of a wire of length /, mass per unit length m and stretched
under tension T is given by
= 11
2l\m

2. If this wire vibrates in resonance with an electromagnet fed with a.c. of frequency /, then
y _ J_ /T
^ ~2 "4/Vm
Experimental Setup

See Fig. 7.3

Procedure

1. As shown in Fig. 7.3, place the sonometer on table with its pulley end projecting slightly
outside the edge of the table so that the hanger suspends freely without touching the table.
2. Check that the pulley is frictionless, if necessary oil it.
3. Place the wedges below the wire close to each other and in the middle of the wire. Add 1 kg
weights to the hanger to keep the wire taut.
4. Clamp the electromagnet in a stand and connect it to the secondary of the step-down trans
former. Adjust its position, such that its lower pole lies close to the middle of the sonometer wire.
5. Switch on the a.c. supply. The portion of the wire between the wedges begins to vibrate.
6. Start increasing the separation between the wedges slowly till the wire begins to vibrate with
maximum amplitude. This resonance position can be checked even by naked eyes.
7. Note the total mass (M = weight of hanger + slotted weights on it) in the hanger and also the
length of wire ABbetween the two wedges. Record this length f in the column of increasing length.
8. Now increase the separation between the two wedges by 2 to 3 cm. Start decreasing this
separation slowly till the wire AB begins to vibrate with maximum amplitude. Note this
resonance length I2 in the column of decreasing length. Find the mean of and
9.
Now increase the load in steps of ^ kg and each time find the vibrating length for maximum
amplitude both for increasing and decreasing values of /. Take at least three more such sets of
observations.

10. Switch off the a.c. supply and remove the electromagnet.
11. Take about 100 cm of the sonometer wire. Find its mass by a sensitive physical balance.
Calculate the mass per unit length, ni for the wire.

84

k
 Chopfer 7 : FREQUENCY OF A.C. MAINS

Observations and Calculations

Length of the wire, L= cm ; Mass of length Lof the wire, n/ = g

m -1

Mass per unit length of the wire, m = ^ Lj

gem

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 980 cm s ; Mass of the hanger = kg = S

Table 7.1 : Resonant lengths for different tensions in the wire

Resonant length of the sonometer wire for Frequency of
Load including vibration of wire
Tension in the wire Mean length
S. mass of
r = X 1000 X 980 increasing decreasing 1 17
length I = V = —
No. hanger M
(dyne) length I ^ 2 2Hm
(kg) (cm) (cm)
(cm) (Hz)
1.

2.

w
3.
V
Hz
Mean frequency v = Hz;
Frequency of a.c. mains, / “ 2 ~
Flo
ee
Result

Frequency a.c. mains using sonometer and electromagnet, / Fr Hz

for
ur
Standard frequency of a.c. mains =50 Hz
/-50 xl00 %
ks

=
Percentage error =
Yo

50
oo

I Precautions
B

1. Sonometer wire should be of soft iron (magnetic material) and free from kinks.
re

2. Pulley should be as frictionless as possible.

ou
ad

3. Tip of the electromagnetic pole should be close to the middle of the sonometer wire.
Y

4. The wedges used should have sharp edges and sufficient height to provide good support to
nd
Re

the sonometer wire.

Fi

5. After taking each set of observations, the circuit should

be switched off for a few minutes.
6. Resonant length for each value of tension should be observed both for increasing and
decreasing separations between the wedges.
7. While calculating tension (T = Mg) in the wire, weight of hanger must be added to the slotted
weights.
8. The tension in the wire should not exceed its elastic limit.

Q Sources of error

1. The sonometer wire may not be of uniform area of cross-secHon and composition.
2. Some friction may be present at the pulley. In that case, the actual value of tension in the
wire will be less than the applied tension.
3. Frequency of a.c. mains may not be stable.
T .
4. The frequency relation, v=^21 V m — IS derived under the assumption that the wire is perfectly
flexible. Due to stiffness in the experimental wire, some error may creep in the result.
85

d
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

El Theory for finding Frequency of A.C Mains a.c., the wire will move upwards and in other half
using a Sonometer and a Horse-Shoe Maget cycle, the wire will move downwards. So the wire will
receive impulses alternately in opposite directions at
As shown in Fig. 7.4, the apparatus consists of the frequency of applied a.c. Consequently, the wire is
sonometer over which a brass wire is stretched. A set into forced oscillations with the frequency of a.c.
horse- shoe magnet is mounted vertically near the mains.

middle of the sonometer wire so that the wire passes If the length I of the wire between the bridges and
freely in between the poles of the magnet and a tension T in the wire are so adjusted that the
horizontal magnetic field acts perpendicular to the fundamental frequency v of the wire equals the
wire. Using a step-down transformer, a 6 V a.c. is frequency of a.c., tlien the wire v/ill vibrate in resonance
applied between the ends of the sonometer wire. with a large amplitude.
As the alternating current flows through the Thus, the frequency a.c. mains will be
sonometer wire, there is an interaction between the
magnetic field and the current in the wire both of
which are perpendicular to each other. As a result, the
'■"hi
wire is deflected, the direction of deflection being where m is the mass per unit length of the
given by Fleming's left hand rule. In one half cycle of sonometer wire.

220 V a.c.

Step-down - ^QQQQOO
transformer nm\
6 V a.c.

Wedge A Wedge 6

’eg —
2 Pulley P
Wires
G
'N
2^ ZEI 'JSL
/ *— Brass wire
o o

r r A Hanger
H

UF
3^ .
Slotted
weights

Fig. 7.4 Experimental setup for finding frequency of a.c. mains using a sonometer and a horse-show magnet.

86
V
 Chopt9r 7.: FREQUENCY OF A.C. MAINS

EXPERIMENT \\0{h)
< Aim

To find the frequency of a.c. mains using a sonometer and a horseshoe magnet

I Apparatus and Material Required

A sonometer with a brass wire (or constantan or manganin wire), a horse-shoe magnet (or two
strong bar magnets of equal pole strengths), a step-down transformer (220 V - 6 V), slotted — kg
weights with hanger, a physical balance, a weight box with fractional weights.
I Working Formuue
1. The frequency of fundamental mode of a wire of length i, mass per unit length mand stretched
under tension T is given by
1 T

w
2/Vm

2. If the wire is held between tlie poles of a horse-shoe magnet and a.c. of frequency / is passed through
Flo
it, then the wire vibrates due to interaction between perpendicular magnetic field and the current
in the wire. Resonance occurs when the natural frequency v of the wire equals the frequency / of a.c.

ee
Therefore, Fr
for
ur
I Experimental Set Up
ks

See Fig. 7.4 on page 86.

Yo
oo

I Procedure
B

1. As shown in Fig. 7.4, place the sonometer on the table with its pulley end projecting, slightly
re

outside the edge of the table so that the hanger suspends freely without touching the table.
ou
ad

2. Check that the pulley is frictionless, if necessary oil it.

Y

the middle of the wire. Add 1 kg

3. Place the wedges below the wire dose to each other and in
nd

weights to the hanger to keep the wire taut.

Re

Mount the permanent horse shoe magnet vertically near the middle of the sonometer wire such
Fi

4.

that wire passes freely between the poles N and S of the magnet and the magnetic field acts
perpendicular to the length of the wire.
5. Connect the two ends of the sonometer wire to the secondary of the step-down transformer
(200 V - 6 V). Switch on the a.c. supply. The portion of the wire between the wedges begins to
and the alternating current in the wire,
vibrate due to interaction between the magnetic field
6. Start increasing the separation between the edges slowly till the wire begins to vibrate with
w

maximum amplitude. This resonance position be checked even by naked eyes.

can

7. Note the total mass (M = weight of hanger + slotted weights on it) in the hanger and also the len^
of the wire ABbetween the wedges. Recorded this length f in the column of increasing length.
8. Now increase tlie separation between the wedges by 2 to 3 cm. Start decreasing this separation
till the wire AB begins to vibrate with maximum amplitude. Note this length in the column of
decreasing length. Find the mean of1 f and l2-
9. Now increase Bre load in steps of ikg and each time find the vibrating length for maximum
amplitude both for increasing and decreasing values of /. Take at least three more such sets of
observations.

87
 LAB MANUAL PHYSiCS-XII

10. Switch off the a.c. supply and remove the step-down transformer and the horse-shoe magnet.
11. Take about 100 cm of the sonometer wire. Find its mass by a sensitive physical balance.
Calculate the mass per unit length, m for the wire.

I Observations and Calculations

Length of the wire, L = cm ; Mass of length Lof the wire, = g
-1
Mass per unit length of the wire, m = — = -gcni

Acceleration due to gravity, ^ = 980 cms“^ ; Mass of the hanger = kg = g

Table 7.2 : Resonant lengths for different tensions in the wire

Load including Resonant length of the sonometer wire for Frequency of

S. Tension in the wire
mass of vibration of wire
r = ilfx 1000x980 increasing decreasing Mean length
No. hanger M L +L
(dyne) length /j length ij I =
Jy-?- (cm)
V =
(kg) (cm) (cm) 21 Vm ^ ’
1.

2.

3.

Mean frequency v = -Hz ; Frequency of a.c. mains, / = v = Hz.

Result

Frequency a.c. mains using sonometer and horse-shoe magnet, / Hz

Standard frequency of a.c. mains = 50 Hz

/-50 xl00
Percentage error = = o/
/o
50

Precautions

1.
The material of the sonometer wire should be brass (non-magnetic)/constantan/manganin.
2. The wire should be of uniform area of cross-section and free from kinks.
3. Pulley should be as frictionless as possible.
4.
The wedges used should have sharp edges and sufficient height to provide good support to
the sonometer wire.
5.
The horse-shoe magnet should be placed vertically near the middle of the wire with its face
normal to the length of the wire.
6. After taking each set of observations, the circuit should be switched off for a few minutes.
7. Resonant length for each value of tension should be observed for both increasing and
decreasing separations between the wedges.
8.
While calculating tension (T = mg) in the wire, weight of the hanger must be added to the
slotted weights.
9. The tension in the wire should not exceed its elastic limit.

^URCES OF Error
1. The sonometer wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section and composition.
2. Some friction may be present at the pulley. In that case, the actual value of tension in the
wire will be less than the applied tension.

88
 Chopper 7 : FREQUENCY OF A.C. MAINS

3. Frequency of a.c. mains may not be Stable.

1 IT
4. The frequency relation. — is derived under the assumption that the wire is perfectly
2/Vm
flexible. Due to stiffness in the experimental wire, some error may creep in the result.

VIVA VOCE

A. Alternating Current and Electromagnets The sharp edges reflect the transverse waves. Due to
reflection of incident and reflected wave transverse
1. What is an alternating current ?
stationary waves are formed.
It is that current whose magnitude changes conti 11. What is the fundamental mode of vibration of a
nuously with time and direction reverses periodically. stretched wire ?
2. What is direct current ?
When the segment of the stretched wire between the
It is that current which flows with constant
wedges vibrate in one loop, it is the fundamental
magnitude in the same direction. mode of vibration of the wire.
3. What do you mean by frequency of a.c. ?

w
12. State the formula for the frequency of fundamental
The total number of cycles completed per second by mode of vibration of stretched wire.
an alternating is called its frequency.
4, What is the frequency of a.c. mains supplied to our
FloV =
2/Vm

ee
houses ?
Here T is the tension, iii is the per unit length and / is
50 Hz.

5. How many times does the current from a.c. mains

Fr
the length of the wire between the two wedges.
for
13, What are the positions of nodes and antinodes in the
ur
become zero in one second ?
fundamental mode of vibration ?
In each cycle, current becomes zero twice. So in
ks

Nodes at the wedges and antinode at the middle of

Yo

50 cycles or in one second, current becomes zero wire between the wedges.
oo

100 times.
14. How much the separation between two successive
B

6. What is an electromagnet ? nodes or antinodes ?

re

An electromagnet is a temporary magnet consisting X/Z

ou

of a soft iron core placed inside a solenoid. It behaves

ad

like a strong magnet when current flows tlirough the

15. How much is the separation between a node and
Y

nearest antinode ?
solenoid and loses its magnetism when the current is
nd

X/4.
Re

switched off.

7. On what factors does the strength of an electro 16. What is the nature of the material of the wire in the
Fi

magnet depend ? experiment with electromagnet ?

Soft iron.
The strength of an electromagnet depends on
(i) number of turns in the solenoid, (ii) strength of 17, Why do we use soft iron wire in this experiment ?
current, and (iii) nature of the core material. Soft iron wire get easily attracted by the magnetic
8. How is frequency of magnetisation of electromagnet field of the electromagnet.
related to the frequency of applied a.c. ? 18. Can we use brass wire in the experiment with
It is twice the frequency of applied a.c. The electromagnet?
electromagnet get magnetised in one direction in first No, brass is non-magnetic. It will not be attracted by
half cycle and in opposite direction in the second half the magnetic field of the electromagnet and so it will
cycle of a.c. not vibrate.

B. Sonometer and Electromagnet Experiment 19. How are the frequency of vibration of the sonometer
wire and the frequency of applied a.c. related ?
9. What types of waves are formed in the sonometer
wire ? As the wire is twice attracted and released in each
cycle of a.c., so the frequency of vibration of the wire
Transverse stationary waves.
is twice that of the applied a.c.
10. What is the function of sharp wedges placed under
the wire ?

89

J
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

20. How does the sonometer wire vibrate when a.c. from Tlie horse-shoe magnet should be placed vertically in
the step do\vn transformer is passed through the between the two wedges so that wire passes freely
electromagnetplaced near it ? between its poles and face of the magnet is
When a.c. is passed through the coil of the perpendicular to the wire.
electromagnet, its pole near the sonometer wire 29. Can we take two bar magnets in place of a horse-shoe
develops alternately north and south polarities after magnet ?
every half cycle of a.c. In each cj'cle of a.c., the wire is Yes, by placing two strong bar magnets
twice attracted and released by the field of the
perpendicular to the wire (one each on either side of
electromagnet and is so set into vibrations.
the wire) with their opposite poles facing each other.
30. How can we find frequency of a.c. mains by using
21. What is the formula for the frequency of a.c. mains in sonometer and a horse-shoe magnet ?
the experiment with the electromagnet ?
1 T
By using a step-down transformer, we pass 6 V a.c.
between the ends of the sonometer wire. The wire
' 2 4/ V m
passes in between the poles of a horse-shoe magnet.
22. Why do we start sliding wedges from the minimum By adjusting the distance between the wedges,
length of the wire ? resonant length is obtained from which frequency of
a.c. can be determined.
This will ensure that the wire starts vibrating in the
fundamental mode or single loop for which the 31. What makes the wire vibrate in the experiment with
resonant length is minimum. horse-shoe magnet ?
23. How should we clamp the electromagnet in this The current-carrying wire placed in the perpen
experiment ? dicular field of the horse-shoe magnet experiences a
Tip of the electromagnetic pole should be dose to force as per Fleming's left hand rule. As the current is
middle of the sonometer wire between the wedges. of alternating nature, the force on the wire is
24. Why should the position of the electromagnetic pole oscillating in nature and the wire begins to vibrate.
be close to the middle of the wire ? 32. State Fleming's left hand rule.
When the wire vibrates in fundamental mode, an Stretch the thumb and first two fingers of the left
antinode is situated at its middle point and close to hand mutually perpendicular to each other. If the
this point we place the core so that it applies forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic
maximum pull on the wire. field, central finger in the direction of current in the
25. How do we check the ersonance position in this conductor, then the thumb points in the direction of
experiment? force acting on the conductor.
33. How are the frequency of vibration of the sonometer
When the electromagnetic core lies close to the
middle of the wire, the wire should vibrate with
wire and the frequency of applied a.c. related in the
experiment with horse-shoe magnet ?
maximum amplitude. This resonance position can be
Frequency of vibration of the stretched wire is equal
checked even with naked eyes. to the frequency of applied a.c.
26. What is the main source of error in the experiment 34. What is the formula for the frequency of a.c. mains In
with electromagnet ?
the experiment with horse-shoe magnet ?
Friction at the pulley is the main source of error in 1 IT
/=v =
this experiment. Due to this the value of tension 21 hn
acting on the wire is less than the applied force. 35. What type of sonometer wire is used in the
Consequently, the calculated value of the frequency experiment with horse-shoe magnet ?
will be less than the actual frequency, because v qc VT. Brass wire (non-magnetic)/constantan or manganin
27. Why should the wedges have sharp edges ? wire.

Otherwise the positions of the nodes cannot be 36. Can we use soft iron wire in the experiment with
determined accurately. horse-shoe magnet ?
No, soft iron wire gets attracted permanently by the
C. Sonometer and Horse-Shoe Experiment magnet and the wire does not vibrate.

28. How should a horse-shoe magnet be positioned for

finding frequency of a.c. mains with sonometer ?

90
 Section A : Activities

ACTIVITY A1

a Aim
To measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with or without iron core.

I Apparatus and Material Required

An inductor coil (of diameter about 2 cm and 2000 turns), a soft iron core (cylindrical rod of

w
diameter about 1.75 cm and length equal to that of the inductor), a resistance box (0 to 10 kQ), a
battery eliminator (0-2-4-6 volt), a stepdown transformer with tapings (0-2-4-6 volt, 50 Hz),
dc milliammeter (0-500 mA), dc voltmeter (0-5 V), ac milliammeter (0-500 mA), ac voltmeter
(0-5 V), one-way key and connecting wires.
Flo
ee
I Theory Fr
In a dc circuit, a pure inductor should not have any resistance. However, a real inductor always
for
ur
offers some resistance due to its copper windings.
ks

In an ac circuit, an inductor offers both resistance and reactance and the total effective resistance
Yo
oo

is called impedance.
B

Inductance reactance. =(£>L=2nfL

re

Z = ^R^+xl
ou
ad

Impedance,
Y

When a soft iron core of relative permeability p ^ is inserted inside the inductor; its inductance,
nd

reactance and impedance will change as follows :

Re
Fi

Inductance, L'=p^L
Inductive reactance, X[ =(oL'=2ti/L'

Impedance, Z' = ^R~ + X

i2
L

So with the insertion of soft iron, the impedance Z changes considerably.

I Formulae Used

1. Resistance of the inductor without soft iron core.

R = -
Direct voltage across the inductor without iron core
I Direct current through the inductor without iron core
2. Resistance of the inductor with soft iron core.

R' = —
1/ Direct voltage across the inductor with iron core
I Direct current through the inductor with iron core

91

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSIC5-X1I

3. Impedance of the inductor without soft iron core,

z=
Alternating voltage across the inductor without iron core
ac

I Alternating current through the inductor without iron core

ac

4. Impedance of the inductor with soft iron core.

V'ac Alternating voltage across the inductor with iron core
Z' =
ac Alternating current through the inductor with iron core

Circuit Diagrams

mA K mA
Stepdown
transformer
i-} e
o
+
Inductor § ^
o
Inductor® /y. g Secondary (air core) g C'
ac mains
(air core) g kJ ^ o

^●0-6 V
e o

<—m] or}
/< R

(«)
mA K mA

7(t> Stepdown e
I
transformer

K'2
Inductor + Inductor

(soft iron 0V ac mams 5 o Secondary

z>
(soft iron
core)
Ov
core) c
7 0-6 V

om rrn
R
f
R

{b) (.b)

Fig. 1 Inductor in a dc circuit: measurement of Fig. 2 Inductor in an ac circuit: measurement of

resistance with (o) air core (ir) soft iron core. impedance with (a) air core (b) soft iron core.

I Procedure

To measure resistance of inductor without iron core

1. Arrange the apparatus as per Fig. l(fl) and make the cormections accordingly keeping the
key K open. See that the dc milliammeter and the battery eliminator are in series with the
inductor while the dc voltmeter is in parallel it.
2. Set the battery eliminator to the lowest voltage (2 V) and switch on the eliminator. Put the
plug in the key K. Adjust the value of resistance R from the resistance box so that the
readings are within scale. Note the readings of the dc voltmeter and dc milliammeter.
3. Take two more sets of readings by adjusting battery eliminator at 4 V and 6 V in succession.
To measure resistance of inductor with soft iron core

4. Switch off the battery eliminator and remove the plug from the key K Insert the soft iron
core in the inductor coil so that it fully lies inside the coil, as shown in Fig. 1(b).
5. Repeat the steps 2 and 3 and record the readings of dc current and dc voltage across the
inductor.

92
 Section A : ACTIVITIES

To measure impedance of inductor without iron core

6. As shown in Fig. 2(n), connect the stepdown transformer with tappings (0-2-4-6 volt), ac
voltmeter (0-5 V) and ac milliammeter (0-500 mA). See that the ac voltmeter is connected in
parallel with the inductor, while the secondary of the stepdown transformer and the
ac

milliammeter are connected in series with it. Preferably, use PVC coated flexible wires here.
7. Connect the primary of the transformer to the ac mains. Select an output voltage of 2 V from
the transformer and insert the plug in the key K. Adjust the resistance R so that readings are
within scale. Note the readings of ac voltmeter and ac milliammeter.
8. Take two more sets of readings by adjusting the output voltage of the transformer at 4 V and
6 V in succession.

To measure impedance of inductor with soft iron core

9. Switch off the transformer and remove the plug from the key K. Insert the soft iron core in the
inductor coil so that it fully lies inside the coil, as shown in Fig. 2(b).
10. Repeat the steps 7 and 8 and record the readings of ac current and ac voltage across the inductor.

w
I Observations and Calculations
A. For measurement of resistance of the inductor without and with soft iron core
Flo Least count of dc voltmeter = V
Range of dc voltmeter = 0 to V ;

ee
Least count of dc milliammeter = mA
Range of dc milliammeter = 0 to mA ;

Table A1 : To measure resistance of the inductor

Fr
for
ur
Without iron core With iron core
ks

V V
Yo

Setting of R=- Voltage V Current V R' = —

oo

S.No. Voltage V Current I r

battery eliminator I
(V) (mA)
(V) (mA)
B

M M
re

1. 2 V
ou
ad

2. 4 V
Y

3. 6 V

Mean value of resistance without iron core, R = Q

nd
Re

Mean value of resistance with iron core, R' =

Fi

B. For measurement of impedance without and with soft iron core

Least count of ac voltmeter = V

Range of ac voltmeter = 0 to V ;
Least count of ac milliammeter = mA
Range of ac milliammeter = 0 to mA;

Table A2 : To measure impedance of the inductor

Without iron core With iron core
v:ac
Output of V
ac Z' =
Z = Current Hac
S.No. stepdown Voltage Vac Current I ac
I
Voltage V'ac r.ac
transformer
(V) (mA)
ac
(V) (mA)
M M
1. 2 V

2. 4 V

3. 6 V

Q
Mean value of impedance without iron core, Z =
Mean value of impedance with iron core, Z' = n

93

I
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Result

1. Resistance of the inductor without iron core, R = a

2. Resistance of the inductor with iron core, R' = n

3. Impedance of the inductor without iron core, Z = Q

4. Impedance of the inductor with iron core, Z' = a

Conclusions
1. The dc resistance of the inductor is same both with and without the soft iron core.
2. In case of ac circuit, the insertion of the soft iron core in the inductor increases the impedance Z
many fold.

Precautions

1. The inductor coil should have a large number of turns of thin copper wire so that it may
have appreciable resistance.
2. Voltmeter and ammeter should have appropriate ranges and small least counts for both dc and
ac circuits.

3. Ammeter should be connected in series with the coil and voltmeter in parallel with it.
4. Ends of the connecting wires must be cleaned properly with sand paper.
5. Zero errors of voltmeter and ammeter, if any, must be eliminated by adjusdng the pointer
with the help of screw provided at the front panel.
6. Iron core should be inserted completely within the coil.
7. Current through the inductor coil should be passed only while taking the observations.
8. In case of ac circuit, PVC coated flexible wires should be used.

^URCES OF Error
1. The soft iron core may not completely lie inside the inductor coil.
2. The least counts of ac milliammeter and ac voltmeter may not be small enough to accurately
record the small difference in impedance on inserting the iron core.

VIVA VOCE

1. What difference do you observ-e in dc and ac 4. An inductor coil is connected to a dc source. What
ammeters artd voltmeters ? will be the effect on the resistance of the coil on
In case of dc ammeters and voltmeters, deflection introduction of iron core inside it ? Give reason.
« current. So the divisions marked on their scales are There is no change in the resistance of the coil on

uniformly spaced. But ac ammeters and voltmeters introduction of iron core. This is because for a dc

are based on heating effect of current, heat produced source (/ = 0), inductive reactance Xj_ = 2nfL = 0
X
1^ (not proportional to /). So the divisions marked The effective resistance R remains unchanged.
on their scales are not uniformly spaced. 5. An inductor coil is connected to an ac source. What

2. What do you mean by impedanoe of a drcuit ? will be die effect on the impedanoe of the coil on

introduction of iron core inside it Give reason.

The total opposition to the flow of current due to
resistance Ras well as reactance X in a circuit is called
On introduction of iron core of relative permeability
p. inductance increases to L' = p
impedance.
Inductive reactance increases to = 2nfL' = p
z=^f¥T^ Impedance increases to
3. What is the SI unit of impedanoe 7
Ohm (Q).

94

i
 Sed/on A : ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY A2
8S
To measure resistance, voltage (ac/dc), current (ac) and check continuity of a given
circuit using multimeter.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

a battery eliminator with tappings of 2 V, 4 V
A multimeter with test leads, three carbon resistors,
and 6 V, a step-down transformer with output tappings of 6 V and 12 V, a resistance box, a metre
bridge, a plug key, a microammeter, connecting wires.
n
i Theory

w
MULTIMETER

A multimeter is a widely used electrical instrument designed to measure directly the currents,
Flo
potential differences or resistances over several ranges. It is also known as AVO (ampere, volt and

ee
ohm) meter.
Fr
Construction. A multimeter essentially consists of a sensitive moving coil galvanometer. The
galvanometer's dial is calibrated in several ranges of amperes, volts and ohms.
for
ur
ks
Yo

A830L
oo

nnn
B

uuu
re

i»ec
ou
ad
Y
nd
Re
Fi

1QA g COM j^VQmA .

Kg. 3 Analog multimeter Kg. 4 Digital multimeter

To use multimeter as an ammeter, shunt resistances of different values are connected in parallel
with the galvanometer coil, so as to give suitable values of current in pA, mA or A.
To use multimeter as a voltmeter, resistances of different values are connected in series with the
galvanometer coil, so as to give suitable values of potential differences in mV or V.
When the multimeter is set in resistance measuring mode, a battery of 3 V and a number of
resistors get automatically connected inside it. This battery sends current through the externally

95
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xil

connected resistor whose resistance is being measured. The coil of the multimeter shows a deflection
proportional to this direct current. The zeros of current and voltage scales are located on the extreme
left while the zero of resistance scale is located on the extreme right. This is because when the resistance
in the multimeter circuit is zero, current and hence deflection in the coil are maximum. The pointer
moves to the extreme irght where the zero of resistance scale is located. As the external resistance to
be measured increases, the current through the coil decreases and a smaller deflection is produced.
To make ac measurements with a multimeter, a junction diode rectifier is connected in the galvano
meter circuit. The rectifier converts ac into dc which produces a suitable deflection in the galvanometer.
Some multimeters have a single rotatory wafer switch which has enough wafers to select different
functions (ohmmeter, milliammeter, dc voltmeter or ac voltmeter) and the appropriate range for
each function. Some multimeters have two rotatory switches, one switch selects the meter function
and the other selects the range.
When the two probes of the multimeter are shorted, the multimeter should show zero resistance. If
it does not show tliis, its pointer is brought to zero by using 'zero Adj knob' on the multimeter.
indicate the resistance value of a carbon resistor and its
Colour Code of Resistors. A colour code is used to
percentage accuracy. The colour code used throughout the world is shown in Table A3.
Table A3 : Resistor colour code

Letter as an
Colour Number Multiplier Colour Tolerance
aid to memory
0
Black B 0 10 Gold 5%
j
Brown B 1 10 Silver 10%

Red R 2 10^ No fourtln band 20%

Orange O 3 10^
Yellow Y 4 10^

Green G 5 10^

Blue B 6 10^

Violet V 7 10'

Grey G 8 10'

White W 9 10®

How to remember colour code :

B B R O Y of Great Britain had Very Good Wife

4' 'I' >1'
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

A set of coloured co-axial irngs or bands is printed on the resistor which reveals the following facts:
1. The first band indicates the ifrst significant figure.
First significant figure
2. The second band indicates the second significant figure. — Second significant figure
3. The third band indicates the power of ten with which Decimal multiplier
the above two significant figures must be multiplied Tolerance

(nri
to get the resistance value in ohms.
4. The fourth band indicates the tolerance or possible
variation in percent of the indicated value. If the
fourth band is absent, it implies a tolerance of ±20%. Fig. 5
 Secf/on A ; ACTIVITIES

Illustration

In Fig. 6, the colours of the four bands are yellow, violet, brown and gold ; the resistance value is
Yellow Violet Brown Gold Violet Brown
4 ; i Yellow ~ —Gold

Oi
4 7 1 ±5%

I? = 47 X 10^ n ± 5%.

I Working Diagrams Fig. 6

Carbon resistor
6Vdc 6 V ac

OD
+
1

i i

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Black Red Red Black Black Red
probe probe probe probe probe probe

X Multimeter X X
Flo X X X

ee
leads

(fl) Multimeter as ohm meter (b) Multimeter as a dc voltmeter

Fr
(c) Multimeter as an ac voltmeter
for
ur
6 Vac I0ki2 Metre bridge
e R.B.
<
1 c ^
ks
Yo
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/)mA
B

A
re

Black Red
Open
probe probe
ou

key
ad

X X
+
Y

(d) Multimeter as an ac ammeter (e) Multimeter for checking continuity of a circuit

nd
Re

Fig. 7 Different uses of a multimeter.

Fi

I Procedure

(fl) Measurement of resistance

1. Mark the given carbon resistors as i?2 ^3-
2. Note the colours of 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th ring of each carbon resistor and record them in the
observation table.

3. Using the colour code table for carbon resistors, determine the values of R^, R2 and R^ in
ohms and write their tolerance limits.

4. To measure resistance with the multimeter, plug in the black and red probes in common (-)
and positive (+) terminals respectively. Set the multimeter in resistance mode and select an
appropriate range. Directly touch the metallic ends of the two probes and adjust the zero
adjustment knob so that the meter shows full scale deflection and reads zero ohm.

NOTE Tlie zero adjustment has to be made each time when we select a resistance scale of
different range.
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XIl

5. Separate the ends of the probes and connect them to the two ends of the carbon resistor as
shown in Fig. 7{a). Note the reading of the pointer on the resistance scale. In case the reading is
too small, do the activity again by choosing a resistance scale of smaller range.
6. Repeat step 5 for the measurement of resistances Rj ^3- I^^cord the observations in a
tabular form,

(i?) Measurement of dc voltage

7. Take a battery eliminator having variable dc output in steps of 2 V.
8. Set the selector switch of the multimeter to measure dc voltage. Select a range of 0-10 V.
9. Insert the black probe in common (-) socket and red probe in positive (+) socket of the multimeter.
10. Switch on the battery eliminator and set its tapping at the minimum value, say 2 V.
11. Touch and press the metallic end of the red probe with the positive terminal of the battery
eliminator and that of black probe with its negative terminal. Note the reading.
12. Repeat steps 10 and 11 for tappings of 4 V and 6 V of the battery eliminator and note the
reading for dc voltage in each case,
(c) Measurement of ac voltage
13. Take a step-down transformer having tappings of 6 V and 12 V.
14. Select the selector switch of the multimeter to measure ac voltage. Select a range of 0-10 V.

15. Insert the black probe in common (-) socket and red probe in positive (+) socket of the multimeter.
16. Energise the transformer by connecting its input leads to ac mains. Select an output voltage of
6 V on it. Connect the leads of the multimeter to the output terminals of the transformer. Note
the ac voltage on the multimeter scale.
17. Repeat the activity selecting a range of 0-50 V on the multimeter and setting the output of the
step-down transformer at 12 V. Record the observations in a tabular form.
(d) Measurement of ac current
18. Take a step-down transformer with its tapping at 6 V.
19. Select the switch of the multimeter to measure ac current, and select a range of 0-250 mA.

20. Insert the black probe in common (-) socket and red probe in positive (+) socket of the multimeter.
21. Energise the transformer and connect the transformer, a resistance box and the multimeter in series.
Introduce a resistance of 6 kO from the resistance box and note the current in the multimeter.

22. Repeat the activity for resistances of 8 kQ and 10 kQ from the resistance box and record the
values of current on the multimeter scale.

(e) To check continuity of metre bridge circuit

23. Insert the black probe in common (-) socket and red probe in red (+) socket.
24. Set the multimeter in resistance mode and select a range of MH. The cell within the multimeter
automatically gets connected.
25. Set up an electrical circuit consisting of a metre bridge, an auxiliary battery, a resistance R, a
microammeter, and a plug key K.
26. Keeping the plug out of the key K, touch and press the metallic ends of the two probes at points
A and B of the circuit, full scale deflection indicates the continuity.
27. Similarly check the continuity between points B and C and then between points C and D. Full
scale deflection (very low resistance) indicates continuity while zero deflection (high resistance)
indicates a discontinuity in the circuit.
NOTE While checking the continuity, the battery of the circuit should be in switched off mode.

98
 Section A : ACTIVITIES

Observations

(fl) Measurement of resistance

Range of resistance scale selected on the multimeter panel =0 to n.

Least count of the scale = Q.

Table A4 ; Measurement of resistance with multimeter

Colour code of rings Resistance value and

Resistance measured
tolerance as Difference
Resistance by multimeter
1st 2nd 3rd 4th per colour code (n)
P)
M
Yellow Violet Brown Gold 47xlO^Q±5%

«2

(&) Measurement of dc voltage

w
Range of voltage scale selected on the multimeter panel =0 to V.

Least count of the scale = V.

Flo
Table A5 : Measurement of dc voltage with multimeter

ee
Output voltage marked
Fr
Voltages measured by Difference
S.No. on battery eliminator multimeter
V-V,
1^0 (volt) V (volt) (Volt)
for
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1. 2 V
ks

2. . 4 V
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3. 6 V
B
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(c) Measurement of ac voltage

Range of ac voltage selected on multimeter panel = 0 to V.
ou
ad

Least count of the scale = V.

Y

Table A6 : Measurement of ac voltage with multimeter

nd
Re
Fi

Output voltage marked on Voltages measured by Difference

S.No. step-down transformer multimeter
Vq (volt) V (volt) (Volt)
1. 6 V

2. 12 V

(rf) Measurement of ac current

Range of ac current scale selected on the multimeter panel = 0 to mA.

Least count of the scale = mA.

Table A7 : Measurement of ac current with multimeter

S.No.
Resistance inserted from the resistance box Current measured by multimeter
R (kQ) I (mA)
1. 6 kn

2. 8 kn

3. 10 kD
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

{e) To check continuity between different points of a circuit

Range of resistance scale selected on the multimeter penal = 0 to Mn.

Least count of the scale = n.

Table A8 : Checking continuity of the circuit between different points

S.No. Checking continuity Resistance reading Nature of resistance Nature of circuit

between pionts in multimeter

1. A and B Very low/High Continuous/Discontinuous

2. B and C
Very low/High Continuous/Discontinuous

3. C and D Very low/High Continuous/Discontinuous

I Result

1. Within the allowed limits of tolerance, the values of resistance measured by the multimeter
are equal to the corresponding decoded values.
2.
The values of dc/ac voltages measured by the multimeter are equal to the marked values
indicated by the battery eliminator/step-down transformer.
3.
The values of ac have been correctly measured by the multimeter.
4.
As the multimeter shows zero resistance between different pairs of points on the given open
circuit, the circuit is continuous between those pairs of points.
Precautions
1. Instructions manual of the multimeter should be read thoroughly before handling it.
2.
For measuring voltage, current and resistance, an appropriate selection of function switch
and range switch should be made.
3. Red and black probes should be connected to the proper polarities for measuring dc voltage
and current.

4. Whenever the meter is used as ohm meter or switched to a new range, short-circuit its test
probes and set the pointer at zero with the zero adjustment knob.
5. Never use an ohm meter to measure resistance in an energised circuit.
6. Before using the meter for resistance measurement, check that the instrument cells are

functioning properly.
7. If range of voltage, current or resistance to be measured is not known, start with maximum
range and then go decreasing the range till easily observable deflection is obtained in the
multimeter.

Sources of Error

1. The scale used for measuring voltage/current may not be proper.

2. Zero adjustment done for measuring resistance with analog multimeter may not be accurate.

100
 Secfion A ; ACTIVITIES

VIVA VOCE

1. What is a multimeter ? 6. While measuring resistance why does the pointer

, A multimeter is an instrument designed to measure deflect even when no external source of emf is
directly the currents, potential difference and connected to the multimeter 7

resistance over several ranges. When a multimeter is set in resistance measuring

2. What is another name for multimeter ? mode, a battery of 3 V gets connected within the
multimeter which sends the current through the coil
AVO meter because it is used to measure amperes,
volts and ohms. and deflects the pointer.

3. Why does the zero of resistance scale lie at extreme 7. Why is the adjustment of zero ohm necessary before
measuring ersistance by a multinwter ?
right while the zeros of current and voltage scales lie When the metal ends of the multimeter leads are
at extreme left ?
touched, the multimeter should show zero resistance.
This is because when resistance is minimum, current
If it is not so, then its pointer is adjusted to zero using
is maximum and the pointer lies at the extreme right.
'zero Adj knob' on the multimeter. If it is not done the
4. Can the measurement of dc voltage/current be done resistance measurements are not reliable.
using ac voltage/current function ? Justify your answer.
8. How can we check the continuity of any component
We can measure dc on ac setting. The rectifier in the

w
by using multimeter ?
multimeter converts ac into dc. However, dc will be
We can check the continuity of any component by
zero if the polarity is reversed.
5. The divisions of current and voltage scales are of equal Flo
measuring its resistance using multimeter. An
infinite resistance across the two ends of a

ee
size whereas those of resistance scale go on decreasing component indicates a discontinuity. A very low
in size for higher values of resistance. Why ?
An ohmmeter measures resistance by measuring the Fr
resistance (<0.1Q) between the two ends of the
component indicates that the component has a
for
current through the resistor when a known voltage is
ur
short-circuit.
applied. Since resistance = voltage/current, so ohms
are inversely proportional to current. That is why the
ks
Yo

ohmmeter scale is non-linear that senses the current.

oo
B
re
ou
ad
Y

ACTIVITY A3
nd
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I Aim
Fi

To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three on/ojf switches, a fuse
and a power source.

i Apparatus and Material Required

Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three on/off switches, a socket, a plug, a fuse of 1.0 A, flexible
connecting wires, main switch.

I Theory
1. A household circuit works on ac mains of 220 V, 50 Hz. From the mains we get two supplies
of different current ratings :
(/) Light line of 5 A for low power appliances like light bulbs, ceiling fans, fluorescent tubes.
etc.

(n) i^oiver line of 15 A for heavy duty appliances like room heater, air conditioner, geysers,
hot plates, etc.

101

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

2. If P P P are the powers consumed by different appliances, then the total power
11 ij, 12/ ij/
consumed in the household circuit is : P = Pj + P2 + P3 +
p
Current drawn from the mains of V volts will be / = — .

To protect the appliances from damage due to excessive currents, a fuse of rating 10 to 20%
higher than the normally drawn current is connected in series with the live wire from the
source of power.
3. Different appliances are connected in parallel between live and neutral wires. Each appliance
is provided with a separate switch in its live wire.
4.
Earth wire is a safety measure which ensures any leakage of current to the metallic body of
an appliance keeps its potential equal to that of the earth wire (zero volt) and the user may
not get a severe electric shock.
Circuit Diagram

p Live
V, p, Fuse e
wire
Socket
To
mains

! Earth
e, ^2 63 Neutral wire
wire

Fig. 8 Circuit diagram for household appliances.

Procedure

1.
As shown in Fig. 8, connect the three bulbs Bj, B2 and 63 separately in series combination
with on/off switches , S2 and S3 respectively.
2.
Connect these three bulb-switch combinations in parallel across the live and neutral wires.
3. Connect a fuse f of proper rating in the live wire of the circuit.
4.
Connect a three way socket at the end of live and neutral wires. Connect a wire from its
earth pin.
5. Insert the plug in the socket fitted on the main electric board.
6.
By pressing the switches S.j, S2 and S3 one by one, check that each bulb is switched on and
off independently of the other.
7.
Press the three switches simultaneously and note what happens.
Conclusions

1. Each bulb functions independently of the other through a separate switch.

2. The three bulbs can function simultaneously with the installed fuse safely.
Precautions

1. The rating of the required fuse must be determined carefully by calculating the maximum

current drawn by the circuit.

2.
Never use safety fuse of much higher rating than the current normally drawn from/by the
circuit.

3. The safety fuse and the on/off switches must be connected in live wire.
4.
Take care while working with mains.

102

i
 SecNon A : ACTIVITIES

VIVA VOCE

1. Why are different appliances in a household circuit When a large number of appliances are switched on
connected In parallel to one another ? simultaneously and they draw more current from the
(i) Each appliance gets the same constant voltage. mains than the safety limit, then this is known as
overloading. This causes heating of live wires and
(//) Each appliance can function independently. If one may damage the appliances. This can be avoided by
appliance is switched off, other remains unaffected. using an electric fuse in live wire.
2. Name two safety measures used in electric circuits 6. What is an electric fuse ? What role does it play in an
and appliances. electric circuit ?
(0 Earthing, and (ii) Electric fuse. Electric fuse is a safety device to protect an electric
3. What is the function of the earth wire ? Why is it circuit from overloading and short-circuiting. It is a
necessary to earth metallic appliances ? piece of wire of a material of low melting point (pure
Earthing of an appliance means connecting the tin or tin-copper alloy) which is connected to the live
wire in the ciraiit. When an excessive current flows,
metallic body of a high powered appliance to the the fuse melts and the circuit is broken.
earth. It is a safety measure which ensures any
leakage of current to the metallic body of the 7. What is fuse rating ? Why should a fuse of proper
appliance keeps its potential equal to that of the earth rating be used ?

w
(zero volt) and the user may not get a severe shock. The maximum safe current allowed to pass through a
fuse before it melts is called fuse rating. A fuse of
4. What is short-circuiting in a supply line ?
If due to defective or damaged wiring, the live and Flo proper rating should be used in a circuit. If a fuse of
neutral wires come in direct contact, the resistance of
higher rating is used, it will not blow and will not

ee
the circuit becomes zero and a large current flows protect the circuit. If a fuse of lower rating is used, it
through the circuit. This is called short-circuiting. It Fr
will blow before-the circuit is fully loaded.
8. What is the function of main switch in domestic
heats up the live wires and may damage the
for
ur
circuits ?
appliance. It can be prevented by using an electric
fuse in live wire. The main switch is used to switch off the main supply
ks

required at the time of repairing or any other

Yo

5. What do you mean by an overloading of an electric

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circuit ? emergency.
B
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ad

A4
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ACTIVITY
nd
Re
Fi

Aim

To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit (say Ohm s law circuit used
to measure resistance)

] APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A resistor, an ammeter (0-1.5 A), a voltmeter (0-5 V), a battery/battery eliminator, one-way key,
rheostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
■ Theory

For assembling the components of any circuit, it is advisable to connect the components in the
following order.
1. Source of power (battery/battery eliminator).
2. Plug key (near the battery).
3. Resistors, bulbs, inductors or any other load (to be connected end to end).

103 ●

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

4. Measuring instruments ammeter, voltmeter, metre bridge, potentiometer, etc. Ammeter is

connected in series and voltmeter in parallel with the load with positive ends of both
towards the positive terminal of the battery.
I Circuit Diagram

Battery pj^g f Rh
(●)
Rheostat

0A
R
vw >

Fig. 9 Assembling the components

<Z> for measurement of resistance by Ohm's law.
V

I Procedure

1. Draw the circuit diagram required for the given activity and arrange the components
accordingly on the work table as shown in Fig. 9.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with a piece of sand paper.
3. Connect the battery, ammeter A, resistance R, rheostat Rh and plug key K all in series and
voltmeter V in parallel with resistor K. See that the positive ends of ammeter and voltmeter
are connected towards the positive terminal of the battery.
4. Insert the plug in the key K See that the ammeter and voltmeter show deflections on the
right hand (positive) side. Adjust the rheostat so that the deflections are within scale.
5. The deflections in ammeter and voltmeter verify the continuity of the assembled circuit.

y. Conclusion
The components of the given electrical circuit have been correctly assembled.
Precautions

1. Before making die connections, clean the ends of the connecting wires with a piece of sand paper.
2. Make neat and tight connections.
3. The ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel with the resistor.
4. The positive ends of both ammeter and voltmeter should be connected to the positive
terminal of the battery.
■* -yJLr ■
: VIVA VOCE
f ●: r -

1. What do you meant emf a of cell ? An ammeter is connected in series in a circuit so that
The emf of a cell is equal to the potential difference whole of the current, which it is required to measure,
between its terminals when no
current is being passes through it. Moreover, an ammeter has a low
drawn from the cell. resistance, so its insertion in the series circuit does
2. Does tlie current drawn from the cell remam not practically change the main current.
constant ? If not, why ? 4. Why is a voltmeter connected in parallel to the
The current drawn from the cell decreases with the component across which voltage is to be measured ?
passage of time. After prolonged use, the decrease in Voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer. When it
the emf of a cell is very small but the increase in is connected in parallel with a component, it draws
internal resistance is quite large. very small current and most of the current passes
3. Why is an ammeter always connected in series with through that component. Hence potential difference
the circuit ? across that component does not change appreciably.

J04 ■
L
 Secffon A : ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY / \5
Aim

To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current

Apparatus and Material Required

A potentiometer, a battery of three dry cells/battery eliminator, a voltmeter (0-3 V), an ammeter
(0-3A), plug key, jacket, a low resistance rheostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

I Theory
A potentiometer works on the principle that if a constant current flows through a wire of uniform
area of cross-section and composition, then the potential drop V across any length I of the wire is
directly proportional to the length 1.

w
Vccl or V = kl or
I
Flo
Here k is the potential drop per unit length and is called potential gradient.

ee
Circuit Diagram
Fr
©
+
for
ur
^0 100 _
ks

/
Yo

Batter}' ^ ^^200
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■*
B

300 _
re

K >
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ad

Rh
Y

400
III
nd
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Fig. 10 Circuit to study variation in potential drop with length.

Fi

Procedure

1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 10 and arrange the required apparatus
accordingly on the working table.
2. Connect the positive terminal of the battery to the end A (zero length) of the potentiometer
wire and negative terminal to the end B (400 cm length), through a plug key K, ammeter A
and low resistance rheostat Rh.

3. Now connect the positive terminal of voltmeter V to the end A of the potentiometer wire and
its negative terminal to the jockey J which can slide along the wire AR
4. Note that the pointer of the voltmeter is at the zero mark when no current is passing through
it. If it is not so, adjust its pointer with the help of zero adjustment screw provided on its front
panel.
5. Insert the plug in the key K and press the jockey ) at the extreme end 6 of the potentiometer
wire. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat so that voltmeter shows full scale deflection.

105

k
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xil

6. Now press the jockey at point A, the voltmeter will show zero deflection.
7. Now press the jockey at 40 cm (from end A) and note the corresponding reading.
8. Now make contacts of the jockey at distances 80 cm, 120 cm, 160 cm, , 400 cm from the
end A and note the potential drop V in each case. See that the ammeter reading remains
constant throughout. Record all your observations in a tabular form.
9. Calculate potential gradient k = V II for each observation.
Observations and Calculations

Range of tlie voltmeter = 0 to V ;

Least count of the voltmeter = V

Range of the ammeter = 0 to A ;

Least count of the ammeter = A

Steady current in the ammeter = A

Table A9 : Variation in potential drop with length

V
S.No. Length of potentiometer wire I
(cm)
Voltmeter reading V
(V)
Potential gradient k-j
(V cm~^)
1. 0

2. 40

3. 80

4. 120

5. 160

6. 200

7. 240

8. 280

9. 320

10. 360

11. 400

-1
Mean value of k = V cm

a
t Plotting Graph

Choosing suitable scales, plot a graph of V versus I, with V along Y-axis and I along X-axis. A
straight line graph is obtained as shown in Fig. 11.
Potential gradient = Slope of V-l graph
V -V
k =

V cm'^

106
 Secfioo /A ; ACTIVITIES

w
Fig. 11 Variation of potential drop V with length 1.

{ Result Flo
ee
1. Within the limits of experimental error, the ratio VI lis found to be constant. This shows that V x /.
Mean value of k = V cm ^
Fr
2. V vs. I graph is straight line which again shows that Vccl.
for
ur
Value of potential gradient from the graph, k = V cm"^
ks

I
Yo

Precautions
oo
B

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

re

2. The positive terminal of the auxiliary battery should be connected to the end A of the
potentiometer wire.
ou
ad

3. During experimentation, the current passing through the potentiometer wire must remain
Y

constant. This can be ensured by using an ammeter in the auxiliary circuit. If the current
nd
Re

changes, it should be readjusted with the help of the low resistance rheostat.
Fi

4. Zero error, if any, in the voltmeter and ammeter should be eliminated by adjust the screw
provided at the front panel.
5. The current in the auxiliary circuit should be passed only for the duration it is essential for
taking the observations. This prevents unnecessary heating and the consequent change of
resistance of the potentiometer wire.
6. Do not drag the jockey along the wire while moving it from one point to another. It should be
pressed gently at different positions of the wire.

I ^URCES OF Error
1. The area of cross-section of the potentiometer wire may not be uniform.
2. The resistance of the potentiometer wire may change due to heating.
3. Voltmeter readings may not be accurate.

VIVA VOCE ● i

See viva voce questions based on potentiometer on pages 61 and 62,

107

4
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

ACTIVITY / \()
Aim

To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery,

resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not
connected in proper order and correct the circuit and circuit diagram.

Apparatus and Material Required

A given open circuit comprising at least a battery, plug key, resistor, rheostat, ammeter,
voltmeter ; and connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
i Theory
Electrical circuits can be either functional or open type.
Functional electrical circuit. An electrical circuit is functional only if all the components are
connected in proper order, assuming that all circuit components/devices are in working
condition and key is closed. With closed key, all components satisfy the property of continuity.
Open electrical circuit. An open circuit means there is a break in some part of the circuit. This
break may be either deliberate such as a key left in open position or a fault such as broken wire,
some burnt out components or a loose connection. This circuit shows discontinuity for one or

more components.

1 Orcuit Diagrams ,
0
V
+

0
+

V
Some open circuit diagrams ■R
are given in Fig. 12.
Students are advised to
-0
+

mark the components A A

K

which are not connected in ■R

R}i Rh
proper order. Then draw + +

correct circuit diagrams 1 1 1

K
£
and assemble the circuit £
(«) (b)
accordingly by connecting
components in proper V V
order in each case.
0
+

0
■R ■R

K
A
0^
+
Rh +

AWWi H \WvV
Rh K
£
+
Ui >

ic) (d)

Fig. 12 Some open circuits.

108
i
 Section A ; ACTIVITIES

Procedure

1. Draw the given circuit diagram [see Fig. 12(i?)] in your notebook.
2. In the above diagram, mark the components which have not been connected in proper order.
3. Make a list of all components in the observation table and mark a in appropriate column
against each component.
4. Now draw the correct circuit diagram.
5. Assemble and connect the electrical components in accordance with the corrected circuit
diagram.
6. Insert a plug in the key and note the deflections in ammeter and voltmeter. Deflections in
these meters towards right hand side verify that the corrected circuit is functional.
Observations

Table AlO : For checking order of connections of circuit components.

w
Mark a (v') in appropriate column

S.No. Circtiit component Flo

Correct connection Incorrect connection

ee
1.
Battery
2. Resistor
Fr
for
ur
3. Rheostat

4.
Key
ks
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5. Ammeter
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6. Voltmeter
B
re

For example, in given circuit diagram of Fig. 12(&), voltmeter has been wrongly connected. To
ou
ad

measure resistance R, it must be connected in parallel with R. Now students should draw the
Y

correct circuit diagram.

nd
Re

Result
Fi

The circuit assembled by connecting components in proper order is functionally correct as.
verified by passing current through it.
Precautions

1. Before making the connections, ends of the connecting wires must be cleaned properly with
a piece of sand paper.
2. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter in parallel
with it.

3. The positive terminals of ammeter and voltmeter should be connected to the positive
terminal of the battery.
4. Rheostat should be connected in the circuit using its one end terminal and the other variable
terminal.

5. The plug key should be kept open throughout. It should be closed only at the time of
checking the continuity of the circuit.

W9

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

VIVA VOCE

1. L\'li.ii nr<-‘ llu- of thu (’('inponents 6. 1 low can a rheostat be used as a potential divider
rhcosltil, kt-y, b.WtcrV- anum’tiT iind voltniL-t-tT in iirrangement ?
an elfcli'ica! circuit ?
T
Resistor. It controls the flow of current in an electrical 0=
circuit.
A B

Rheostat. It is a variable resistance used for adjusting

the strength of current in an electrical circuit.
Plug key. A device used to switch on or switch off a +
IP
current in an electrical circuit.
Battery
Battery. A device consisting of two or more cells used
as a source of emf or electric power. Fig. 14 Rheostat as a potential divider.
Ammeter. A low resistance galvanometer used for
measuring current in an electric circuit. To use rheostat as a potential divider arrangement, a
battery is connected between its base terminals A and
Voltmeter. A high resistance galvanometer used for B. One end of the circuit is connected to the base
measuring potential difference between any two terminal A and other to the upper terminal T. There is
points of an electric circuit. a uniform fall of potential along the entire length of
2. VV’hnr i'; tlu- function of sand paper m stilling uf’ llu' the resistance wire AB. The potential difference
fleet citi nil ? proportional to the length of th^ ,v irc between A and
Ssends current in the circuit. Tlius the rheostat acts
Sand papers are used to remove insulating coating at as

the ends of the connecting wires. Thus it helps in a potential divider arrangement.
making the circuit continuous. 7. Draw circuil diagram of a rheostat as n variable
3. A rlieo->{.it and a resislanai box can chui^ge the resistance showing the position of sliding contact for
resislniu t' in circuil, vet their fiifictioiis are diffcrenl. (;) maximum rfsistance {ii} minimum resistance.
How ’

We can introduce resistance from a resistance box

S
in certain known steps whereas with a rheostat, A 'B
we can change the resistance in a continuous
manner.
●4
4. T!ic kfv is kepi open dining the a.sM:mbling of an («)
floctricul circuit. Why 'i'
This prevents any damage to the components when
they are being connected to assemble a circuit. A?—VAW“^B
5. How can a riifostni be used as a variable resistanee in
a cinnit ?
4
To use rheostat as a variable resistance, one end of (b)
the circuit is connected to its base terminal A and the
other end to upper terminal T. When the slider S Fig. 15 Rheostat in position of
is moved, the resistance of the wire between points A (a) maximum resistance (5) minimum resistance.
and S charges. This changes the current in the
circuit.

'S
wv\\
A B

Fig. 13 Rheostat as a variable resistance.

no

i
 chapte

Spherical
Mirrors

Q Spherical Mirrors (vi) Angular aperture. If is the angle subtended by the

boundary of the spherical mirror at its centre of
A mirror whose reflecting surface forms part of a hollow curvature C.
sphere is called a spherical mirror. Spherical mirrors are of {vii) Principal focus. A narroio beam of light parallel to
two types : the principal axis either actually converges to or
appears to diverge from a point F on the principal

w
(0 Concave mirror. It is the spherical mirror in
which the reflection of light takes place from the inner axis after reflection from the spherical mirror. This
hollow surface.
Flo point is called the principal focus of the mirror. A
concave mirror has a real focus while a convex
(ii) Convex mirror. It is the spherical mirror in

ee
mirror has a virtual focus, as shown in Fig. 8.2.
which the reflection of light takes place from the outer
bulged surface. Fr Rea!focus \
for
ur
Q Definitions in Connection («)
ks

with Spherical Mirrors C

Yo

■>
oo

{/) Pole. It is the middle point P of the spherical mirror, ■>

B

(ii) Centre of curvature. It is the centre C of the sphere

re

of which the mirror forms a part.

ou
ad

{Hi) Radius of curvature. It is the radius R of the Virtual focus

/
Y

sphere of ivhich the mirror forms a part,

[iv) Principal axis. 77ic line PC passing throu^ the pole and
nd

F C
Re

the centre of airvature of the mirror is called its

Fi

principal axis.

Reflecting Fig. 8.2 Principal focus of

Silvered C surface
surface
(a) a concave mirror (i?) a convex mirror.
Aperture \
\ {viii) Focal length. It is the distance (/« Pf) between
Principal axis
f the focus and the pole of the mirror. For a mirror of
spherical mirror of small aperture, it is equal to
I
Focus ^ I
Pole Centre of / half of the radius of curvature.
curvature /

Radius of
curvature
{ix) Focal plane. The vertical plane passing through the
principal focus and perpendicular to the principal
Fig. 8.1 Characteristics of a concave mirror,
axis is called focal plane. When a parallel beam of
light is incident on a concave mirror at a small
(i?) Linear aperture. It is the diameter of the circular angle to the principal axis, it is converged to a
boundary of the spherical mirror. point in the focal plane of the mirror.
III
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xll

New Cartesian Sign Convention (i/) A ray passing through the principal focus in the case
for Spherical Mirrors of a concave mirror [Fig. 8.5(^i)], and directed towards the
principal focus in the case of a convex mirror will [Fig. 8.5(&)],
(/) All ray diagrams are drawn with the incident reflection, become parallel to the principal axis.
light travelling from left to right.
(ii) All distances are measured from the pole of the
mirror.
\
(Hi) All distances measured in the direction of
C F
incident light are taken to be positive.
Mirror
Heights

\
upwards positive
Object Incident light Fig. 8.5 (a) A ray through F becomes parallel to the principal
on left axis after reflection from a concave mirror.
ar-axis

Distances against
incident light'
Distances along
Heights negative
downwards
incident light
positive
negative F C

Fig. 8.3 New Cartesian sign convention.

(iv) Heights measured upwards and perpendicular
to the principal axis are taken positive. Fig. 8.5 (b) A ray directed towards F becoraes parallel to the
(i?) Heights measured downwards and perpendicular principal axis after reflection from a convex mirror.
to the principal axis are taken negative.
(Hi) A ray passing through the centre of curvature in the
According to this sign convention, the focal length case of concave mirror [Fig. 8.6(t?)], and directed towards the
and radius of curvature are taken negative for a concave centre of curvature in the case of a convex mirror
mirror and positive for a convex mirror. [Fig. 8.6(b)] falls normally (Zi = ^r = 0°) and is reflected
back along the same path.
Q Rules for Drawing images
formed by Spherical Mirrors \
(0 A ray proceeding parallel to the principal axis xvill, C F
after reflection, pass through the principalfocus in the case of
a concave mirror [Fig. 8.4(a)], and appear to come from
focus in the case of a convex mirror [Fig. 8.4(fc)j. y
Fig. 8.6 (a) A ray passing through C is reflected back along
the same path after reflection from a concave mirror.

(a) A ray parallel to the

principal axis passes / ''
through F after reflection
from a concave mirror.
P F C

(b) A ray parallel to the \

principal axis appears
F to come from F after
Fig. 8.6 (b) A ray directed towards C is reflected back along
c
reflection from a
the same path after reflection from a convex mirror.
convex mirror. (iv) For the ray incident at any angle at the pole, the
Fig. 8,4 reflected ray follows the laius of reflection.
112
 Chapter 8 : SPHERICAL MIRRORS

Q Ray Diagrams showing Formation B. Formation of Image by Convex Mirror

of Images by Spherical Lens For any position of the object between oo and pole P,
the image is
A. Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors 1. Behind the mirror 2. Virtual

(fl) Object beyond C The image is 3. Erect 4. Smaller than object.

1. Between C and F 2. Real

3. Inverted A
4. Smaller than object.
A B

P,
O / F c

Fig. 8.7(e)
Fig. 8.7(a)
13 Mirror Formula

w
(b) Object at C.The image is
1. AtC 2. Real The mirror formula is a mathematical relationship
3. Inverted 4. Same size as object.
Flo
between object distance u, image distance v and the focal
length f of a spherical mirror.

ee
This relation is
Fr
- + -= ^
for
ur
u V
f
ks

This formula is applicable to all concave and convex

Yo

mirrors, whether the image formed is real or virtual.

oo

Fig. 8.7(b) Assumptions used in the derivation of mirror

B

formula:
re

(c) Object between F and CThe image is

(0 All the rays are paraxial.
ou

1. Beyond C 2. Real
ad

3. Inverted {») The aperture of the mirror is small.

Y

4. Larger than object.

(Hi) The object placed on the principal axis is small
nd
Re

in size.
A
Fi

I C O F
P El Parallax
The apparent shifi in the relative positions of two objects
B
«♦
situated at different distances when the eye is moved
sideways is called parallax.
Fig. 8.7(C)
The distant object appears to move slowly in the
(d) Object between F and P.The image is direction of motion of the eye.
1. Behind the mirror 2. Virtual
The nearer object appears to move fastly in the
3. Erect 4. Larger than object. opposite direction of motion of the eye.
B
To understand the meaning of parallax, hold two
pencils P and Q in the two hands vertically, with P a
little distance behind Q
j
\ th'^m in line with

one of the eyes held at position A, as shown in Fig. 8.8.

I Now, if we move the eye towards left, say to the
position B, the distant pencil P also appears to move
towards left. Similarly, if we move the eye towards
right, say to the position C, the distant pencil P appears

113
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

to move towards right. In both of these cases, the nearer pencil Q

appears to shift in the direction opposite to which the eye moves. Thus
the distant object appears to move in the direction of motion of the eye, r 7
whereas the nearer object appears to move in the opposite direction.
If the distance between the two objects is decreased, the relative shift
between them also decreases proportionately. We say that the parallax
between the two objects is decreasing. When the two objects come to lie Q \
at the same position, there is no relative shift at all i.e., there is no
parallax between the two objects. Hence the existence of parallax between
two objects indicates that they are not in the same position i.e., there is a
parallax.
Parallax method is one of the important methods of locating the
position of the image of an object. We can easily locate the position of a
>7
B ^ov,es
real image by removing the parallax between the image of an object and foiv,
a needle, called image needle, placed near the expected position of the
image. When there is no parallax between the image and the needle, Fig. 8.8 Parallax.
the position of the image coincides with the position of the needle.

Q Optical Bench
An optical bench consists of a wooden or metallic frame about 1.5 m long on which can slide a number of
carriages, called uprights. The uprights are used to hold lenses, mirrors, pins, screen, candle, wire gauze, etc. The
uprights are rigid and stable and can be clamped in any desired position. Some of the uprights can be given a
transverse motion {i.e., perpendicular to the length of the bench) to adjust the tips of the object pin, image pin,
poles of mirrors, optical centres of the lenses, etc. in the same vertical plane. An optical element can be mounted
on an upright at any height with the help of screw provided over the upright. The position of an optical element
mounted on an upright can be read on a metre scale fixed along the length of the optical bench by a sharp mark,
called index, made at the base of the upright. Basically, an optical bench provides us an axis along which are kept
the important points of the experimental setup like pole of the mirror, optical centre of the lens, tip of the object
pin, tip of the image pin, etc.

Lens

Needle 1 Needle 2

ujjJjjjjJjjjjJ
2
& I I I I I I I I
i
I I I
z

II 111.1 j

Fig. 8.9 A wooden optical bench. Fig. 8.10 A metallic optical bench.

^3 Index Correction
While performing experiments with an optical bench, one is required to measure the distance between the
object or image needle and the pole of a mirror. These are the actual or real distances which are needed for

114

I
 Chapfer 8 : SPHERICAL MIRRORS

Knitting
needle Lens

J
P

I I I I [■l_LL lXi I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I M I I li_i_Li_lllLli_i_lLli_ll

A B

Rg. 8.11 Index correction

the calculation purposes. These distances are by obtaining an inverted, clear and well defined
measured by noting the positions of the indices of the image of the distant object like a building or a tree
concerned uprights on a metre scale. The observed on a plane wall or a sheet of paper or just on the
distances may not necessarily be equal to the actual palm and measuring the distance roughly with

w
a metre scale.
distances. So a correction is needed to be applied. The
difference between the actual distance and the observed 3. The object pin should be brightly polished one.
distance is called the index correction. Flo Putting a white screen behind it is also helpful.

ee
4. When both the object and the image needles are
Index correction = Actual distance - Observed distance

To determine the index correction, place a thin straight

Fr
used, put a small piece of paper on one of tliem
to distinguish one from the other.
for
ur
knitting needle so that its one end touches the tip of the 5. When magnification is large and the image is
object or image needle and the other end touches the thick, it is helpful to use a thin pin as the object
ks

pole of the mirror, as shown in Fig. 8.11. Read the and a thicker one for locating the image
Yo
oo

positions of the uprights on the metre scale. Their position. Similarly, when image is very small,
B

difference gives the observed distatice y. Measure the use a thick pin as object and a thin one for
re

length of the knitting needle by placing it on the metre locating the image.
scale, this gives the actual distance x. 6. It is useful to first locate the image
ou
ad

Index correction =x-y approximately by using a pencil held in hand. If

Y

it is off the axis of the experimental setup, this

The index correction is applied to the observed
nd
Re

approximate position helps to make necessary

distance to get the actual distance. Note that the index adjustments. Tlien the image should be located
Fi

correction, whether positive or negative, should always be accurately with a pin mounted on an upright.
added algebraically to the observed distance.
7. The final position of an image on an optical
10 bench should be located accurately by the
General Instructions for performing
}7iethod of parallax, as explained in article 7.
Experiment with an Optical Bench 8. The index correction must be determined and

1. The optical axis of all the elements being used in applied to all the distances measured on the
the experiment should be adjusted parallel to scale of the optical bench.
the optical bench. For this, adjust the planes of
the mirrors, lenses, pins, screens, all
perpendicular to this axis. Then adjust the
heights of the uprights so that the tips of the
pins, poles of mirrors, optical centres of lenses
all lie on this axis.

2. While performing an experiment with a

converging mirror or lense, it is useful to
determine its rough focal length. This can be done

115
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

EXPERIMENT B1
Aim

To find the value of v for different values ofu in case of a concave mirror and to find
its focal length.

\ Apparatus and Material Required

An optical bench with three uprights, two sharp-edged needles {one thin and one thick), a concave mirror of
focal length less than 20 cm, index needle/knitting needle and a half-metre scale.

I Working formula
The relation between the object distance u, image distance v and focal length / of a concave mirror
is given by the mirror formula,
uv
or /=
/ u V u + v

According to new Cartesian sign convention, u and v are both negative when a concave mirror
forms a real image. Also, / is negative for a concave mirror.
Ray Diagrams
Image
M
I
I
I
I

o
Ac- F p

Object
needle

Image Object T-
needle needle

(h)

Fig. 8.12 Ray diagrams for the focal length of the concave minor (a) object at C {b) object between F and C.

Procedure

To find rough focal length of the concave mirror

1. Hold the concave mirror in your right hand and turn its reflecting surface towards a distant
object like a building or a tree by looking through the window of your lab.

116

L
 Cfiapfer 8 : SPHERICAL MIRRORS

2. By slowing moving the mirror forward/backward, obtain an inverted, clear and sharp image
of the object on the wall of the lab.
3. Keeping the zero end of the half-metre scale towards the wall, measure the distance between
the mirror and the wall. This distance gives the rough focal length of the concave mirror.
To mount the concave mirror

4. Place the optical bench on the working table. Clamp the concave mirror on an upright and
mount it vertically near one end of the optical bench.
5, With a piece of chalk, mark the approximate positions of focus F and centre of curvature C
on the optical bench, at distances equal to rough focal length and twice the rough focal length,
respectively.
6. Take the thin optical needle and treat it as object needle O. Mount it in an upright and place
it in front of the concave mirror. Adjust its height so that its tip and the pole of the mirror lie
in the same horizontal line.

7. Move the object needle O away from the mirror and bring it almost at the point marked C. By
slightly moving the object needle O back and forth, obtain an inverted image of the same

w
size as the needle. Make slight adjustments of the height of the needle and the mirror
inclination so that image is formed just above the object needle. This procedure ensures that
Flo
the principal axis of the mirror is parallel to the optical bench.

ee
To locate the image formed by the concave mirror
Fr
8. Mount the thick optical needle, called image needle in the third upright. Place this upright
the optical bench beyond C. Adjust the height of the image needle Dso that its tip lies in
for
ur
on

the same horizontal line as the tip of the object needle. Fix a small piece of paper on the
ks

object needle.
Yo
oo

9. Adjust the object needle at a distance about 2 cm less than 2 / from the concave mirror. A
B

real, inverted and magnified image of this needle will be formed at a distance greater than
re

2/. Adjust the image needle at the position of this image.

10. Moving the image needle I forward or backward, remove the parallax tip to tip between the
ou
ad

inverted image of object needle and the image needle itself. If on moving the eye sideways, the
Y

image shifts in the direction ofynotion of the eye, then parallax can be removed by moving the image
nd
Re

needle towards the object needle and if the image shifts in the opposite direction, then parallax can be
Fi

removed by moving the image needle away from the object needle O. The position of the image needle 1
gives the position of the image of the object needle.
Note that the concave mirror forms the images of both the needles, which are conjugate foci, i.e., image
of one needle coincides with the second needle and image of second needle coincides with the
first. So lohen parallax is removed between the image of first needle and the second needle itself,
parallax also gets removed between the image of the second needle and the first needle itself.
11. Note the positions of the concave mirror P, object needle O and image needle I on the optical
bench. Find the distance between the concave mirror and the object needle (PO = u), and the
distance between the concave mirror and the image needle {PI ==v).
12. By bringing the object needle about 2 cm closer to the concave mirror each time, take two
more such sets of observations. Check that the object needle always remains between F and C.

Note that the image moves away from the mirror as the object moves closer to the mirror and vice versa.
13. Record all these observations in a tabular form. Find u and v in each case.
14. Write the observations at serial numbers 4-6 by just interchanging the values of u and v in
observations at serial numbers 1-3. This makes use of the property of conjugate foci.
vv.r.r-

117

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYStCS-XII

To determine the index correction

15.
Measure length of the knitting needle with a half-metre scale. Let it be x cm.
16. Hold the knitting needle between pole P of the concave mirror and the tip of the object
needle O.Read the distance between the two uprights on the scale on the optical bench. Let it
be y cm. Determine the index correction (x-y) for the object distance u.
17.
Now hold the knitting needle between the pole P of the concave mirror and the tip of the
image needle I. Note the distance between the two uprights. Let it be z cm. Determine the
index correction (x~z) for the image distance v.
18.
After adding the respective index corrections, record the corrected values of u and v. Find the
focal length / in each case.

I Observations and Calculations

Rough focal length of the concave mirror = cm

Actual length of the knitting needle, x = cm

Observed distance between the mirror and the object needle, y = cm

Observed distance between the mirror and the image needle, z = cm

Index correction for object distance u, e^=x-y = cm

Index correction for image distance v, = X-2 = cm

Table 8.1 : Determination of u,v and / for the concave mirror

Observed Focal
Positions of uprights distances
Corrected distances 1 1
length
S.No. Concave Object Image u V uv

minor P
PO^u' PI^ V' u
= u'+6j V = V'+ ^ f =
needle 0 needle I (cm (cm u + v
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm) icmi
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

/ .

Mean value of / = cm

1 1
NOTE Here - and - values are required to be determined only for finding / by graphical
method.

Determination of/by graphical methods :

1. Focal length from the graph between u and v. As per Cartesian sign convention, both n and
V are negative. Choosing a larger and same scale for both axes, plot the u-v graph by taking
w-values along -ve X-axis and t>values along -ve Y-axis. As shown in Fig. 8.13, the graph
will be a rectangular hyperbola.
NOTE As the values of u and v are greater than the focal length, the origin O should be
given a value close to the rough focal length on both the axes which enables us to choose a
larger scale for the graph. ●

118
 Chopter 8 ;SPHERICAL MIRRORS

u-v graph for a CO ncave i liiror

Draw a line from the origin O making an y.

angle of 45° with the X-axis. It meets the 2/

u (cm I
n-v graph at point P. Obviously, the A
45^
O
f
■*

values of absicca and ordinate at any X'

✓
/
/
point on this line will be equal.
K.

So at point P, u = v. B

i-1 1=1 1=1

V U U It

OA
(r) }/ = 2“=- 2
cm
Scale:
-&

X-axis : 1 division = cm

OB Y-axis: 1 division® cm

00 / = -cm=- 2
cm Q
I Y'

w
Mean value of / = cm
Fig. 8.13 u-v graph for a concave mirror.

Flo
ee
2. Focal length from tf-v lines. Choosing
larger and same scales for both the axes,
Fr
for
ur
mark the values of u along ^e X-axis and
those of V along ^e Y-axis. Draw straight
ks
Yo

lines joining the points iq, «2'

oo

the X-axis and the corresponding points

B

etc ; of the Y-axis, as shown in

re

Fig. 8.14.
ou
ad

Within the limits of the experimental

Y

error, these lines meet at a common point

nd
Re

Q which should have co-ordinates

Fi

(-A-/)-

Fig. 8.14 Focal length from the intersection of u-v lines.

x-coordinate of point Q + y-coordinate of point Q
So, /= 2

OA+OB
cm
2

1 1

3. Focal length from the graph between — and —. Choosing a suitable and same scale for both the
1
axes. plot points taking 1 along -ve X-axis and
u V
along -ve Y-axis. Draw the best possible straight
line through these points and produce it to intersect both the axes, as shown in Fig. 8.15. Each
intercept, 0-4 on X-axis and OB on Y-axis, gives a value for —.
f

119

I
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

For x-intercept. 1 1 graph [or a co ncave i uiror

u~v
1 1 1
-=0 ^ /=« 1 -1
V
/ « 0 ●4 ■;7(cn
u
)
■X*
For y-intercept,
1=0 1=1 ^/= V
u
/ ''

« f=u=-4
OA
cm N t

(if) / = C = -JOB
N
cm

Scale:
Mean value of / =
K
cm -1
X-axis : 1 div. = cm
-1
V-axis : 1 div. = cm

. a
B 0,-:-
A
r .■ ■

1 1
1
Fig. 8.15 Graph between - and - for a concave mirror.
tr.
: Result u V

1. Focal length of concave mirror calculated from different u and v values as / =

uv
cm
u + v

2. Focal length of concave mirror from ti-v graph, / = cm

3. Focal length of concave mirror from u-v straight lines, / = cm

4. Focal length of concave mirror from - - - graph, f = cm

u V

. Precautions

1. The principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the length of the optical
bench.

2. The uprights should be irgid and vertical.

3. The tips of the object and image needles and the pole of the mirror must be adjusted at the
same height.
4. To locate the position of the image, the eye must be held at a distance of about 30 cm from
the image needle.
5. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle should just touch the tip of the image
needle and the tips must not overlap. Tliis helps to remove parallax tip to tip.
6. The object needle should be placed between F and C and not between F and P of the concave
mirror.

7. The object needle should be distinguished from the image needle by fixing a small piece of
white paper over its tip. The two needles should not be interchanged during the course of
experiment.
8. Index corrections must be carefully determined and applied to object and image distances.
9. The values of u and v should not differ much. This minimises the error in the determination
of /.

120
 Chop/er 8 ; SPHERICAL MIRRORS

I ^URCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. Parallax might not have been removed completely.
3. Errors may occur in the result if the top of the optical bench is not horizontal and also if the tips
of the two optical needles and the pole of the concave mirror are not at the same horizontal level.

EXPERIMENT B2
I Aim
To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.

I Apparatus and Material Required

An optical bench with four uprights (for holding letis, mirror and two needles), a thin convex lens, a

w
convex mirror, two optical needles, a knitting needle and a half-metre scale.
I Theory Flo
ee
If we place an object Obetween f and2 F of a convex lens L,a real, inverted and magnified image fis
Fr
formed at a point C on the other side of the lens. Now a convex mirror M is placed between the
convex lens and point C and so adjusted that a real and inverted image V coincides with object O.This
for
ur
happens when the rays starting from object O, after refraction through the lens, fall normally on the
convex mirror. Such normal rays are along the radii of curvature of the convex mirror so that point C
ks

must be the centre of curvature of the convex mirror.

Yo
oo

To locate the point C, the convex mirror is removed without disturbing the positions of object Oand
B

lens L An image needle is placed at the position of image I of object O, formed by the convex lens and
re

parallax is removed between the image of object O and image needle.

ou
ad

Then
Y

''22 Image of
nd

object needle 0
Re

I Ray Diagrams
Fi

!
I I
r \ /

Object
needle 0

Image of object
needle O
Fig. 8.16 Image formed by
(a) convex mirror and convex
lens-image I' coincides with the
object AB (b) convex lens-image
is inverted and magnified. needle O needle I

(b)

121
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Procedure

To find the rough focal length of the convex lens

1. Hold the convex lens in the irght hand. Obtain a sharp image of the sun or a distant object
on a wall (or at the back of your practical notebook).
2. Measure the distance between the lens and the sharp image with a half-metre scale. This
distance gives a rough value for the focal length of the convex lens.
NOTE Do not see the image of the sun directly as it may hurt your eyes.

To locate image obtained by using both convex lens and convex mirror
3. Place the optical bench horizontally on the working table.
4. Mount the needle O, convex lens Land the convex mirror Min three separate uprights on the
optical bench. See that the distance of the needle O from the convex lens Lis greater than the
focal length of the latter. Adjust the tip of needle O, optical centre O' of lens Land the pole P
of the mirror M at the same height
5. Now adjust the position of mirror Mor needle O, if necessary, so that a real inverted image
of needle O is formed in coincidence with the needle itself. Remove the parallax tip to tip
between needle O and its inverted image by adjusting the position of mirror M Note the
positions of object needle O, convex lens Land convex mirror Mon the optical bench.

To locate the image obtained by using convex lens only

6.
Remove the mirror upright altogether without disturbing the positions of needle O and lens L
Mount the second needle I in the fourth upright and place it on the optical bench on the
other side of the convex lens.
7.
Adjust the position of the image needle I (without disturbing O and I) so that there is no
parallax between this needle 1 and the image of needle O. Note the position of needle 1 on
the optical bench.
8.
Repeat the experiment (steps 4 to 7) four times with different positions of needle O and the
lens L Record all the observations in a tabular form.

To determine the index correction

9. Again place the upright holding the mirror M on the optical bench.
10. Using a knitting needle, determine the index correction between the back surface of the
mirror M and the image needle I.
Observations and Calculations

Rough focal length of the convex lens = _ cm

Actual length of the knitting needle, x = cm

Observed length of the knitting needle between the convex mirror and the image needle.
y= cm

Index correction, e = x-y = cm

122
 Chapter 8 : SPHERICAL MIRRORS

Table 8.2 : Determination of the radius of curvature of the convex mirror

Position of Observed radius Conected radius

of curvature of curvature
S.No. Object Convex Convex Image
needle 0 lens O' mirror P needle I R' =PI R^R' + e

(cm) Icmi (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

1.

2.

3.
4.

Mean value of radius of curvature of the convex mirror, R = cm

Focal length, /=y

cm

I Result

Focal length of the given convex mirror = cm

w
I ^ECAUTIONS
Flo
1. The apertures of the convex lens and the convex mirror should be small, otherwise the
image formed will be distorted.

ee
Fr
2. The focal length of the convex lens should be greater than that of the convex mirror.
3. The distance between the convex lens and the convex mirror must be kept small. The object
for
ur
needle must lie between / and 2 / of the convex lens.
4. All the uprights should be vertical.
ks
Yo

5. The tips of the object and image needles, optical centre of the lens and the pole of the convex
oo

mirror should be at the same height.

B
re

6. Parallax should be removed tip to tip.

7. While removing parallax, the eye should be kept at least 30 cm away from the image needle.
ou
ad

8. While removing parallax in the second part of the experiment {i.e., after removing the
Y

convex mirror), the positions of object needles and the convex lens should not be altered.
nd
Re

9. Index correction must be carefully determined and correctly applied.

Fi

I ^URCES OF Error
1. The principal axis of the convex lens may not be parallel to the length of the optical bench.
2. The uprights may not be vertical.
3. Parallax might not have been removed completely.
4. While removing the convex mirror, the positions of the uprights holding the object needle
and the convex lens might have been disturbed.

VIVA VOCE

A. Determination of Focal Length 2. An incident ray is reflected backwards. What is the

of a Concave Mirror angle of incidence ?
1. What is a mirror ? 0°, incident ray is reflected backward only when it
strikes the reflecting surface normally.
A polished surface which causes a regular reflection
of light is called a mirror.

123

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

3. Why mirrors are generally silvered at the back surface ? 13. What is an optical image ?
To prevent any damage to the silver polish due to Whenever some rays start from a point object and
rough handling. after reflection or refraction they actually meet at a
4. Is silvering of mirrors always of silver ? point or appear to diverge from a point, then this
point is image of the point object.
No, only in good quality mirrors silvering is done by
depositing silver nitrate. In commercial mirrors, 14. Distinguish between real and virtual images.
silvering is done by depositing mercuric oxide. A real image is formed when the rays actually meet at
5. What are the different types of mirrors commonly the image point. It can be taken on a screen and is
used ? always inverted.
(i) Plane mirrors, A virtual image is formed when the rays appear to
(ii) Spherical mirrors, and diverge from the image point. It cannot be taken on a
screen and is always erect.
(Hi) Parabolic mirrors.
6. What is spherical mirror ? 15. How will you distinguish between a plane, a concave
and a convex mirror ?
A mirror whose reflecting surface forms a part of a
hollow sphere is called a spherical mirror. We bring our face dose to each mirror one by one.
(0 If the image is erect, of the same size as the face,
7. What are the two types of spherical mirrors ?
even when the mirror is moved away or nearer
(i) Concave mirror in which the reflection of light the face, then the mirror is plane.
takes place from the inner hollow surface.
(H) If the image is erect and magnified, then it is
(ii) Convex mirror in which the reflection of light concave mirror.
takes place from the outer bulged surface.
(in) If the image is erect and diminished, then it is a
8. Define pole, centre of curvature, radius of curvature, convex mirror.
principal axis and aperture of a spherical mirror.
16. What is the nature of a shaving mirror ?
Pole. It is the middle point of the spherical mirror. A concave mirror is used for shaving, because it gives
Centre of curvature. It is the centre of the sphere of an erect and magnified image of the face when
which the mirror forms a part. brought near it.
Radius of curvature. It is the radius of the sphere of 17. What is the nature of rear-view mirror in automobiles ?
which the mirror forms a part. Convex mirror, because it always forms erect and
Principal axis. The line passing through the pole and diminished image and has large view field.
the centre of curvature of the mirror is called its 18. V\Tiat type of mirror is used in dressing tables ?
principal axis. Plane mirror is used in dressing tables, because the
Aperture. It is the diameter of the circular boundary image formed is erect, virtual and of the same size as
of the spherical mirror. the object.
9. What do you mean by principal focus of a spherical 19. Which type of mirrors are used in headlights of
mi.-ror ? vehicles and in search lights ?
A narrow beam of light parallel to the principal axis Concave mirror, because when the source of light is
either actually converges to or appears to diverge placed at the focus of the concave mirror a parallel
from a point on the principal axis after reflection from beam of light is obtained after reflection from the
concave mirror.
the spherical mirror. This point is called the principal
focus of the spherical mirror. 20. What is mirror formula ?

10. Define focal length of a spherical mirror. Mirror formula gives relationship between object
It is the distance between the focus and the pole of the distance u, image distance v and focal length / of a
mirror. spherical mirror. According to this formula,

11. What is the relationship between focal length and 1+1=1

radius of curvature ? u V
/
21. For which spherical mirrors is the focal length
Focal length = 2 ^ Radius of curvature. (i) positive and (ii) negative ?
12. What is the radius of curvature of a plane mirror ? (/) Focal length is +ve for convex mirrors.
Infinity. (ii) Focal length is -ve for concave mirrors.

124
 Chopfer 8 : SPHERICAL MIRRORS

22. What is linear magnification ? State the formula for a 29. What is spherical aberration ?
spherical mirror, The inability of a spherical mirror of large aperture to
The ratio of the height of image to that of the object is bring all the rays of a wide beam of light falling on it
called linear magnification to focus at a single point is called spherical
aberration. This results in formation of a blurred
m =
Height of image _ /I2
image.
Height of object /«^
30. How is spherical aberration reduced ?
For a spherical mirror. By using paraboloidal mirrors.
V
m - —
u
31. What is index correction or bench correction ?

23. What is the magnification produced by a plane mirror ? While performing experiments with an optical bench,
we measure object and image distances by noting the
A plane mirror forms virtual image of same size as
the object, so
positions of the indices of the concerned uprights on
hi =1 a metre scale. The observed distances may not necessarily
\m\ = ^ [u = v] be equal to the actual distances. The difference between the
actual distance and the observed distance is called the
24. What is the magnification produced by a convex index correction.

w
mirror ? Index correction = Actual distance - Observed distance
A convex mirror always forms virtual image of size 32. What are the causes of index error ?
less than that of the object. So m is +ve and less than
unity.
Flo (/) The uprights may not be exactly vertical,
(if) The indices on the uprights may not be correctly

ee
25. When Is the magnification produced by a concave positioned.
mirror positive ?
When the object is placed between F and P of a
Fr
33. How is index correction applied ?
for
ur
concave mirror, the image formed is erect, virtual Index correction is always added algebraically to the
and magnified. So m is +ve and greater than unity. observed distance to get the actual distance.
ks

26. Why Is the Image formed by a convex mirror always 34. What is parallox ?
Yo
oo

a diminished one ? The apparent shift in the relative position of two

B

The magnification of a spherical mirror is given by objects situated at different distances, when the eye is
re

moved sideways, is called parallax.

/
m =
35. How is parallax removed ?
ou
ad

u-f
Parallax is removed by making the distance of the
Y

According to the new cartesian sign convention, u two objects same from the eye, i.e., there should be no
is negative and / is positive for a convex mirror so relative shift. To remove parallax, the object which
nd
Re

that
appears to move in the opposite direction to which
Fi

|ml<l the eye moves, is taken away from the eye and that
which appears to move in the same direction, is
As the magnification is less than unity, the image brought nearer to the eye.
formed by a convex mirror is always diminished
one.
36. While travelling in a train, we feel as if the earth is
rotating. Why ?
27. Why do we take a spherical mirror of small aperture ?
This is due to parallax. When the train is in motion,
If the aperture is large, the image suffers from the the distant objects like trees, etc., appear to move in
defect of spherical aberration. the direction of motion of the train while the trees
28. What are paraxial and marginal rays ? near the track appear to move in the opposite
The rays which travel quite close to the principal axis direction.This makes us feel that the earthis rotating.
and strike the mirror near the pole, are called paraxial 37. What are conjugate points ?
rays. These rays subtend very small angle with the Tlnese are the two points lying on the principal axis of
normal at the point of incidence. a concave mirror such that the object placed at one of
The rays which travel away from the principal axis these points produces an image at the other point and
vice versa.
and strike the mirror surface near its periphery are
called marginal rays. Tliey subtend a large angle with 38. Do the conjugate points exist in convex mirror ?
the normal at the point of incidence. No, because it always produces a virtual image.

/25
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

39. At what distance from the image needle should the 48. In determining the focal length of a convex mirror,
eye be placed while removing parallax ? can we use a convex lens of any focal length ?
The least distance of distinct for a normal eye is No, the focal length of the auxiliary convex lens
25 cm. The eye should be placed at a distance greater should be greater than the focal length of the convex
than 25 cm from the image needle. mirror.

40. The focal length of a concave mirror is determined by 49. Why should the focal length of the convex lens used
1 1
plotting (0 uvs. u graph, and («) - us. - graph. Which in this experiment neither be too small nor too large ?
ll V
The real magnified image formed by the convex lens
of these graphical methods Is more accurate ? should lie at the centre of curvature of the convex
mirror when the mirror is interposed between the
The focal length obtained from - vs. - graph is more lens and the magnified image. For this reason, focal
u V
length of the convex lens can neither to be too small
accurate because this graph is a straight line while the
u vs. V graph is a curve. nor too large.
50. When does the convex lens and convex mirror
41. Can we determine the focal length of concave mirror
by using a single needle ? combination form real and inverted image coinciding
with the object ?
Yes, the needle is so adjusted in front of the concave
mirror that its image coincides with the object needle This happens when the rays starting from the tip of
the object, after passing the convex lens strike the
itself. This happens only when the object needle is at
the centre of curvature of the concave mirror. convex mirror normally and are reflected back along
their original paths.
42. Can we interchange object and image needles during
the course of experiment ?
51. Why should the optical bench be levelled horizontally ?
The line joining the tips of the nejedle, object
No, the index corrections determined for object needle, centres of the mirror and the lens will not
distance and image distance may undergo a change.
remain horizontal. Then the location of the image will
43. Can you determine focal length of the concave mirror become difficult.
if u < / ?
52. Why is it advised to use convex lens and convex
No, a concave mirror forms a virtual image behind mirror of small apertures ?
tire mirror for u< f. This image cannot be taken on a With convex lens and convex mirror of small
screen.
apertures, only a narrow beam of light passes
through lens and then strikes the mirror. The final
B. Focal Length of a Convex Mirror image formed is sharp and distinct, free from
using a Convex Lens spherical aberrations.
44. What is the nature of image formed by a convex 53. Why should the object needle lie between / and 2/of
mirror ? the convex lens ?

A convex mirror always forms a virtual, erect and So that a real and magnified image is formed by the
convex lens.
diminished image.
45. Can we find the rough focal length of a convex 54. Why should the distance between the convex lens
mirror ? and convex mirror be kept small ?
No, because the image formed in a convex mirror is Only then the image formed by the convex lens can
always virtual and cannot be taken on a screen. be obtained at the centre of curvature of the convex
mirror.
46. Can we find the focal length of a convex mirror by
55. For removing parallax for image formation with
plotting the graph of - us. - ? convex lens alone, the convex mirror have to be
V u

removed without disturbing the positions of uprights

No, because a convex mirror always forms a virtual holding object needle and lens. Why ?
image, consequently v cannot be determined on an
optical bench for a given value of it If the positions of the uprights holding object needle
and convex lens get disturbed, we will not be able to
47. How can we find the focal length of a convex mirror ? locate the centre of curvature of the convex mirror
By using an auxiliary convex lens. correctly.

126

I
 chapter “‘

Spherical
Lenses

n Spherical Lenses Centre of

Optical
centre\ A
Radius of
curvature

curvature \/ ' R.
A lens is a piece of a refracting medium bounded by two
surfaces, at least one of which is a curved surface. Tlie \ \
C2
commonly used spherical lenses have either both
Principal
surfaces spherical or one spherical and other plane. axis

w
Spherical lenses are of two types :
(0 Convex or converging lens. It is thicker at the Optical
^ Radius of
Centre of curvature
centre than at the edges. It converges a parallel Flo curvature
centre'

beam of light on refraction through it. It has a

ee
real focus.
C,
T C2
Fr
A
//
Principal
axis
for
ur
ks

Fig. 9.3 Characteristics of convex and concave lenses,

Yo
oo

(li) Radius of curvature. The radius of curvature of the

V
B

Biconvex Planoconvex Concavoconvex

surface of a lens is the radius of the sphere of which the
re

surface forms a part.

Fig. 9.1 Different types of convex lenses. {Hi) Principal axis. It is the line passing through the
ou
ad

centres of curvature of the lens,

Y

(j7) Concave or diverging lens. It is thinner at the

centre than at the edges. It diverges a parallel {iv) Optical centre. It is the pohtt situated within the
nd
Re

beam of light on refraction through it. It has a lens through which a ray of light passes undeviated.
Fi

virtual focus. (t?) Principal foci and focal length :

First principal focus. It is a fixed point on the principal
Y7 7 axis such that rays starting from this point (in convex lens)
or appearing to go towards this point (in concave lens), after
refractbn through the lens, become parallel to the principal axis.
It is represented by f, or F'. The distance between first
principal focus and the optical centre is called the first
LA focal length. It is denoted by ft or /'.
Biconcave Planoconcave Convexoconcave

Fig. 9.2 Different types of concave lenses.

■> ■>

Qj Definitions in Connection with Spherical Lenses ->

o

,0
F
A.
(j) Centre of curvature. The centre of curvature of the
surface of a lens is centre of the sphere of which it forms a
T"
f—> ■>

part. Because a lens has two surfaces, so it has two /'

centres of curvature.
Fig. 9.4 First principal focus and first focal length.
i27
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xli

Second principal focus. It is a fixed point on the appearing to meet at it [in a concave lens, as shown in
principal axis such that the light rays incident parallel to the Fig. 9.7(b)] emerges parallel to the principal axis after
principal axis, after refraction through the lens, either refraction.
converge to this point (in convex lens) or appear to diverge
from this point (in concave lens). The distance between (Hi) A ray of light, passing through the optical
centre of the lens, emerges without any deviation after
the second principal focus and the optical centre is
refraction, as shown in Figs. 9.8{«) and (b).
called the second focal length- It is denoted by f^ or /.
A W
—— r A f2 P2

V
^ 1

F
I
—0 (^) (b)
Fig. 9.8 Path of a ray passing through the optical centre
(a) convex lens (h) concave lens.

Fig. 9.5 Second principal focus and first focal length. Q Ray Diagrams showing the Formation
Generally, the focal length of a lens refers to its second of Images by Spherical Lenses
focal length. The peal length of a convex lens is taken positive A. Formation of Images by Convex Lens
and the peal length of a concave lens is taken negative.
If the medium on both sides of a lens is same, then
(a) Object beyond 2f. The image is
(i) between F and 2F (ii) real
/ = /'●
(Hi) inverted (iv) smaller
(ui) Aperture. It is the diameter of the circular
A
boundary of the lens.

Q Rules for Drawing Images

F I 2F
O 2F F Image
formed by Spherical Lenses B

(i) A ray from the object parallel to the principal V

axis after refraction passes through the second Fig. 9.9 (g)
principal focus F2 [in a convex lens, as shown in Fig. (b) Object at 2F. The image is
9.6(a)] or appears to diverge (in a concave lens, as
(0 at 2F (H) real
shown in Fig. 9.6(b)] from the first principal focus Fj.
(Hi) inverted (iv) same size

0 IF
A A
2F f
I Image
(0) V lA (b) B

Fig. 9.6 Path of ray incident parallel to the principal axis of

(a) convex lens (b) concave lens. Rg. 9.9 (b)
(ii) A ray of light passing through the first principal (c) Object between 2F and F. The image is
focus [in a convex lens, as shown in Fig. 9.7(a)] or (i) beyond 2f (ii) real
(Hi) inverted (m) larger

^2

(<1) V lA (b)
Fig. 9.7 Path of a ray passing through focus of
(a) convex lens (b) concave lens.

128
 Chapfer 9 : SPHERICAL LENSES

(d) Object between F and lens. The image is This formula is valid for both convex and concave

(0 behind object (ii) virtual lenses and for both real and virtual images.
(m) erect (iv) larger Assumptions used in the derivation of thin lens
formula :
I
(j) The lens used is thin.
/N (ii) The aperture of the lens is small.
i (Hi) The incident and refracted rays make small
/ F O angles with the principal axis.
(iv) Tlie object is a small object placed on the
principal axis.

Fig. 9.9 (d) New Cartesian Sign Convention

B. Formation of Image by Concave Lens for Spherical Lenses

For any position of the object on the principal axis, {/) All distances are measured from the optical

w
the image is centre of the lens.

(/) in front of object (ii) virtual (H) The distances measured in the same direction as
(Hi) erect (w) smaller Flo the incident light are taken positive.

ee
(Hi) The distances measured in the direction opposite

Fr
to the direction of the incident light are taken
negative,
for
ur
(iv) Heights measured upwards and perpendicular
to the principal axis are taken positive.
ks

(i>) Heights measured downwards and perpen

Yo
oo

dicular to the principal axis are taken negative.

B

A
re

+ ve Height
Incident light
Fig. 9.9 Formation of images by spherical lenses.
ou
ad
Y

Lens Maker’s Formula 0

Negative distance Positive distance ^
along incident light , .
nd
Re

Lens maker's formula relates the focal length / to against incident light
- ve Height
Fi

the refractive index p and the radii of curvature Ry ]?2

of the spherical surfaces of a lens. Fig. 9.10 New Cartesian sign convention
1 1 1
for a spherical lens.

/
El Linear Magnification produced by a Lens
1^1 R
1

For the lens placed in air.

Linear magnification is the ratio of the size of the image
1 formed by a lens to the size of the object.
f Ri R^ Size of image
Magnification =
Size of object
Q Thin Lens Formula
Thin lens formula is a mathematical relation between or in = i- V /
u
f+u f
the object distance u, image distance v and focal length
/ of a spherical lens. The relation is
When m is positive (or v is negative), the image is
1-1 ^ virtual and erect. When m is negative (or v is positive),
V u
/ the image is real and inverted.

129
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Power of a Lens The total magnification is equal to the product of the

magnifications produced by the individual lenses.
The power of a lens is deifned as the reciprocal of its focal
m = m^x....
length, expressed in metres.
1 The combined focal length / of two thin lenses of
P =
/(m) focal lengths and /2 placed in contact is given by
SI unit of power is m"\ also called dioptre (D). One
dioptre is the power of a lens whose principal focal length is /"//a
1 metre.
1
When the two thin lenses are separated by a
P = - = (p-l) — distance d, their equivalent focal length / is given by
/ R
1
1 = J_ J_ ^
10 Lens Combinations / A A A A
When lenses are used in combination, each lens or Power, P = .P^ + P2 + d x P^x
magnifies the image formed by the preceding lens.

EXPERIMENT B3
AIM

To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or
1 1
between - and
u V

Apparatus and Material Required

An optical bench, three uprights with clamps, two sharp-edged needles, convex lens of focal
length less than 20 cm, index needle/knitting needle and a half-metre scale.

Theory/Working Formula
1. If an object needle is placed between / and 2/ of a convex lens, its real, inverted and
magnified image is formed beyond 2/ on the other side of the lens. By placing another
needle, called image needle there, we can locate the image of the first needle by removing
the parallax between the image and the second needle itself.
2. The relation between the object distance u, image distance v and focal length / of a convex
lens is given by the thin lens formula,
1 1 1 uv
or /=
/ ^ u u-v

According to new Cartesian sign convention,

u is negative and v is positive when a convex
lens forms a real image. Also, / is positive
for a convex lens.
F

2F
Diagram

See Fig. 9.11 Object

needle O

needle I

Fig. 9.11 Ray diagram for finding the focal length of a convex lens.
IJO

i
 Chapter 9 : SPHERICAL LENSES

Procedure

To find rough focal length of the convex lens

1. Hold the convex lens in the right hand. Obtain a sharp image of the sun or a distant object
on a wall (or at the back of your practical notebook).
2. Measure the distance between the lens and the sharp image with a half-metre scale. This
distance gives a rough value for the focal length of the convex lens.
NOTE Do not see the image of the sun directly as it may hurt your eyes.

To locate the image formed by convex lens

3. Place the optical bench horizontally on the working table.
4.
Mount the convex lens Lin the clamp of central upright and the two needles O and f in the
remaining uprights. Make the plane of the lens L vertical so that its principal axis becomes
parallel to the length of the optical bench. Adjust the tips of the two needles and the optical
centre of the lens to the same height Fix a small piece of white paper on the tip of the object

w
needle O.

5. Mark points F and 2f with a chalk piece on the both sides of the lens, at distances equal to
Flo
rough focal length and twice the rough focal length from the lens L, respectively.

ee
6. Place the object needle O between F and 2 F but closer to 2 F on one side of the lens L. It will
Fr
form a real, inverted and magnified image on the other side of the lens. Adjust the height of
the needle I till its tip coincides with the tip of the image needle O. Moving the needle 1
for
ur
forward or backward, remove the parallax between the image of needle O and the needle /
itself. Note the positions of the three uprights on the scale of the optical bench.
ks
Yo

7. Now move the object needle 2 cm closer to the lens

L and locate the new position of the
oo

image. Moving the object needle closer to the lens Leach time, take three or four such sets of
B

readings. Check that the object needle always remains between F and IF.
re

Note that the image moves away from the lens as the object needle moves closer to the lens and vice versa.
ou
ad

8. Record all these observations in a tabular form. Find u and v in each case.
Y

9.
Write the observations at serial numbers 4-6 by just interchanging the values of u and v in
nd
Re

observations at serial numbers 1-3. This makes use of the property of conjugate foci
Fi

To determine the index correction

10.
Measure the length of the index/knitting needle with a half-metre scale. Let it be x cm.
11. Hold the knitting needle between the centre of the convex lens and the tip of the object
needle O.Read the distance between the two uprights on the scale on the optical bench. Let it
be y cm. Determine the index correction (.r-y) for the object distance u.
12. Now hold the knitting needle between the centre of the lens and tip of the image needle 7.
Note the distance between the two uprights. Let it be z cm. Determine the index correction
{x-z) for the image distance v.
13. After adding the respective index corrections, record the corrected values of ii and v. Also
find the values of — and — in each case.
u V

Reservations and Calculations

Rough focal length of the convex lens = cm

Actual length of the needle. X = cm

131
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Observed length of the knitting needle between object needle and the convex lens, y =, cm

Observed length of the knitting needle between image needle and the convex lens z =, cm

Index correction for object distance » = =x-y = cm

Index correction for image distance v = C2 =x-z = cm

Table 9.1 : Determination of u, v and / for the convex lens

Observed Focal
Positions of uprights Corrected distances
1 1
distances length
S.No. u V uv
Object Concave Image 0L = u' U=v' / =
needle 0 lens L needle I
u = u + e
1 V = v'+ eg (cm (cm u-v
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) Icmi
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Mean value of / = cm

NOTE Use the standard table of reciprocals for writing the values of ii and v.

Determination of/by Graphical Methods

1. Focal length from graph between u and v. Choosing a suitable and same scale for both the
axes, plot tlie u-v graph by taking the w-values along negative X-axis and i?-values along positive
Y-axis because u is negative and v is positive in this experiment according to the Cartesian sign
convention. As the values of u and v are greater than the focal length, the origin O should be given
a value close to the rough focal length on both the axes which enables us to choose a larger scale
for the graph. The graph will be a rectangular hyperbola, as shown in Fig. 9.12.
Draw a line from the origin O making
an angle of 45® with the X-axis. It meets
u
-V gra ph for i conve|c lens
the u-v graph at point P. Obviously, for
I
Y

any point on this line Scale:

X-axis ; 1 division = cm
v = -u
Y-axis : 1 division = cm

f
I
V U V V V c

HyjerbolaP I
(0 cm
■^2 2
B
\
OA
(/O /=-f
\
cm ●

2 K-
N

X'
\
/ .
45°A i
Mean value of / = cm
<■ II (cm) A O
Y

Fig. 9.12 Graph between u and v for a convex lens.

132

V
 Chapter 9 ;SPHERICAL LENSES

2. Focal length from U’V lines. Choosing larger and same scale for both axes, mark the values of u
along negative X-axis and those of t? along positive Y-axis. Draw straight lines joining the points Uj,
«2,M3,etc; of the X-axis and the corresponding points ,i?2,i'3,etc; of the Y-axis. [See Fig. 9.13]
Within the limits of the experimental error, these lines meet at a common point Q which should
have coordinates (-/, /). So
-x-coordinate of point Q + y-coordinate of point Q _ OA + OB _
/= 2 2
cm

w
Flo
ee
Fr
for
ur
ks
Yo

Fig. 9.13 Focal length from the intersection of u-v lines.

oo

Fig. 9.14 Graph between - and - for a convex lens.

u V
B

1 1
re

3. Focal length from the graph between — and —. Choosing a suitable and same scale for both the
u V
ou
ad

axes, plot points taking - along negative X-axis and — along positive Y-axis. Draw the best
Y

ll V

possible straight line through these points and produce it to intersect both the axes. Each
nd
Re

intercept, OA on X-axis and OB on Y-axis, gives a value for . [See Fig. 9.14]
Fi

/
1
(i) Intercept on X-axis ^ /= cm
OA

1
(ii) Intercept on Y-axis = — = OB - cm

/ OB

Mean value of / = cm

Result
uv
1. Focal length of the convex lens calculated from ii and v values as f - cm.
u-v

2. Focal lengtli of the convex lens from the u-v graph = cm

3. Focal length of the convex lens from the intersection of u-v lines = cm

4. Focal length of the convex lens from the graph between - and - = cm
u V

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 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

_^RECAUTIONS
1. The principal axis of the lens should be horizontal and parallel to the length of the optical bench.
2. The uprights should be rigid and vertical.
3. The tips of the object and image needles and the optical centre of tlie convex lens must be
adjusted at the same height.
4. To locate the position of the image, the eye must be held at a distance of about 30 cm behind
the image needle.
5. Parallax must be removed tip to tip.
6. Index corrections for u and v must be carefully determined and correctly applied.
7. The object needle should not be placed between the focus and the optical centre of the lens
because it produces only a virtual image.
8. The object needle should be distinguished from the image needle by fixing a small piece of
white paper over it.
9. The object and image needles should not be interchanged during the course of the experiment.
10. The values of u and v should not differ much. This minimises the error in the determination
of /.
Sources of Error

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. Parallax might not have been removed completely.
3. Errors may occur in the result if the top of the optical bench is not horizontal and if the tips
of the two optical needles and the optical centre of the convex lens are not at the same
horizontal level.

»« ❖ »«

EXPERIMENT B4
Aim

To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens.

\ Apparatus and Material Required

An optical bench with four uprights, two optical needles (one thin and one thick), a thin concave
lens, a convex lens of focal length (=. 15 cm) smaller than that of the concave lens, index/knitting
needle and a half-metre scale.

[\ Theory/Working Formula
A concave lens always forms a virtual and erect image. So its focal length cannot be determined
accurately. The difficulty is overcome by interposing a convex lens between the object and the
concave lens and producing a real image. For this the focal length of the convex lens must be smaller
than the focal length of the concave lens.
Let f be the real image of the object O formed by a convex lens Z-j. If a concave lens is
interposed between the lens L^ and image Ij, the rays after refraction through lens are

134

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 Chopfer 9 : SPHERICAL LENSES

diverged by the concave lens so that the real image is shifted away from the convex lens to
position l2-The image serves as a virtual object for the concave lens which forms real image I2
of it.

In this case : Object distance = w = Lj /j ; Image distance = i? = L2 ^2

Focal length / of the concave lens can be determined from the thin lens formula,
i =i ^ or /=
uv

/ ^ u u-v

Here for the concave lens, u and v are positive and u < f, so f is negative.
f1
Ray Diagrams
Image of
object needle O

w
(«)

Flo
ee
needle O
Image
needle I
Fr
for
ur
I I
I I

object needle O I I
ks

I I
Yo

\ /
oo

j (b)
h
B

Image
re

needle /

Object
ou
ad

needle O
Y

Fig. 9.15 Focal length of concave lens by using a convex lens.

nd
Re

Procedure
Fi

To find the rough focal length of the convex lens

1. Select a convex lens of such a focal length that it forms a converging combination with the
concave lens For itlls the focal length of convex length must be less than that of concave lens.
2. Hold the convex lens in the right hand. Obtain a sharp image of the sun or a distant object
on a wall (or at the back surface of your practical notebook).
3. Measure the distance between the lens and the sharp image with a half-metre scale. This
distance gives a rough value for the focal length of the convex lens.
NOTE Do not see the image of the sun directly as it may hurt your eyes.

To locate the image formed by convex lens

4. Hold the convex lens Lj in a clamp and mount it in an upright so that its principal axis is
horizontal and parallel to the length of the optical bench. Mount thin needle as object needle
O and thick needle as object needle / in the two uprights on either side of the convex lens Lj.
Adjust the tips of the two needles to the same height as the optical centre of the convex lens.

135

J
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xll

5. Adjust the object needle O at a distance from the convex lens greater than its focal length.
Locate its real inverted image on the other side of the lens by removing parallax between
the image and the second needle 7. Note the positions of object needle O, lens Lj and
image needle I on the scale of the optical bench.
To locate the image formed by the combination of convex and concave lenses
6.
Mount the concave lens in its upright and interpose it between the convex lens L, and
image needle 7. First keep the concave lens fairly close to needle 7. It will be found that the
real inverted image has shifted away from the convex lens. Bring the concave lens closer to
the convex lens until this shift is fairly large.
7.
Now shift the needle 7 to locate the image I2 by it, by removing tip to tip parallax between
the two. See that the positions of the object needle Oand the convex lens Lj are not disturbed during
the second part of the experiment. Note the positions of concave lens and the image
8.
Repeat the experiment three or four times by changing the position of concave lens
relative to convex lens or that of object needle O relative to convex lens or both. In case
the image formed by the combination of convex and concave lenses is blurred or not
distinctly visible, try to locate it by bringing concave lens closer to the position of image 7^.
In any case, the object needle O must lie between F and 2 F of the convex lens. Record all
these observations in a tabular form.

To determine the index correction

9. Measure the length of the index/knitting needle with a half-metre scale. Let it be X cm.
10. Hold the knitting needle between the centre of the concave lens 7^ arid the tip of the image
needle 7. Note the distance between the two uprights. Let it be y cm. The index correction for
both the object distance u and image distance v will be, e = x-y.

Observations and Calculations

Rough focal length of the convex lens = cm

Actual length of the knitting needle, x = cm

Observed length of the knitting needle between concave lens and image needle 7, y cm

Index correction for both u and v, e~x-y = cm

Table 9.2 : Determination of u, v and / for convex lens

Observed
Positions of uprights distances
Corrected distances Focal length
uv
S.No. / =
Object Convex Concave First Second
needle lens lens Ig image IgL=u' IgJg=v' u =u' + e v = v' + e u-v
image Zg (cm) (cm) (cm)
0 (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (gni)- (cm) (cm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Mean value of / = cm

Result

Focal length of the given concave lens = cm

136

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 Chapter 9 : SPHERICAL LENSES

Precautions

1. The focal length of the auxiliary convex lens should be smaller than that of concave lens so
that they together form a converging combination.
2. The optical axis of the system must be parallel to the length of the optical bench.
3. As the image is quite enlarged and blurred, it is preferable to use thin and sharp object
needle I and a thicker image needle /.
4. The tips of the object and image needles and optical centres of the two lenses must be
adjusted at the same height.
5. The object needle should be placed at a distance from the convex lens greater than its focal
length so that a real image is formed.
6. The concave lens must be placed near the convex lens because the second image I2 is formed
only when the distance between concave lens and first image (which acts as virtual
object for L^) is less than the focal length of the concave.lens.
7. The convex lens and the object needle must not be disturbed during the second part of the
experiment.

w
8. Sometimes a diminished, real and inverted image of the image needle I is also formed due to
Flo
reflection of light rays from the concave surface of the lens
the bold and bright image formed by the lens combination.
It should not be confused with

ee
9. For getting accurate results, the concave lens should be so adjusted that the second image
I2 is sufficiently remote from the first image . Fr
for
ur
10. Parallax must be removed tip to tip.
11. Index correction should be accurately determined and correctly applied.
ks
Yo

I ^URCES
oo

OF Error
B

1. The principal axis of the convex lens may not be parallel to the length of the optical bench.
re

2. The uprights may not be vertical.

ou
ad

3. Parallax might not have been removed completely.

Y

4. In the second part of the experiment, the positions of the uprights holding the object needle
nd

and the convex lens might have been disturbed.

Re
Fi

VIVA VOCE

A. Focal Length of a Convex Lens 4. Define centre of curvature, radius of curvature,

principal axis, optical centre and aperture of a lens.
1. What is a lens ?
Centre of curvature. The centre of curvature of the
A lens is a piece of a refracting medium bounded surface of a lens is the centre of the sphere of which it
by two surfaces, at least one of which is a curved forms a part. Because a lens has two stu-faces, so it has
surface. two centres of curvatures.

2. What are spherical lenses ? Radius of curvature. The radius of curvature of the
Tlnese are the lenses which have either both surfaces surface of a lens is the radius of the sphere of which
spherical or one spherical and the other a plane one. the surface forms a part.
3. How do you distinguish between convex lens and Principal axis. It is the line passing through the
concave lens ? centres of curvature of the lens.

A convex lens is thicker at the centre than at the edges Optical centre. It is the point situated within the lens
while a concave lens is thinner at the centre than at through which a ray of light passes undeviated.
the edges. Aperture. It is the diameter of the circular boundary
of the lens.

137

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 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

5. What do you mean by principal focus of a lens ? 15. What are the differences between the image formed
A narrow beam of light parallel to the principal axis by a convex lens and a concave lens ?
either converges to a point or appears to diverge from A convex lens forms (/) a real, inverted and
a point on the principal axis after refraction through diminished image when the object lies between co
the lens. This point is called principal focus. A lens and 2F (if) a real, inverted and magnified image when
has two principal focii. the object lies between 2f and F and (iff) a virtual,
6. What is the difference between focus and the erect and magnified image when the object lies
principal focus ? between F and the lens.

Focus is any point in the focal plane where a parallel A concave lens always forms a virtual, erect and
beam of light after refraction through the lens diminished image for all positions of the object.
converges or appears to diverge from. 16. How can you recognise a convex lens, a circular glass
Principal focus is the point where a beam of light slab and a concave lens, without touching them ?
parallel to the principal axis converges or appears to We place all the three glass pieces over a printed page
diverge from a point on the principal axis after of paper and look for the virtual image through each
refraction through the lens.
piece.
7. What do you mean by focal length of a lens ?
If the virtual image is of the same size as the
Focal length of a lens is the distance between its object, then the glass piece is a glass slab.
optical centre and its principal focus.
If the virtual image is magnified, then the glass
8. If a lens is a plano-convex lens, then what is the piece is a convex lens.
radius of curvature of its plane surface ? Where is the
centre of curvature of its plane surface ?
If the virtual image is diminished, then the glass
piece is a concave lens.
Radius of curvature of a plane surface is infinity 17. What should be the position of an object relative to a
because the centre of curvature of a plane surface lies
convex lens so that it behaves like a magnifying
at infinity.
glass ?
9. Then, how will you define principal axis for a
plano-convex or plano-concave lens ? The object should be placed between the optical
centre and the focus of the convex lens.
The principal axis of a plano-convex or plano
concave lens is defined as the straight line which is 18. Where should an object be placed from a convex lens
perpendicular to its plane surface and passes through to form an image of the same size ?
centre of curvature of the curved surface. At a distance equal to 2/from the convex lens.
10. Why is a convex lens known as a converging lens ? 19. The central portion of a lens is covered with a black
Because a beam parallel to the principal axis incident paper. Will the lens form a full image of an object ?
on the lens, after refraction converges to a point on Yes, each part of the lens will form full image. But the
the principal axis. intensity of the image is reduced.
11. Why is a concave lens known as a diverging lens ? 20. What is thin lens formula ?

Because a beam parallel to the principal axis incident This formula gives relationship between the object
on the lens, after refraction appears to diverge from a distance u, the image distance v and the focal length /
point on the principal axis. of a thin lens.
12. Does a convex lens always behave as a converging lens ? According to this formula,
No, if the lens is placed in a medium having a refractive 1 1 1
index greater than that of the lens material, it behaves V u
/
as a diverging lens. For example, a biconvex air-lens
placed in water behaves as a diverging lens. 21. What is the relation between the focal length and the
refractive index of the material of the lens ?
13. Wliat will be the behaviour of a biconcave lens
The relation is
(p =1.5) immersed in carbon-disulphide solution(|i =
1.63) ? 1
The lens will behave as a converging lens. = (F -1) J ^
/ R,~R^
14. How does the focal length of a thick convex lens
differ from that of a thin lens ? where and th^ of curvature of the lens
surfaces and |i is the refractive index of the lens
A thicker convex lens has smaller focal length than material.
that of a thin lens.

138
 Chopfer 9 : SPHERICAL LENSES

22. State the factors on which the focal length of a lens 32. How does the focal length of a convex lens change if
depends. monochromatic red light is used instead of blue light ?
The focal length of a lens depends on : The focal length of a lens material varies with
(/) radii of curvature of lens surfaces, refractive index as / « —^ . But refractive index is
(n) refractive index of the lens material, p -1

(Hi) refractive index of the medium in which the large for violet light and less for red light, hence focal
lens is placed, and length will increase.
(iv) the wavelength of incident light. 33. A plano-convex lens (p = 1.5) has its convex surface
23. Define the power of a lens. of radius of curvature R. What is the relationship
The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its between the focal length and the radius of curvature ?
focal length expressed in metres. It is the ability of a Here = R, R2=x>, and p = 1.5
lens to converge or diverge a beam of light. 1 f 1 1 ^ 0.5
24. What is the SI unit of power ? ^=(1.5-1)-R or f =2R
f 00 ; R
The SI unit of a ler\s is m"\ also called dioptre.
34. A biconvex lens (p = 1.5) has radius of curvature R
25. Define dioptre.
What is the relationship between its focal length and
One dioptre is the power of a lens which has radius of curvature ?

w
principal focal length one metre.
Here R^= R, i?2 = and p = 1.5
26. You are given two convex lenses A and B. A has a
focal length of 10 cm and B has a focal length of
200 cm. Which lens has higher power ?
Flo 1
/'
=(1.5-1) —+ — =-
^
f I
R RJ
1

R
^ /=R

ee
The lens A has higher power as compared to R
Power of lens A =
1
= 10 dioptres
Fr
35. What is the minimum distance between an object and
its real image formed by a convex lens ?
(l/10)m
for
ur
4/.
Power of lens B = = 0.5 dioptre.
36. Why should the image distance between the two
ks

parallax pins be more than 4 / while finding the focal

Yo

27. You are given two convex lenses A and B. A is thicker

oo

in the middle than B. Which is of shorter focal length ? length of a convex lens by two pin method ?
B

The lens which is thicker in the middle has a short Because the minimum distance between the object and
re

focal length. Therefore, lens A has a shorter focal its real image formed by the convex lens will be 4/.
length than B.
ou

37. What happens to the focal length of a convex lens,

ad

28. What is the sign for the power of a convex lens ? when it is immersed in water ?
Y

The power of a convex lens is taken to be positive and 1

Focal length, / oc
nd
Re

that of concave lens is negative. p-1

Fi

29. If two lens of powers 1^ and 1^ are placed in contact As the focal length of glass with respect to water is
with each other, then what will be the power of less than the refractive index of glass with respect to
combination ?
air/.e., “'ll <"p , so the focal length increases when
d o

The power Pof the combination is the algebraic sum the convex lens is immersed in water.
of the powers of the individual lenses. So P = 1^ + f|. 38. A glass lens is immersed in water. What happens to
30. Will the power of a glass lens change if it is placed in its power ?
water ?
Power of a lens, P oc (p -1)
Yes, the focal length of a glass lens changes when it is
placed in water because it depends on the relative As "'p_ <*’p
O o
so power of the glass lens will deaease
refractive index of a glass with respect to the medium when immersed in water.

in which it is placed. As focal length changes, so the 39. A convex lens of focal length / is cut into two equal
power of lens also changes. planoconvex lenses. What will be the focal length of
31. What are the focal length and power of a glass slab ? each half part ?
100
Power of a ler\s - —- dioptres Focal length of each planoconvex lens will be 2 /.
/(m) /(cm) 40. Can a virtual image produced by lens be inverted ?
Focal length of a glass slab is infinite and, therefore,
No, a virtual image is always erect for an erect object.
its power is zero.

IJ9

i
 lAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

41. Sunglasses (goggles) have curved surfaces but they B. Focal Length of Concave Lens
do not have any power. Why ?
50. What is the nature of image formed by a concave lens ?
Both the surfaces of sunglasses are equally curved
It is always virtual, erect and smaller in size.
i.e., Ri = R2-
51. Can we estimate the rough focal length of a concave
1 lens ?
P = (p-1)
No, because it forms a virtual image which cannot be
taken on a screen.
42. Why should the image and object needles not be
interchanged during the performance of the ^2. What is the necessary condition for finding the focal
experiment ? length of a concave lens by using a convex lens ?
This may change the values of index corrections for The focal length of the convex lens should be smaller
than that of the concave lens.
object distance and image distance.
43. Why should the aperture of the lens used be small ? 53. Why should the focal length of the convex lens be
smaller than that of the concave lens ?
Otherwise the image formed by the lens will not be
distinct due to spherical aberration. So that the combination is a convergent one and its
real image can be obtained on a screen.
44. What is spherical aberration ?
54. Can we determine the focal length of a concave lens
When a beam of light parallel to the principal axis is
refracted by a lens, the marginal rays meet from the by plotting u vs. v or - i;s. -V graph ?
lens at shorter distances than the paraxial rays. So the
No, a concave lens forms a virtual image. So it is not
image formed is not sharp but fuzzy. The fuzzy possible to measure v on an optical bench for a given
formation of image which occurs due to the large value of u.
aperture of the lens is called spherical aberration. To
correct the defect, the lens surface is suitably grinded 55. Can we use an auxiliary convex lens of focal length
to make it suitably spherical. 50 cm for finding the focal length of a concave lens of
focal length 10 cm ?
45. What is chromatic aberration ?
No, because the combination will be a divergent one
The defect of a lens due to which it is not able to focus
and will not form a real image.
the rays of all colours at the same point is called
chromatic aberration. As a result of this defect, the
56. Why is the image formed by a concave lens always
diminished ?
image formed is coloured one. /
Magnification produced by any lens, m = —
46. A convex lens and a concave lens are placed in f+u
contact with each other. Is the spherical aberration of According to Cartesian sign convention, both u and /
this combination more or less than that of either lens are negative for a concave lens.
forming the combination ? m is positive and | mj < 1
The spherical aberration of the combination is less => The image formed by a concave lens is virtual,
than that of either lens because spherical aberration is erect and diminished.
positive for a convex lens and negative for a concave 57. Why must the distance between convex lens and
lens. When the two lenses are placed in contact, the concave lens be small ?
spherical aberration is reduced.
This is because image is formed by the combi
47. You are given a biconvex, planoconvex and nation only when the distance between concave lens
biconcave lens. Which one will you use so that and first image (which acts as virtual object for
spherical aberration is least ? concave lens ) is less than the focal length of the
concave lens.
Planoconvex lens with curved surface facing incident
radiation.
58. Why should the object needle be thin and sharply edged ?
48. The objective of a good telescope, a microscope or a The lens combination forms highly enlarged and
spectrometer is a combination of two thin lenses in blurred image. In order to get an easily visible image,
contact, rather than a single lens. Why ? the object needle should be thin and sharp.
Spherical aberration and chromatic aberration are 59. Why is index correction same for u and v in this
minimised by using suitable combinations of lenses. experiment ?
49. Can we use a concave lens as a magnifier ? This is because the same two uprights holding
concave lens and image needle / are used to
No, it always forms a diminished image. measure both ii and v.

140

i
 *
● ●;

chapter

Refraction through
A Glass Prism

Q Prism Let i and r be the angles of incidence and refraction at

the face AB, and / and e be angles of incidence and
A prism is (j wedge shaped portion of a transparent emergence at the face AC. Let A be the angle of the prism.
refracting medium bounded by two plane faces inclined to
From the quadrilateral AQNR,
each other at a certain angle.

w
D
A + ZQNR = 180°
Refracring
edge^ From the triangle QNR,
Refracting—
faces V A
Flo r+t' + ZQNR= 180°

ee
A = r+ /
Angle ^
of prism / 5-
Fr
Now, from the triangle MQR, the deviation
produced by the prism is
for
ur
B C
8= Z MQR + Z MRQ^^ii - r) + {e - f)
5 = deviation at the first face
ks

or
(a) O’)
Yo

+ deviation at the second face

oo

Fig. 10.1 {a) A glass prism (b) Its principal section.

= (/ + e)-{r+ /)
B

The angle A included between tlte two refracting i + e-A + 8

re

or 6=i+e-A or

faces is called angle of the prism. Any section of the i.e., Angle of incidence + Angle of emergence
ou
ad

prism at a plane at irght angles to the refracting edge is = Angle of prism + Angle of deviation
Y

called the principal section of the prism.

So xvhen a ray of light is refracted through a prism, the sum
nd
Re

Qj Refraction through a Prism : of the angle of incidence and the angle of emergence is equal
Fi

to the sum of the angle of the prism and the angle ofdeviation.
Deviation Produced by a Prism
Factors on which the angle of deviation depends:
Figure 10.2 shows the path PQRS of a ray of light
(0 The angle of incidence,
suffering refraction through a triangular glass prism. The
angle between the directions of the incident ray PQ and (n) The material of the prism,
the emergent ray RS is called the angle of deviation, 5. (m) The wavelength of light used.
A (iv) The angle of the prism.
Refracting edge—1
Angle of
Normal Refracting / "^prism jcl Variation of Angle of Deviation
at Q ' -, ,''' t A®'' ,' Normal with Angle of Incidence

Figure 10.3(rt) shows the path of a ray of light

suffering refraction through a prism of refracting angle
S
'A'. Figure 10.3(1?) shows the variation of angle of
deviation 5 with the angle of incidence i. For a given
C prism and for a given colour of light, the angle 5
Fig. 10.2 Refraction through a prism. depends on i only. As i increases, the angle 5 first

141
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

A
, I

Normal
," Normal c
o

to
>
01
TD

O
01

bo

I x-e e

(b)

Fig. 10.3 (a) A ray of light passing through a prism, (b) Plot of variation of 6 versus i.

decreases and reaches a minimum value 5^ and then + 5_

m
= i+ i
increases. Clearly, any given value of 5 corresponds to . A+8 m
two angles of incidence i and e. or
2
The minimum value of the angle of deviation suffered by Also A=r+r' =r+ r=2r
a ray on passing through a prism is called the angle of A
minimum deviation and is denoted by or D . The
2
advantage of placing the prism in the position of
minimum deviation is that the image is brightest in From SnelTs law, the refractive index of the
this position. material of the prism will be
sm 1
p =-
Relation between Refractive Index and sm r

Angle of Minimum Deviation . A + dm

sm
2
When a prism is in the position of minimum or =

. A
deviation, a ray of light passes symmetrically (parallel
sin
2
to the base) through the prism so that
i = e, r = r', 8 = 8m
By knowing the values of A and 6,^, the refractive
index p of the glass prism can be determined.
As A + 8=i+ e

EXPERIMENT B5
Aim

To determine the angle of deviation of the glass prism by plotting a graph between
angle of incidence and angle of deviation [and hence to find the refractive index of
the material of the prism].

Apparatus and Material Required

Drawing board, triangular glass prism, alpins, drawing pins/cellotape, protractor, a ruler, white
paper sheets and a graph paper.
Theory/Working Formulae
1. When a ray of light passes through a prism.
Angle of prism + Angle of deviation = Angle of incidence + Angle of emergence
A+8=i+e 8 = i + e-A

142
 Chapter 10 ; REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS PRISM

As i increases, 5 first decreases, becomes minimum and then increases. In the position of
minimum deviation 5,,,, the ray of light passes symmetrically, i.e., parallel to the base so that
i = e and r = r'.

2. The relation between |i and 5^^^ is

m
Sin
2
P- =
. A
sin -
2

Diagrams

^ ^ Normal d
Normal o
■s
re
>
<u
T3

O
01

w
"to
c
<

Flo i i = e

ib)
e

ee
Fig. 10.4 (a) Refraction of light through a prism (&) Variation of A with 5 for a glass prism.

PROCEDURE
Fr
for
ur
1. Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board with drawing pins/cellotape.
ks

2. Using a sharp pencil, draw a long straight line XY in the middle and parallel to the length of
Yo
oo

the paper.
B

3. Mark seven points Oj, O2, , O7 at equal distances of 6 cm on the line XY.
re

4. Draw normals N2O2, NyOj on the line XY.

ou
ad

5. Using a protractor, draw straight lines P^Oj, P2O2, P7O7 corresponding to the incident
Y

rays making angles of incidence at 30°, 35°, 40°, 50°, 55° and 60° respectively with the
nd
Re

normals.
Fi

6. By keeping a ruler along a line XY, place the prism along the ruler so that its refracting face
AB lies on the line XY with point Oj in the middle of AB, as shown in Fig. 10.5. Draw the
boundary of the prism with a sharp pencil.

Fig. 10.5 Angle of deviations for different angles of incidence.

143

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSfCS-XII

7. Fix two alpins Pj and ?2 vertically, more than 6 cm apart, on the incident ray line PjO^ such
that pin P2 is close to point Oj.
8. Close the left eye. Looking into the prism from
the opposite refracting face AC, position the right
eye in line with images of the feet of pins Pj and
P2. Now fix pins P3 and P^ in line with Pj and P2
as viewed through the prism. Eye should be kept
at some distance from the pins so that all the pins
can be seen in clear focus simultaneously, as
Eye
shown in Fig. 10.6. Distances and P3P4
should not be less than 6 cm so as to locate the Fig. 10.6 How to trace the path of
directions of the incident ray and the emergent a ray through a prism.
ray with an accuracy of the order of 1®.
9. Remove the alpins and encircle their pin pricks with a sharp pencil. Draw the line joining P3
and P4. Produce lines P^ P2 (forward) and P3P4 (backward) so that they meet point M Draw
arrowheads on Pjp2 and ;P^P,^ to indicate the directions of incident and emergent rays
respectively.
10. Using a protractor, measure the angle of incidence i = ZPjOjN, and also the angle of
deviation 5 = ZP^ MS.
11. By placing the prism at locations O3, O^, O5, Og and O7, repeat the experiments
for angles of incidence 35®, 40°, 45°, 50°, 55° and 60°, respectively. Measure the
corresponding angle of deviation in each case and indicate the values of these angles in the
diagram.
12. Measure the angle of prism A between the refracting faces AB and AC.
13. Record all observations in a tabular form.

Observations
Angle of prism, A=60°

Table 10.1 : Different values of i and 5 for a prism

S.No. Angle of incidence, i Angle of deviation, 5
1. 30°

2. 35°

3. 40°

4. 45°

5. 50°

6. 55°

7. 60°

NOTE In order to get an accurate value of the angle of minimum deviation, more readings
should be taken in the lower region of the i-5 curve. For example, for the i-5 curve shown in
Fig. 10.7, we need to take more readings for values of i in the range 40°- 50° say, at intervals of
2° and 3°.

144
i
 Chopper 10 : REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS PRISM

n Qraph AND Calculations

Choosing suitable scales, plot a graph

between i and & Take angle of incidence i
along X-axis and angle of deviation 5
along y-axis. Draw free hand smooth
curve passing through the maximum
number of plotted points.
Draw a tangent on the lowest point of the
curve parallel to the X-axis. Read the angle
of minimum deviation 6,^, on the Y-axis of
the graph.
Angle of minimum deviation,
5
m

Refractive index.

w
A + 8m
sm
2
.
sin
A
-
Flo
ee
2
Fig. 10.7 Variation of angle of deviation with angle
[ Result
1. As the angle of incidence increases,
Fr
of incidence for a prism.
for
ur
the angle of deviation first decreases, reaches a minimum value and then again increases, as
is obvious from the i versus 8 graph.
ks

2. Angle of minimum deviation, 8

Yo
oo

3. Refractive index of the prism material, p =

B

Precautions
re

1. An ink mark should be put on the prism to distinguish the refracting angle A from the other
ou
ad

angles and the same angle of the prism should be used throughout.
Y

2. The angle of incidence should not be less than 30®, as the ray may get totally reflected inside the
nd
Re

prism.
Fi

3. For prism of side 2.5 or 3 cm, the distance between any two pins should not be less than 6 cm.

4. Alpins should be fixed vertically and the pin pricks should be encircled immediately after
they are removed.
5. While fixing alpins, the feet of pins (and not their heads) must be adjusted in the same
straight line.
6. In order to locate the incident and emergent rays accurately, the pin separations Rj and
P3P4 should be more than 6 cm
7. Indicate the path of the incident, the refracted and the emergent rays by arrowheads.
8. A smooth best fitting curve should be drawn through the plotted points.
a ^URCEs OF Error
1. Alpins may not be vertical
2. The feet of the alpins may not be in a straight line
3. The distances between the pins may be small
4. Position of the prism might have disturbed during a given set of observations.
5. Measurement of angles may not be accurate.

145

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xll

VIVA VOCE

1. What is a prism ? 9. What is the relation between the angle of minimum

deviation and the refractive index of the prism
A wedge shaped portion of a refracting medium material ?
bounded by two plane faces inclined to each other at
a certain angle is called a prism. The relation between the angle of minimum
deviation and the refractive index p of the prism
2. What do you mean by tine refracting edge, base and material is
angle of a prism ? A+5 m
Refracting edge. The line along which the two sm
2
refracting faces of a prism meet is called the
=

. A
sin
refracting edge of the prism. 2
Base. The third face of a prism facing its refracting where A is the angle of the prism.
edge is called base of the prism.
10. What is the relation between angle of incidence i,
Angle of prism. The angle at which the refracting angle of prism A and angle of minimum deviation 6,,,
faces of a prism are inclined to each other is called for a prism ?
angle of the prism.
8,„=2i-A
3. What is meant by angle of deviation ?
11. How are the two angles of refraction of a prism
It is the angle between the incident ray and the related to the angle of the prism ?
emergent ray and is denoted by 5. It indicates the A = r+r'.
angle through which the incident ray is turned
towards the base of the prism on passing through it. 12. How are the two angles of refraction related when
4. How are the angle of incidence /, angle of emergence the prism is in the position of minimum deviation ?
r=r'= A/2
e, angle of deviation 5 and the angle of prism A
related ? 13. How does the refractive index of a transparent
For a ray of light passing through a prism, the sum of medium depend on the wavelength of incident light ?
the angle of incidence / and the angle of emergence e The refractive index of a transparent medium is
is equal to the sum of the angle of the prism A and the inversely related to the wavelength of incident light.
angle of deviation 5, According to Cauchy's relation,
i.e., i + e= A +6 b c
U =<7 + -:r + —r

5. What do you mean by angle of minimum deviation ?

The minimum value of the angle of deviation The constants a, b and c depend on the nature of the
suffered by a ray of light on passing through a prism medium.

is called the angle of minimum deviation. 14. For which colour, the refractive index of prism
6. On what factors does the angle of minimum material is (/) minimum and (ii) maximum ?
deviation depend ? Refractive index of prism material is
It depends on : (j) minimum for red colour, and
(i) the angle of incidence, {ii) maximum for violet colour.
{ii) the material of the prism, 15. Does the angle of deviation depend upon wavelength
{in) the wavelength of light used, and of light ?
{iv) the angle of the prism. Yes, depends upon wavelength of light used.
7. How does a ray of light passes through the prism in 16. Which colour is deviated (?) most and {ii) least, on
the position of minimum deviation ? passing through a prism ?
The refracted ray passes symmetrically (parallel to {i) Violet colour is deviated most.
the base) through the prism. {ii) Red colour is deviated least, on passing through
8. What is the relation between the angle of incidence a prism.
and the angle of emergence when the prism is in the 17. What is dispersion of light ?
minimum deviation position ? Dispersion is the phenomenon of splitting of which
Angle of incidence i = Angle of emergence c. light into the constituent colours on passing through
a prism.

146

V
 Chapter 10 : REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS PRISM

18. What is the cause of dispersion of light ? 25. In deciding the direction of emergent ray from a
The refractive index of the glass of the prism is prism, whether the heads or feet of the pins should be
different for different wavelengths or colours of in straight line ?
white light. Hence, different colours get bent along The feet of the pins should be in the straight line.
different directions on passing through the prism. 26. Why should the value of angle of incidence be taken
19. What is a spectrum ? What colours are present in the more than 30° ?
spectrum of white light ? For angles of incidence less than 30°, total internal
A spectrum is the wavelengthwise distribution of light. reflection of light may occur inside the prism.
The spectrum of white light consists of seven 27. What is total internal of light ?
colours : violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange The phenomenon in which a ray of light travelling in
and red.
at an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle
20. A prism can disperse white light into its constituent from denser to rarer medium is totally reflected back
colours while a glass slab cannot cause such a into the denser medium is called total internal
dispersion. Why ? reflection.

When white light is passed through a prism, its 28. What is critical angle for a given pair media ?
various wavelengths are deviated by different The angle of incidence in the denser medium for

w
amounts by the prism causing the dispersion of white which the angle of refraction in the rarer medium is
light. A glass slab can be treated as combination of 90° is called critical angle (i^) of the denser medium.
two prisms with their refracting angles situated
opposite to each other. So dispersion caused by one
Flo
29. What is relation between the refractive index and
critical angle for a given pair of optical media ?

ee
is annuled by the other. As a result, there is no

Fr
1
net dispersion of white light when it passes through a M =-
glass slab. sm
for
ur
21. What do you mean by the term angular dispersion of 30. Interpret the graph between i and 6.
a spectrum ?
As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of
ks

Tlie difference between the angles of deviation of the deviation first decreases, reaches a minimum value
Yo
oo

two extreme rays of a spectrum is called its angular 6^, and then again increases. For any angle of
B

separation. deviation, the angle of incidence has two values.

re

22. What is meant by the dispersive power of a refracting 31. Why should the distance between two alpins be
material ?
greater than 6 cm for locating incident and emergent
ou
ad

The dispersive power of a refracting material with rays ?

Y

respect to any two colours may be defined as the ratio This helps to locate the incident and emergent rays
of the angular dispersion of the two colours to the
nd

with greater accuracy.

Re

mean deviation produced by a prism of small angle

32. If the experiment is performed with angle of
Fi

made of that material. If 5^/, 5 and 5^ denote the emergence taken as the angle of incidence, will there
angles of deviation of the violet, yellow and red
be any change in the 6 values ? If yes, why ? If not,
colours, then dispersive power is given by why not ?
0> =
Angular dispersion _ 6^ 5,R No, there will not be any change in the 5 value. This is
Mean deviation 6 obvious from the prism equation, A + S = f + e, in
23. Can dispersive power be expressed in terms of which i and e are interchangeable.
refractive index ? 33. What will happen when you go on decreasing the
Yes, it can be expressed as follows : angle of incidence ? What happens when i is less than
certain minimum angle of incidence ?
03 = As I decreases, 5 increasestill the emergentray grazes
p-1 the refracting surface. If i decreases further, total
24. What is tire practical importance of the minimum internal reflection of light occurs.
deviation position ? 34. Why should we take more readings in the lower
When prism set in the minimum deviation produces region of the i-8 curve ?
spectrum of white light, there is minimum over This helps to locate the lowest point of the i-6 curve
lapping of different colours and a distinct spectrum is more accurately which further helps in determining
obtained. with greater accuracy.

147
 Determination of
Refractive Index

KB Refraction of Light Refractive index =

Speed of light in vacuum
Speed of light in medium
Refraction of light is the phenomenon of bending of light c
or
from its straight path when it passes obliqueli/ from one
= -

transparent medium to another.

Refractive index of a medium with respect to
Normal vacuum is also called absolute refractive index.

Incident Reflected
(b) Refractive index in terms of wavelength. Since
ray the frequency (v) remains unchanged when light
Medium 1
passes from one medium to another, therefore.
C vac
X V k vac
p =- or
^ = Lmed
I
V Xmed X v

Reflecting
surface The refractive index of a medium may be defined as the
Medium 2 r ratio of wavelength of light in vacuum to its wavelength in
that medium.
Refracted
ray (c) Relative refractive index. Tlie relative refractive
index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is defined
Fig. 11.1 Refraction and reflection of light. as the ratio of speed of light (Uj) in medium 1 to the
speed of light (i>2) in medium 2 and is denoted by V2-
Laws of Refraction of Light v
1 1
Thus
First law. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the
^2
normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
In terms of absolute refractive indices,
Second law. The ratio of the sine of the angle of
u. Absolute refractive index of medium 2
incidence and the sine of the angle of refraction is constant 1
p, =— = .
Absolute refractive index of medium 1
for a given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell's i-i 1
law of refraction Factors on which the refractive index of a medium
sin I
= a constant depends:
sin r
(i) Nature of the medium.
The constant p is called refractive index of second (ii) Wavelength of the light used, {iii) Temperature.
medium w.r.t. first medium.
(iv) Nature of the surrounding medium.

Qj Definitions of Refractive Index Cause of Refraction of Light

(fl) Refractive index in terms of speed of light. The Light travels with different speeds in different
refractive index of a medium for a light of given wavelength media. The bending of light or refraction occurs due to the
may be defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to change in the speed of light as it passes from one medium to
its speed in that medium. another.

148
 C/iopter 1 ] : DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

IQ Refractive Index in Terms

of Real and Apparent Depths
Eyepiece
Figure 11.2 shows an object O lying at the bottom of
a beaker containing water. The rays OA and OB are
refracted along AD and BC respectively. These rays
appear to diverge from point I which is the virtual
vO-* MJ R
image of O and is at a smaller depth than O.
Eye V1
<c ●

I
C ^^^^^Dbjective
D t

r
I
A B

II t
Apparent r ,
VI

depth / *
a.
<i) I

w
●o I
I
<0 I
o
as i
.vi

o
Flo Fig. 11.3 Travelling microscope.

ee
From Snell's law, we have
Fig. 11.2 Apparent depth
Fr
The compound microscope consists of two convex
lenses of small focal lengths. The objective O has small
for
ur
focal length and small aperture while eyepiece E has
ClJ
sini _ sinZAOB _ AB/ BO _ B1
large aperture and comparatively larger focal length.
ks

a
sinr sin ZAIB ABIB1 BO
Yo

They are fixed at the ends of two coaxial metallic tubes.

oo

Because of small size of the pupil, the ray BC will The eyepiece can be moved with respect to the
B

enter the eye only if B is close to A. In that case objective by using rack and pinion arrangement R,
re

BI:^AI and BOdAO thus focussing the microscope on the object. A cross
ou

wire is placed in front of the eyepiece. The objective

ad

a 1 _ AO _ Real depth
forms the image of the object at the position of the
Y

Mfl AI Apparent depth

cross-wire. The eyepiece magnifies this image. The
nd

Similarly, for refraction through a glass slab.

Re

final image formed by the microscope is virtual,

inverted and magnified.
Fi

a Real thickness of glass slab

8
Apparent thickness of glass slab

Qj Travelling Microscope
A travelling microscope is an instrument for
measuring length with a resolution typically in the
order of 0.01 mm. It consists of a compound
microscope fixed on two rails fixed to a horizontal
metallic platform. The position of the microscope can
be changed coarsely along horizontal and vertical
directions by screws H and V and slow motion is given
by turning screws H' and V. The position of the
microscope can be read on linear half millimetre
scale and vernier scale, fixed to both rails. The
horizontal platform is provided both levelling screws
at the base.

149
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

EXPERIMENT B6
Aim

To determine the refractive index of a glass slab, using a travelling microscope.

1 Apparatus and Material Required

A travelling microscope, a glass slab, lycopodium powder/chalk dust, a spirit level, and a small
piece of white paper.

I Theory/Working Formula 11

A
If a glass slab is placed in air on a horizontal R,-- Q
surface and its bottom is viewed from the

top, it appears to be raised due to the pheno

I
menon of refraction. The difference between
i k

the apparent bottom and the upper surface

of the slab gives the apparent thickness of the R,--
1 R
S o
slab. For normal observation, the refractive
index of glass with respect to air is Fig. 11.4 Formation of image / of a point 0 in a glass slab.

a Real thickness of the glass slab ao_r^-r^

8
Apparent thickness of the glass slab AI ~ R2-R1
I Working Diagram

1 50 7

50 i- R,
■

0 —

i.i 0 :

0 :

^ Lycopodium
I™ powder
■t

X
I

Fig. 11.5 Refractive index of glass slab by travelling microscope.

I Procedure

1. Note the number of main scale divisions which coincide with the vernier scale divisions.

Calculate the least count of the microscope scale by using the relation,
least count = 1 MSD - 1 VSD.

2. Adjust the level of the travelling microscope horizontal by using a spirit level and its base
screws.
 Chopfer ? I : DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

3. Set the microscope horizontal Adjust its eyepiece so that the cross-wires are clearly visible.
4. Fix a piece of white paper on the horizontal platform of the microscope. Put an ink mark on
the white paper. Adjust the microscope in such a way that its lens system is vertically above
the ink mark.

5. By moving the microscope upward and downward with the help of rack and pinion
arrangement, focus the microscope on the ink mark so that there is no parallax between the
cross-wire and the image of the mark. Note the main scale reading and vernier scale reading
(Rj) on the vertical scale when the mark is clearly visible.
6. Now place a glass slab over the mark on the white paper. Without disturbing the rack and
pinion arrangement, raise the microscope as a whole so that the mark seen through the slab is
sharp and clear. Take the reading witli the main scale and coinciding vernier scale division.
7. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder/chalk dust on the upper surface of the glass
slab. These particles mark the upper surface of the slab distinctly. Raise the microscope as a
whole so that some of the particles are clearly visible. Note the reading on the vertical scale.
8. By inverting the glass slab, repeat steps 5 to 7 and record one more set of observations. Take
two such more sets of observations.

w
9. Record all your observations in a tabular form.
Observations Flo
ee
Least count of the travelling microscope :
20 main scale divisions (MSD) = 1 cm
1 MSD = -^ cm
Fr
for
ur
20

50 vernier scale divisions (VSD) = 49 MSD

ks
Yo

4Q 4Q 1
oo

1 VSD = — MSD = — X — cm
50 50 20
B

r 1 49 1 ’ 1 1
re

Least count of the microscope = 1 MSD -1 VSD = cm = — X — cm

20 50
ou
ad

LC = 0.001 cm
Y

Table 11.1 : Refractive index of glass slab

nd
Re

Microscope reading when focussed on

Fi

Refractive index
Apparent
mark without mark with upper surface of Real depth of glass slab
S. depth
No. glass slab glass slab glass slab = A - R^
= MSR + VSR X = MSR + VSR X LC i?3 = MSR + VSR X (cm)
(cm)
LC (cm) (cm) LC (cm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

Mean value of refractive index, " p ^

Result

Refractive index of glass slab.

Actual value from standard tables =

Actual value-
Percentage error = xl00 = %.
Actual value

151

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Precautions

1. The least count of the microscope should be determined before starting the experiment.
2. The axis of the microscope should be set parallel to the vertical scale.
3. The glass slab should be placed on the horizontal platform of the travelling microscope.
4. The eyepiece should be adjusted so that cross wires are distinctly visible.
5. The screw used in focussing the microscope should be moved in only one direction to avoid
back-lash error.

6. Rack and pinion arrangement should not be disturbed after first focusing of the microscope.
7. Only few particles of lycopodium powder should be sprinkled on the upper surface of the
glass slab.
8. Microscope reading should be taken only after obtaining a sharp image of the ink
mark/particles of lycopodium powder.
9. Use a magnifying glass for observing coinciding vernier scale division.
n
Sources of Error

1. The axis of the microscope may not be normal to the surface of the glass slab.
2. If lycopodium power/chalk dust sprinkled on the glass slab forms a thick layer, it will not
actually represent the upper surface of the glass slab and will cause error in the result.
3. While focussing the microscope on the image of ink mark/lycopodium powder, the rack and
pinion arrangement might have been disturbed.

»« ♦♦♦ »«

Q Refractive Index of Water reflection forming a real and inverted image I at C. For
using Concave Mirror no parallax between the needle and its image,
u = v = R = PC
As shown in Fig. 11.6(a), consider a concave mirror
placed on a horizontal surface with its principal axis Take small amount of water (transparent liquid) in
vertical. Suppose the tip of an object needle O lies at its the concave mirror. The object needle has to be
centre of curvature C. The rays of light CP and CQ fall lowered to a new position C for no parallax between it
normally on the mirror and retrace their paths after image.
C
o

/' O'
●»» c
I

N R'
, /

Water
A
M P’ / M’

Q
p

ib)

Fig. 11.6 Formation of image of an object 0 by a concave mirror MM' placed at its centre of curvature.
(a) Mirror without water and (b) Mirror with some water.
/52
 Chapter 11 : DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

The incident ray CA refracts along AQ in water For normal incidence, A lies close to P. For little
falling normally on the mirror. The reflected ray quantity of water in the concave mirror, depth PF can
retraces the same path QAC forming real and inverted be neglected as compared to PC or PC.
image i' at C. So distance PC is the apparent radius of FC PC
a

curvature of the water-filled concave mirror. As AQ is w

FC PC
normal to the mirror, QA when produced must pass R Actual radius of curvature
through the centre of curvature C. Let i and rbe angles
a
or

of incidence and refraction at A R' Apparent radius of curvature

a smi AP ! AC _ AC Thus, we can determine refractive index of any
sinr APIAC~AC transparent liquid using this method.

EXPERIMENT B7

w
Aim

Flo
To find the refractive index of a liquid (water) using a concave mirror.

ee
Apparatus and Material Required Fr
A concave mirror of large focal length (=i25 cm), an optical needle, an iron stand with clamp
for
ur
arrangement, a metre scale, a plumb line and water.
ks

Theory/Working Formula
Yo
oo

Using Snell's law, for light ray undergoing refraction from air to water,
B
re

a
sin/ _ AFI AC ^ AC
sin/" AFI AC ‘ AC
ou
ad
Y

For normal incidence A lies close to P'. For little quantity of water in the concave mirror, depth
PP' can be neglected as compared to PC or P' C.
nd
Re

FC PC R Actual radius of curvature

Fi

a a
or
w P-w
FC PC R' Apparent radius of curvature
Ray diagram

See Fig. 11.6(fc)

n
Procedure

1. Looking through the window of your laboratory, turn the reflecting surface of the concave
mirror towards a distant building/a tree. Obtain bright and clear image of the distant object
on a plane wall of the laboratory. Measure the distance between the mirror and the image
which gives rough focal length of the concave mirror.
2. Place the concave mirror on a horizontal surface with its face horizontal and principal axis
vertical. The mirror should be at such a level so that you can conveniently look upon it from
above.

3. Clamp an optical needle horizontally in an iron stand. Adjust position of the tip of the
needle just above the point P or on the principal axis of the concave mirror.

153
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

4. Adjust the distance of the clamped needle equal to twice the rough focal length / from the
mirror.

5. Keeping the eye at more than 25 cm above the needle, look for the real and inverted image
of the needle in the mirror. Adjust the needle so that the real image of its tip coincides with
the tip itself.
6. Adjust the position of the needle till there is no parallax between the needle and its inverted
image.
7. Using a metre scale and a plumb line, measure the vertical distance PC between the pole of
the mirror and the tip of the needle which is at the centre of curvature C. This distance will
be the real radius of curvature of the mirror.
8. Now pour a small quantity of water on the reflecting surface of the mirror so that it forms a
thin layer.
9. Lower the optical needle slowly and again adjust its position till there is no parallax between
the needle and its real image formed by the water-filled mirror.
10. Measure the vertical distance PC of the tip of the needle from the pole of the mirror. This
distance will be the apparent radius of curvature of the water-filled mirror.
NOTE The distances PCand PC'can be measured by clamping a metre scale vertically by the
side of the mirror with the help of a plumb line.
11. Repeat the experiment (steps 4 to 10) at least two more times. Record all these observations
in a tabular form.

Observations and Calculations

Rough focal length of the concave mirror, f = cm

Approximate value of radius of curvature, R =2/ = cm

Table 11.2 ; Real and apparent radii of curvature of concave mirror

Distance of the tip of the needle from the pole P with Refractive of water
S.No.
empty concave mirror water-filled concave mirror R _ PC
R=PC (cm) R' =PC (cm)
w
R' ~ PC'
1.

2.

3.

a
Mean refractive index of water, w

n
Result
17
Refractive index of water using concave mirror. w

Actual value from standard tables =

Actual value - w o/
Percentage error = xl00 = /o
Actual value

Precautions

1. The principal axis of the concave mirror should be vertical.

2. The optical needle should be clamped horizontally so that its tip lies just above the pole of
the mirror and on its principal axis.

154
 Chop/er 11 : DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

3. The concave mirror should be thin and of large radius of curvature (20 cm to 25 cm).
4. Distances should be measured from the pole of the mirror and not from the water surface.
5. Parallax between the needle and its image should be removed tip to tip.
6. Eye should be kept at a distance of more than 25 cm from the optical needle.
7. The quantity of water taken in the concave mirror should be just sufficient to form a thin
layer with horizontal water surface. In case of very small quantity of water, the surface may
be curved due to surface tension.

^URCES OF Error
1. Thickness of the mirror may be large.
2. Parallax might not have been removed completely.
3. Measurement of distance PC or PC' may not be exactly vertical.
»« ❖ »«

w
IQ Formation of Image by a Convex Lens Flo Q[ Formation of Image by a Convex Lens
backed by a Plane Mirror with

ee
backed by a Plane Mirror with
Air In between them
Fr
Water in between them

Figure 11.8 shows an equiconvex lens placed over a

for
ur
Figure 11.7 shows a convex lens placed over plane
mirror. An object needle O is so adjusted that there is water layer poured over a plane mirror. An optical
needle O with its tip on the principal axis is moved
ks

no parallax between the needle O and its image I

Yo

along the axis until its real, inverted image /' coincides
oo

formed by the lens-mirror combination. As the image

with the needle itself. Then F will be the new principal
B

of the needle coincides with the needle itself at point F, focus of the combined lens and FC the new focal
re

the rays from point F, after refraction from the lens,

length /'. The combined lens consists of a glass
must fall normally on tlie mirror so that they retrace
ou
ad

convex lens (with each surface of radius curvature R)

their paths. This happens when a parallel beam is and a water planoconcave lens (of same radius of
Y

incident on the mirror. So point F must be the principal curvature R).

nd
Re

focal of the convex lens. The distance FC will be equal

F
to the focal length / of the convex lens, where C is the
Fi

r >1+ o

optical centre of the convex lens.

O CF =/'
■■F

CF=/

C
C ■—Water
Plane mirror
Plane mirror

Fig. 11.7 Image formed by a convex lens-plane Fig. 11.8 Image formed by a convex lens-plane
mirror combination with air in between. mirror combination with water in between.

i55

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

If /jy is the focal length of the water planoconcave S passes through the nut N fixed at the centre of the
lens, then frame and it forms the central leg. It is pointed at the
1 1
L ^ 1 -/-/ ff' lower end O and terminates at the top into a milled
fw- head H and carries a graduated disc D just below the
f f fw L ff f-f
milled head. This circular scale is, usually, divided into
Using lens maker's formula for the planoconcave 50 or 100 equal divisions. One of three legs carries a
lens.
vertical scale marked in millimetres or half millimetres
1 with its graduations quite close to those on the circular
-1)^
f, scale. Tills scale is parallel to the axis of the screw and is
w
w
R 00 R

R
called main or pitch scale. This scale reads the vertical
distance which the central leg moves through
f
u<
the central nut.
The radius of curvature R of the concave surface of Pitch and least count of the spherometer. Pitch of
water lens is the same as the radius of curvature of
the the spherometer is the linear distance moved by its
convex surface in contact with water. By using a screw head when the circular disc is given one
spherometer, R can be determined as follows : complete rotation.

Pitch = Distance moved afy the screw

2h 2 Number of complete rotations given to the circular scale
By using this method, the refractive index of water
Least count of the spherometer is the smallest distance
or any other transparent liquid can be determined. that can be measured with it. It is the linear distance moved by

Q Spherometer the screu’ when it is turned through one division on the

circular scale.

A spherometer is an instrument used to measure radius Least count =

Pitch

of curvature of spherical surfaces of lenses and mirrors and Total number of divisions on the circular scale

to measure thickness of small thin plates.

Milled
In a commonly used spherometer, the circular scale
1 mm head has 100 equal divisions. In one complete rotation of the
P circular scale, the central screw advances by 1 mm.

Thus, the ^itch of the spherometer is 1

-Circular mm and its least
scale/disc
count is 100 mm or 0.01 mm. Some spherometers have
Pitch
least count as small as 0.005 mm or 0.001 mm.
scale
Measurement of radius of curvature by a
spherometer. A spherometer can be used to measure
the radius of curvature of a spherical surface. If it is
placed on the curved surface so that all its outer legs
Metallic touch this surface, then the central leg will be a small
frame
distance above or below the plane of the outer legs
which is related to radius of curvature R as follows :

As shown in Fig. 11.10(o), let AXYZM represent the

vertical section of the sphere of which the given
Fig. 11.9 Spherometer. spherical surface forms a part, passing through one of
Principle. Its working is based on the principle of a the outer legs A, the lower end E of the central leg and
screw i.e., the linear distance moved by a screw is directly the centre O of the sphere. The third outer leg C is not
proportional to the rotation given to its head. visible. If the surface were a plane one, the central leg
Construction. It consists of a small metal frame F have touched at point M. So ME = h is the
supported on three pointed legs. The three legs are height of the central leg above the plane ABC of the
arranged in sudi a way that their ends Heat the corners horizontal section of the sphere
of an equilateral triangle ABC. An accurately cut screw through ABC will be a circle of radius AM = r.

156
i
 Chapter 11 : DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

N
From Fig. 11.10(a), we have from irght triangle
10^
P AAMO,

J/77777TT M 1 M \ \ \ D OA^ = AM^ + OM^ = AM^ + (0£ - EhAf

or K^ = r^ + (R-;i)2
: = or or 2Rh = r^ + h^
10 ^ h + —
V 2h 2

h
r
A B
M

X O Z I

w
Q
Flo "V

ee
(n) Measurement of radius of
curvature by a spherometer Fr
(fc) Base circle of a spherometer
for
ur
Fig. 11.10 (a) Principle of a spherometer (b) To find relation between J? and I.
ks

/ /
If / is the length of each side of the equilateral AABC cos30"= —
Yo

or
^ 2 cos30° >/3
oo

r
formed by joining the ends of the three outer legs, then
B

from Fig. 11.10(b), we have Hence,

re

6/i 2
ou
ad
Y

EXPERIMENT B8
nd
Re

' Aim
Fi

To find the refractive index of a liquid by using a convex lens and a plane mirror.

Apparatus and Material Required

An equiconvex lens (/ >20 cm]t a plane mirror (of size greater than the aperture of the lens), an
iron stand with a clamp arrangement, an optical needle, a spherometer, given liquid (water), a
metre scale and a plumb line.
Theory/Working Formulae
1. If a convex lens of focal length / (with radius of curvature R of each surface) is placed over a
plane mirror and space between them is filled with water, it forms a lens combination of
focal length /' consisting of glass convex lens and a water planoconcave lens. Focal length
f^ of planoconcave lens is given by
1 1 1 1 //'
4=
7-ri
or

w f
w JT /-/'

157

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

2. Using lens maker's formula for the planoconcave lens.

n 1
-1)4R
R
- =(V ?/;
or

/,w
R 00
fw

3. The radius of curvature R of the concave surface R of water can be determined with the help
of a spherometer by using the relation,

6h 2

Knowing the values of and R, the refractive index of water can be determined.

i
Diagrams

See Figs. 11.7 and 11.8.

Procedure

To find focal length of the convex lens

1.
By using the convex lens, obtain a sharp image of the sun or any distant object on plane wall
or at the back of your practical notebook.
.2. Measure the distance between the lens and the image of distant object by using a metre
scale. This distance gives a rough focal length / the given convex lens.
3. Place the plane mirror on the horizontal base of a rigid iron stand keeping its reflecting
surface upwards.
4. Place the given convex lens on the plane mirror.
5. Clamp an optical needle horizontally in the iron stand. Adjust the position of the needle so
that its tip lies vertically above the optical centre of the convex lens.
6. Adjust the distance of the clamped needle equal to rough focal length / from the mirror.
7. Keeping the eye at more than 25 above the needle, look for the real and inverted image I of
the needle formed by the convex lens and plane mirror.
8. Remove the parallax between the object needle and its image tip to tip.
9. With the help of a metre scale and a plumb line, measure the distance of the tip of the
needle from the centre of the upper surface of convex lens and also its distance X2 from the
plane mirror. The average of these two distances gives the focal length / of the convex lens.
X, +Xr,
f = CF=-^ ^

To find focal length of the combination of convex lens and water planoconcave lens
10. With the help of a dropper, pour a few drops of water below the lens. Make sure that the
space between mirror and lens is filled with water.
11. Move the optical needle slowly upward and again adjust its position till there is no parallax
between the needle and its image formed by the lens mirror combination.
12. Using a metre scale and a plumb line, measure the distance x^ of the tip of the needle from
the centre of the upper surface of convex lens and also its distance x^ from the plane mirror.
The average of these two distances gives the focal length /' of the convex lens and
X X

planoconcave lens combination /' = CF' = ^ ^ ^

To find radius of curvature of the lower surface of convex lens

13. Find the pitch of the spherometer screw and note the number of divisions on the circular
scale. Calculate the least count of the spherometer.

158
 Chapter 11 ; DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

14. Wipe the surface of the lens in contact with the liquid and make it completely dry.
15. Screw up the central leg of the spherometer and place it with its three outer legs on the dried
curved surface of the lens. Then screw down the central leg until it touches the curved
surface. The correct position will be that in which the spherometer will just begin to rotate
about its central leg.
16. Now place the spherometer on the plane surface of a glass slab. Turn the screw in the down
ward direction till it just touches the surface of the glass slab. Note the number of complete
rotations 1, 2, 3 etc., and the additional number of circular scale divisions which have to be
moved to bring the central leg of the spherometer in contact with the curved surface. Let the
number of complete rotations be ?nand the additional number of circular scale divisions be
n .From this, we determine the elevation or sagitta h of the curved surface of the convex lens.
17. Now screw up the central leg of the spherometer and press it on a
white paper to get the impressions of the tips of the outer three
legs. Mark these pricks as A, Band Cas shown in Fig. 11.11. Using
a ruler, join the pricks A, Band C to from AABC. Measure the sides

w
AB, BC and CA Find the mean distance / between the two legs of
the spherometer.
18.
Flo
Record all these observations in a tabular form.
B

ee
Fig. 11.11
Observations and Calculations

A. For determination of focal length of planoconcave water lens

Fr
for
ur
Rough focal length of the convex lens = cm
ks

Table 11.3 : Focal length of convex lens

Yo
oo

Distance of the tip of the needle Focal length of

B

(without water) from the convex lens

re

X, + X,
S.No. centre of upper surface upper surface / = CF = ^
ou

of convex lens of plane mirror

ad

(cm) Xy (cm) (cm)

Y

1.
nd
Re

2.
Fi

3.

Mean focal length of convex lens, / = cm

Table 11.4 : Focal length of planoconcave water lens

Distance of the tip of the needle Focal length of
lens combination
(with water) from
X, +x,
S.No. centre of upper surface upper surface f =CF'=-^ i
of convex lens of plane minor 2

x^ (cm) X4 (cm) (cm)

1.

2.

3.

Mean focal length of the lens combination, /' = cm

If
Focal length of planoconcave water lens, = cm

/-/'

159

i
 lAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xil

B. For determination of radius of curvature R of the convex lens

Distance moved by the screw in x complete rotations =y mm

Pitch of the screw = - mm

X

Total number of divisions on the circular scale = «

Pitch y/x
Least count of the spherometer = mm
Total number of divisions on the circular scale n

Table 11.5 : Elevation/Sagitta of the curved surface of convex lens

S.No. No. of complete rotations Additional circular Elevation of curved surface

moved by chcular scale (m) divisions moved (n) h = (m + n X LC) mm
1.

2.

3.

Mean value o(h = mm = cm

Distance between the fixed legs of the spherometer,

AB= cm, BC = cm, CA = cm

AB+ BC+CA
Mean distance, / = cm
3

Radius of curvature of the curved surface of convex lens, R = —+ — = cm

6h 2
R
Refractive index of water, ... = 1 +
w
f:
w

Result

Refractive index of water by using convex lens and plane mirror = .

j^RECAUTlONS
1. Convex lens and plane mirror should be cleaned before use.

2. The plane mirror should be placed horizontally and the principal axis of the convex lens
should be vertical.

3. The optical needle should be clamped horizontally so that its tip lies just above the optical
centre of the lens and on its principal axis.
4. With the help of a dropper, only a small quantity of water should be put between convex
lens and plane mirror to fill up the entire space between them without disturbing the
position of the lens.
5. Convex lens of a large focal length should be used.
6. Parallax between the needle and its image should be removed tip to tip.
7. Eye should be kept at a distance of more than 25 cm from the optical needle.
8. For a thin lens, distance of the optical needle should be measured from the upper surface of
the convex lens while in case of a thick lens, distances from both surfaces of the convex lens
should be measured.

Precautions for using the spherometer

9. The circular scale of the spherometer should always be rotated in the same direction to
avoid the back-lash error.

160
 Chopter 11 : DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

10. The reading should be noted when the spherometer just begins to rotate about the central leg.
11. The distances between the legs of the spherometer should be measured accurately.
^URCEs OF Error
1. The two surfaces of the convex lens may not have the same radius of curvature.
2. The plane mirror may not be horizontal.
3. Parallax might not have been removed completely.

VIVA VOCE

A. Refraction of Light and Refractive index 7. Can the absolute refractive index of any medium be
less than unity ?
1, What is refraction of light ?
No, because speed of light in vacuum is always
It is the phenomenon of bending of light when it
greater than its speed in the medium.
passes from one medium to another.
8. What is the unit of refractive index ?

w
2. What are the laws of refraction of light ?
It has no unit of measurement. It is a pure number
First law. The incident ray, the refracted ray, the normal
being the ratio of two similar quantities.
at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
Second law. For a given pair of media, the ratio of the
Flo
9. On what factors does the refractive index of a

ee
medium depend ?
sine of the angle of incidence (i) to the sine of the
angle of refraction (r) is a constant. This ratio is called
the refractive index of second medium with respect to
Fr
Refractive index of a medium depends on :
(i) the nature of the medium,
for
ur
first medium.
(n) the wavelength of light used,
smi
ks

(Hi) temperature, and

Yo

smr
(iy) the nature of the surrounding medium.
oo

The second law is also known as Snell's law of refraction. 10. What are the refractive indices of glass and water ?
B

3. How does a ray of light bend when it passes from

re

Refractive index of ordinary glass is 1.50 and that of

(i) on optically rarer to a denser medium, and water is 1.33.
(«0 from a denser to a rarer medium ?
ou
ad

11. Refractive index of glass is 1.50 and that of water is

Y

(i) In this case the ray of light bends towards the 1.33. What is the refractive index of (0 glass with
normal so that the angle of refraction is less than the respect to water, and (if) water with respect to glass ?
nd
Re

angle of incidence,
p = 1.50, |i...w = 1.33
Fi

(ii) In this case the ray of light bends away from the
normal so that the angle of refraction is greater than (0 “'ll
8 1.50
= 1.153
the angle of incidence. Pui 1.33
4. What is the cause of refraction of light ?
Pa, _ 1.33
The bending or refraction of light occurs due to the {") U'
= 0.867
1.50
change in the speed of light as it passes from one
transparent medium to another. 12. When does Snell's law of refraction fail ?
5. What is absolute refractive index of a medium ? When light is incident normally on the surface of
The absolute refractive index of a medium for a light separation, i = 0 and r = 0. The ratio sin i / sin r

of given wavelength may be defined as the ratio of becomes meaningless and so Snell's law fails.
the speed of light in vacuum to its speed in that 13. For which material is the refractive index
medium. (0 maximum and (ii) minimum ?
Speed of light in vacuum (i) Refractive index is minimum for vacuum (p = 1).
Refractive index, p =
Speed of light in medium (ii) Refractive index is maximum for diamond.
6. In which medium the speed of light is more - in an 14. When light undergoes refraction, what happens to its
optical denser medium or in a rarer medium ? frequency ?
Speed of light is more in a rarer medium. Frequency of light does not change during refraction.

161
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

15. When light undergoes refraction at the surface of Normal shift depends on :
separation of two media, what happens to its (i) Thickness of the refracting medium.
wavelength ? (//) Refractive index of the denser medium.
Wavelength changes when light undergoes refraction 25. A mark on a sheet of paper is seen through a glass
one medium to another.
slab of thickness t and refractive index |i. What is the
16. A person dips a stick partly in water at some angle. distance through which the mark appears to be raised ?
To him the stick appears to be bent at the surface of f
water. Why ? d=t 1--
M
This is due to the phenomenon of refraction of light.
When a ray of light passes from a rarer to a denser 26. When is the microscopic method of measuring
medium, it is bent towards the normal. Therefore, a refractive index suitable ?
stick dipped partly in water, appears to be bent. Microscopic method is useful for measuring
refractive index of transparent media like water,
B. Refractive Index by Travelling Microscope glass, etc.
17. What is lateral shift in refraction ? 27. Why should we look vertically to locate the position
The sidewise shift in the path of light on emerging of the image through a glass slab ?
from a refracting medium with parallel faces is called The relation between refractive index, and real and
lateral shift. apparent depths holds for normal incidence on the
slab.
18. For what angle of incidence, the lateral shift
produced by a parallel sided glass slab is maximum ? 28. Why should the microscope be moved vertically ?
For i = 90°, lateral shift is maximum and is equal to Only then the images of the ink mark will remain in
the thickness of the slab. the field of view of the eyepiece and it will make
possible to remove the parallax between the images
^ _ fsin(j-r) and the cross-wire.
cosr
29. Why should the thickness of the glass slab be
d max fsin(90°-r) _ fcosr = f. preferably large ?
cosr cosr
Then the real and apparent depths will be compara
19. For what angle of incidence, the lateral shift tively larger and can be measured more accurately.
produced by a parallel sided glass slab is maximum ? 30. What is the nature of the image formed in the
For i = 0°, lateral shift is 0. microscope and where is it located ?
20. Why does the depth of water in a pond appear less The final image is virtual, inverted and magnified. It
than what it actually is ? is formed at the position of the cross-wire in the
eyepiece.
It is on account of refraction of light from a denser
31. What is the use of spreading lycopodium powder
medium to a rarer medium that the depth of water in
over the upper surface of glass slab ?
a pond appears to be less than what it actually is.
A thin layer of lycopodium powder on the glass slab
21. Why does the thickness of a glass slab appear less represents its upper surface distinctly. Microscope
than its actual thickness 7
can be easily focussed.
It is on account of refraction of light from glass slab 32. What happens if the layer of lycopodium power
to air.
spread on the glass slab is thick ?
22. How are real and apparent depths related to refractive Thick layer of lycopodium powder will not actually
index ?
represent the top of the glass slab and thus cause
Real depth error in the result.
Refractive index, ^ =
Apparent depth 33. Why should the rack and pinion arrangement should
23. What is normal shift ? not be disturbed after first focusing of the microscope ?
The height through which an object appears to be Once the microscope is focussed for first reading, the
raised in a denser medium is called normal shift. position of cross-wire as a reference mark gets fixed.
If we disturb the rack and pinion arrangement, the
Normal shift = Real depth - Apparent depth position of the reference mark will get changed for
24. On what factors, does the normal shift through a subsequent readings and cause errors in further
refracting medium depend ? measurements.

162

i
 Chapter 11 : DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

34. Will a colourless slab be visible if immersed in a 41. If the refractive index of water is determined using
transparent liquid of the same refractive index as that concave mirrors of different radii of curvature, how
of the slab ? will this affect the values of the refractive index ?

No, as there will be no refraction of light. For concave mirrors of small radii of curvature, error
35. If a plane glass slab is placed on letters of different in the measurement of refractive index is compara
colours, then red colour letters appear more raised tively larger.
up. Why ? 42. Why should we take only a thin layer of water in the
concave mirror ?
The normal shift caused by a slab of thickness t is
given by If the liquid layer is thick, then the approximations
taken in the derivation of formula for refractive index
d=t 1--
(p = i?/ i?') will not hold and this will cause error in
the result.
As refractive index of glass is maximum for red light,
43. How does the distance between the needle and the
so red colour letters are more raised up.
36. You have three slabs of same dimensions - the first concave mirror change when the liquid is put in the
mirror ? Give reason.
one being hollow and completely filled with water,
the second one is made of crown glass and the third When the liquid is put in the concave mirror, the

w
one flint glass. If each of them has a coloured mark at distance between the needle and the concave mirror

the bottom, in which case will it appear to have risen decreases for no parallax condition. This is because
apparent radius of curvature (with water) is less than
the most ?

Given thatpflj^j >p

Flo that actual radius of curvature of concave mirror

ee
crown wafer'
(without water).
Normal shift, d=t
f
1—
l')
Fr
D. Refractive Index of a Liquid by using
for
ur
Convex Lens and Plane Mirror
As }i flint is the maximum value, the coloured mark
will appear to have risen the most in case of slab of 44. How is the focal length of a lens related to its radii of
ks

flint glass.
Yo

curvature ?
oo

C. Refractive Index of Water According to lens maker's formula,

B

using Concave Mirror

re

37. What is the formula for finding refractive index of a

ou
ad

liquid using a concave mirror ?

where K, and Rj s^e the radii of curvature of the two
Y

Actual radius of curvature of surfaces of the lens.

nd
Re

R _ concave mirror without water 45. What are the basic assumptions you have made in
w
R' Apparent radius of curvature this experiment ?
Fi

of water filled concave mirror (i) Two surfaces of the convex lens have the same
radius of airvature.
38. What are the assumptions used in the derivation of
the above formula ? (/i) Plane mirror used is thin,
(i) Radius of curvature of the concave mirror is large. (Hi) Thickness of the liquid layer between convex
(ii) Angle of incidence is very small (-0°). lens and plane mirror is small.
46. Why should we use convex lens of a "large focal
(Hi) Depth of the liquid taken in concave mirror is
small. length" ?
39. Why should we take concave mirror of large radius This will reduce error in measuring the focal lengths
of curvature in this experiment ? of convex lens and of combined lens (convex lens +
This reduces error in the measurements of actual and
planoconcave water lens).
apparent radii of curvature. 47. Why should we put only a small quantity of water
between convex lens and plane mirror ?
40. How is measurement of rough focal length of the
concave mirror useful in this experiment ? The amount of water should be just sufficient to wet
the lower surface of convex lens and upper surface of
This helps in adjusting the parallax needle correctly
at the centre of curvature of the concave mirror and
plane mirror so that position of the convex lens does
not change otherwise measurement of focal length /'
locating its real and inverted image. of the combined lens will be affected.

163
 LAB MANUAL PHYSiCS-XII

48. What is the function of plane nurror in this where / is the mean distance between the two legs of
experiment ? the spherometer and is equal to the average of the
The plane mirror reflects back the rays normally three sides of the triangle formed by the three outer
incident on it so that they retrace their original legs of the spherometer and h is the elevation or
refracted paths. depression of the spherical surface.
49. Why do we have to raise the object needle upward 57. Which of the two quantities / and h should be
after filling water between the lens and the mirror ? measured more accurately and why ?
Due to the diverging nature of the planoconcave The quantity / in the formula for R occurs as /^. So the
water lens so formed, the focal length of the quantity I should be measured more accurately
combined lens increases, so the image is focussed at a because a small error in the measurement of / will get
doubled in the determination of R.
greater height.
50. Can we determine refractive index of any liquid by 58. What is pitch and how is it related with least count ?
this method ? Pitch of a spherometer is the linear distance moved
No, this method is useful for only transparent by its screw head when the circular disc is given one
liquids. complete rotation.
51. What is the nature of the water lens formed in this
Least count
experiment ? Pitch
Planonconcave lens.
Total number of divisions on the circular scale
52. State the formula used for refractive index of water in
59. What is the radius of cur\'ature of a plane/flat surface ?
this experiment.
Infinity.
R
60. What is backlash error and how will you avoid it ?
/,
w
When the direction of rotation of a screw is reversed,
53. What will happen if you are given a convex lens of the screw head may rotate but screw may not move
small focal length ? forward or backward. The reading on the circular
(i) For a convex lens of short focal length, the errors scale changes without changing the reading of pitch
in the measurement of focal lengths of convex scale. This is known as backlash error. To avoid this,
lens and of combined lens will become larger, the initial and final readings should be taken while
(n) In case the focal length of the convex lens is rotating the screw in the same direction.
smaller than that of planoconcave water lens, the 61. You have two spherometers of the same pitch. The
combined lens will not remain converging and spherometer A has 50 divisions on the circular scale
image will become virtual. while spherometer B has 100 divisions on circular
scale. Which spherometer measures more accurately ?
E. Radius of Curvature using a Spherometer Pitch
LC of spherometer A =
50
54. Why is a spherometer named so ?
Pitch
This is because a spherometer is used to measure the LC of spherometer B =
100
radius of curvature of spherical surfaces.
55. What is the principle of a spherometer ? As the least count of spherometer B is less than that
A spherometer works on the principle of a of A, so B measures more accurately than A
screw according to which the linear distance moved 62. How will you determine the focal length of a spherical
by a screw is directly proportional to the rotation mirror and a spherical lens with a spherometer ?
given to its head. R
56. State the formula for the determination of radius of For a spherical mirror ■ /
curvature of a spherical surface,
The radius of curvature of a spherical surface is given For *: spherical lens :
by

R = ll ^ + - By measuring R, R^ and i?2 with a spherometer, we

6h 2 can determine /.
 . «.

Semiconductor
Devices

Solid State Electronic Devices separated by regions in which energy levels cannot
exist. These forbidden regions are called band gaps or
Any device whose action is based on the controlled energy gaps. The highest energy band occupied by the
flow of electrons is called an electronic device. valence electrons is called the valence band and the
Semiconductors are the basic materials used in the
next empty allowed band is called the conduction band.
present solid state electronic devices such as diode,

w
transistors, ICs, etc. These devices are small in size, Q| Distinction between Metals, Insulators and
consume less power, operate at low voltages, have
Semiconductors on the basis of Band Theory
long life and high reliability. Flo
(i) Metals. In metals, either the conduction band is

ee
Q| Semiconductors partially filled or the valence and conduction
Semiconductors have intermediate resistivity
Fr
bands partly overlap.
for
values (10^ to 10^ £lm) between those metal and
ur
Here E =0
g

insulators. Their temperature coefficient of resistivity This makes available a large number of free
ks

(a) is both negative and high. They have considerably electrons for electric conduction. So metals have
Yo
oo

lower number density of charge carriers than metals. high conductivity or low resistivity.
Semiconductors may be elemental (Si, Ge) and
B

(ii) Insulators. Here the conduction band is empty

compound (GaAs, CdS, etc.)
re

and the valence band is filled. The forbidden

energy gap is large (> 3 eV). Electrons cannot
Q Energy Bands in Solids
ou
ad

be excited from the valence band to the

Y

conduction band even by applying a strong

An enormously large number of energy levels
electric field. Therefore, no electrical conduction
nd
Re

closely spaced in a very small energy range constitute

is possible.
an energy band. The allowed energy bands are
Fi

Empty
conduction
Partially filled band
ii conduction band

Filled
valence
Filled valence band
band
(li) Insulators
(0
Empty
Overlapping conduction
conduction band
band
Filled valence
band Filled
2
valence
('0 band

(fl) Metals (c) Semiconductors

Fig. 12.1 Energy band diagrams.

 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

(Hi) Semiconductors. The empty conduction band is

separated from the fiUed valence band by a
small energy gap (< 3 eV). Some electrons of
the valence band easily get thermally excited to
the conduction band and can conduct electricity.
So semiconductors acquire small conductivity
even at room temperature.

Intrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductor
(fl)
The pure semiconductors in which the electrical
conductivity is totally governed by the electrons excited Ec
from the valence band to the conduction band and in Ed
wtdch no impurity atoms are added to increase their
conductivity are called intrinsic semiconductors and their
conductivity is called intrinsic conductivity. Electrical
B, E,
conduction in pure semiconductors occurs by means of ■o
■o

electron-hole pairs. In an intrinsic semiconductor. o-

o-

n-type extrinsic p-type extrinsic

where. semiconductor semiconductor

= the free electron density in conduction band, (fc) (c)

= the hole density in valence band, and Fig. 12.2 Energy bands at T > 0 K.
n. = the intrinsic carrier concentration.
(//) p-type semiconductors. If trivalent impurity
Q Doping atoms of B, A1 or In are doped in tetravalent Ge/Si
ciystal, we get />lype semiconductors. A trivalent
The process of deliberate addition of a desirable impurity produces holes whose energy levels lie just
impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to increase above V.B. These energy levels are called acceptor
its conductivity is called doping. The impurity atoms levels. Here holes are majorit)^ charge carriers, » n^.
added are called dopants. Dopants are of tiuo types: In any semiconductor, = nf.
(0 Pentavalent dopants such as As, Sb and P. Holes
These are also called donors- A vacancy for an electron in covalent bond.
(i7) Trivalent dopants such as In, B and Al. These Holes act as +ve charge carriers in V.B. They
move in the direction of electric field.
are also called acceptors.

Q Extrinsic Semiconductors H p-n Junction Diode

A semiconductor doped with suitable impurity A p-n junction diode is a two terminal device
atoms so as to increase its conductivity is called an made up of a semiconductor ciy^stal. It is n single crystal
extrinsic semiconductor. ofGe or Si doped in such a manner that one half portion of it
acts as p-type semiconductor and the other half as n-type
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types ; semiconductor.
(0 n-type semiconductors, and OG
G000
(ii) p-type soniconductors. o- V O00G -o

(i) n-type semiconductors, if pentavalent impurit)' ©OO© (a)

Metallic Metallic
t
atoms of Bi, Sb or P are doped in tetravalent Ge/Si contact contact
Depletion region
crystal, we get /htype semiconductor. A pentavalent
impurity produces conduction electrons whose energy p-n

levels lie just below C.B. These energy levels are called Anode o- ■o Cathode

donor levels- Here electrons are majority charge Fig. 12.3 (a) Semiconductor diode,
carriers, n^ » . (b) Symbol for a p-n junction diode.

166
 Chapter 12 : SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Fonnation of depletion region and potential Working of a pfl Junction

barrier in a junction diode. Due to the concentration
gradient across the p- and n-sides of the junction, holes An external potential difference can be applied to a
diffuse from p-side to ri-side and electrons diffuse from junction in two ways ;
fhside to p-side of the junction. (a) Forward biasing. If the positive terminal of a battery
The movement of majority charge carriers gives rise to is connected to the p-side and the negative terminal to the
dijfusion current across the p-n junction. This process n-side, then the p-n junction is said to be forward biased.
leaves behind -ve acceptor ions on the p-side and +ve As shown in Fig. 12.5(a), here the applied voltage V
donor ions on the ;i-side of the junction. opposes the barrier voltage Vg.
The space charge region on either side of the junction V

which gets devoid of mobile charge carriers and has only V,

immobile ions is called depletion layer. *■ V

«- Electron diffusion
Electron drift
R

w
OQOO,
<- Depletion region («)
Hole diffusion
<- Hole drift Flo p-n

ee
(fl)

I
V

T
Fr 1 +
mA
for
ur
R
V,
VW
ks

X, Xj (b)
Yo
oo

Fig. 12.5 (a) Reduced depletion layer, (fe) Symbolic represen

B

(b) tation, for a forward biased p-n junction.

re

As a result of this,
Fig. 12.4 (o) Formation of depletion layer in a p-n junction,
ou
ad

(b) Barrier potential. (i) the effective barrier potential decreases to (Vg - V)
Y

and hence the energy barrier across the junction

The accumulation of negative charges in the p-region decreases,
nd
Re

and positive charges in the n-region sets up a potential (ii) the majority charge carriers i.e., holes from
Fi

difference across the junction. This acts as a barrier and is p-side and electrons from «-side begin to flow
called barrier potential Vg. towards the junction,

The barrier potential Vg opposes the further (Hi) the diffusion of electrons and holes into the
diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction. Its depletion layer decreases its width, and
value depends on (f) the nature of the semiconductor, (iv) the effective resistance across the p-n junction
decreases.
(ii) temperature, and (i7i) the amount of doping.
When V exceeds Vg, the majority charge carriers
The barrier potential Vg sets up a barrier ifeld Eg in start flowing easily across the junction and set up a

large current (amA), called forward current in the

the direction n pside. The barrier field Eg pushes the circuit. The current increases with the increase in
electrons of p-side towards the n-side and holes of applied voltage.
n-side towards the p-side. (b) Reverse biasing. If the positive terminal of a
The current set up by the minority charge carriers under battery is connected to the n-side and negative terminal to
the p-side, then the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased.
the influence of barrier field Eg from n pside is called drift
As shown in Fig. 12.6(a), the applied voltage V and
current.
the barrier potential Vg are in the same direction.

167

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS~X!I

<■ V
Voltmeter (V)
V'b
T 0
P
►f
«♦

p-n
0
MiUiammeter
R
(mA)
+
4
Rheostat
(a) (potentiometer)
^ Switch
p-n
' '

Fig. 12.7 Circuit for studying I-V characteristic

0pA
+
of a forward biased diode.
R , L

i
+
A/VV
< 80
(&) Si-diode.
^ 70 lAl

Pig. 12.6 (a) Increased depletion layer, (b) S3nnbolic ¥ 60

a 50 AV
representation,for a reverse biasedp-n junction. I 40
3 30
As a result of this, i 20
(i) the barrier potential increases to (Vg + V) and :o -
-►
hence the energy barrier across the junction 1 2 3
Cut-in Volts
increases,
voltage V^(Forward bias)
(fi) the majority charge carriers move away from the
Fig. 12.8 Forward characteristic of a junction diode.
junction, increasing the width of the depletion
layer, Important Features of the Graph
{Hi) the resistance of the p-n junction becomes very (/) The I-V graph is not a straight line i.e., a junction
large, and diode does not obey Ohm's law.
{iv) no current flows across the junction due to (ii) Initially, the current increases very slowly almost
majority charge carriers. negligibly, till tlie voltage across the diode crosses
But at room temperature, some minority charge a certain value, called the threshold-voltage or cut-in
carriers, like holes in «-region and electrons in p-region, voltage.
are present. The reverse biasing pushes them towards {Hi} After the cut-in voltage, the diode current
the junction, setting up a small current called reverse increases rapidly (exponentially), even for a
or leakage current in the opposite direction. The very small increase in the diode bias \^oltage. The
reverse current is of the order of pA resistance across the junction' becomes quite low.
10 l-V Characteristics of a p-n Junction Diode {b) Reverse bias characteristic. Figure 12.9 shows
the experimental arrangement for studying characteristic
A graph showingthe variation of current flowing through Voltmeter (V)
a p-n junction with the voltage applied across it is called the 0
voltage-current or I-V characteristic of a p-n junction
{a) Forward bias characteristic. Figure 12.7 shows ►1
p-n
the experimental arrangement for studying the 0 Micromeler
(mA)
characteristic curve of a p-n junction when it is forward
biased- A battery is connected across the p-n junction
Rheo,stnt
diode through a potentiometer (or rheostat). For
(potentiometer)
different values of voltages, the value of current is >' Switch

noted. A graph is plotted between V and /, as shown in

Fig. 12.8. This voltage-current graph is called forward
characteristic- Fig. 12.9 Circuit for studying V-I characteristic
of a reverse biased diode.

168
i
 Chapter 12 : SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

curve of a p-n junction when it is reverse biased. Here a Important Features of The Graph
microammeter is used to measure the small currents
(r) When the diode is reverse biased, a very small
through the reverse biased diode. An I-V graph of the current, about a few microamperes flows, which
type shown in Fig. 12.10 is obtained. It is called reverse almost remains constant with bias. This small
characteristic of the junction diode. current is called reverse saturation current. It is

Breakdown voltage due to the drift of minority charge carriers across

V (Reverse bias) tine junction.
-3 -2 -1
0 (ii) When the reverse voltage across the p-n junction
2
reaches a sufficiently high value, the reverse
!
r
-0.5 q
Reverse o current suddenly increases to a large value. This
conduction -1.0 T3I voltage at which breakdown of the junction
K -1.5 S diode occurs is called breakdown voltage or
Breakdown
■c
peak-inverse voltage of the diode.
region ''
>

Fig. 12.10 Reverse characteristic of a junction diode.

w
Flo B9

ee
EXPERIMENT

Fr
for
ur
Aim

To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.
ks
Yo
oo

^_^PPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

B
re

f 1
A p-n junction diode (OA-79 or 1N4007), a resistor (10-12 V) of value 3 Q,- W , a variable
ou

2
ad
Y

voltage power supply, voltmeter (0-3 V), milliammeter (0-200 mA), voltmeter (0-12 V), microammeter
(0-200 pA), a plug key, connecting wires and a sand paper.
nd
Re
Fi

Theory

A graph showing the variation of current flowing through a p-»junction with the voltage applied
across it is called current-voltage or I-V characteristic of a junction.
Forward biased characteristic. If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to p-side and the
negative terminal to the u-side, then the p-n junction is said to be forward biased. With the
increase in bias voltage, initially the current increases very slowly almost negligibly, till the
voltage across the diode crosses a certain value, called the threshold voltage or cut-in voltage.
After this voltage, the diode current increases rapidly, even for a small increase in the bias
voltage.
Reverse biased characteristic. If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the tt-side and
the negative terminal to the p-side, then the p-;: junction is said to be reverse biased. When the
reverse bias voltage increases, initially the current increases but soon becomes constant. This
current is very small (a few pA). It is called reverse saturation current.

169

i
 lAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

I Circuit Diagrams
V

0T
+ 0 R
R
vw p «

0t‘A
P n

0
1+
mA Rh
+

Rh -o

—VWA^
—WAV-| (●)-
—(●)— E K

£ (At 12 V)
(At3V)
Fig. 12.11 Circuit for I-V characteristic Fig. 12.12 Circuit for characteristic
of forward biased diode. of reverse biased diode.

Procedure

For forward biased characteristic

1. Draw the circuit diameter for forward bias injunction as shown iaFig. 12.11 and arrange
the various components accordingly on the working table.
2. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter and milliammeter.
3. With the help of a sand paper, remove the insulations from the ends of the connecting wires
and leads of junction diode.
4. Connect the variable voltage power supply, p-n junction diode, milliammeter, a protective
resistor and a plug key all in series and a voltmeter in parallel with the junction diode as
shown in Fig. 12.11. See that the positive terminals of voltmeter and ammeter, and the p-type
lead are connected towards the positive terminal of the battery.
5.
Give a small voltage (3 V) to the circuit by slight and gentle turning of the power supply
knob. Move the sliding contact near the negative end and close the key. Both the voltmeter
and milliammeter will read zero.
6.
Move the sliding contact slightly towards the positive end to apply a forward bias of 0.1 V.
Milliammeter will indicate zero current.
7. Increase forward bias first to 0.2 V and then to 0.3 V and note corresponding milliammeter
readings. Current remains zero (due to potential barrier of 0.3 V of injunction).
8. Increase the forward bias to 0.4 V. The milliammeter shows a small current.
9.
Now increase the forward bias in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current in each
case. The value of forward current first increases slowly. Once the applied voltage exceeds

the threshold voltage/cut-in voltage {Vj. w 0.7 V), the current increases rapidly.
10. As the threshold voltage is reached, increase the forward bias in steps of 0.1 V noting the
corresponding current 7y in each case. Continue increasing the forward bias till the current
reaches the maximum limit of the milliammeter.
For reverse biased characteristic
11. Disconnect the circuit and make cormections for the reverse bias characteristics as shown in
Fig. 12.12. Connect the pside of the p« junction to the negative terminal of the power supply
and replace milliammeter by microammeter.
12. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter and microammeter.

170

i
 Chapter 12 : SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

13. Apply a reverse bias of 12 V to the circuit. Move the sliding contact of the rheostat to the
positive end and close the plug key. Both voltmeter and microammeter will show zero readings.
14. By moving the sliding contact of the rheostat, start increasing the reverse bias voltage in
suitable steps of 2 V or 3 V. Note the corresponding voltmeter and microammeter readings.
A very small reverse current flows through the circuit and this current increases very slowly.
Stop increasing the reverse bias when the reverse current suddenly begins to increase
rapidly. This part of the experiment gives a flat portion of the reverse bias characteristic.
I Observations
p-n junction diode used (diode no.) =
A. For forward biased characteristic

Range of the voltmeter = 0 to V ; Least count of the voltmeter = V

Range of the milliammeter = 0 to mA ; Least count of the milliammeter = mA

B. For reverse biased characteristic

Range of the voltmeter =0 to V; Least count of the voltmeter = V

w
Range of the microammeter = pA ; Least count of the microammeter = pA

Table 12.1 : Flo

Variation of I with V

ee
p-n junction reverse biased
S.No.
p^ junction forward biased
Forward voltage Vf Forward current J
f
Fr
Reverse voltage Reverse current
(volt) ‘
for
ur
(niA) (volt) (itA)
1. 0 0
ks
Yo

2. 0.1 1
oo

3. 0.2 2
B

4. 0.3 3
re

5. 0.4 4
ou
ad

6. 0.45 5
Y

7. 0.5 6
nd
Re

8. 0.55 7
Fi

9. 0.6 8

10. 0.65 9

11. 0.7 10

12. 0.75 11

Jotting Graphs
1. Forward biased characteristic. Choosing suitable scales, plot a graph between forward
voltage (along +ve X-axis) and forward current If (along +ve Y-axis). We get a graph as
shown in Fig. 12.13. Tlris graph is called forward characteristic of the given diode. Locate
the knee of the curve and read the cut-in voltage. From the graph, cut-in voltage of the given
diode = V.

2. Reverse biased characteristic. Choosing suitable scales, plot a graph between reverse voltage
Vj. (along -ve X-axis) and reverse current (along -ve Y-axis). We get a graph as shown in
Fig. 12.14. From the graph read the value of reverse saturation current. From the graph, reverse
saturation current for the given diode = pA

171

1
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Fig. 12.13 I-K characteristic of a junction Fig. 12.141-V characteristic of junction

diode in forward biasing. diode in reverse biasing.
Result

1. The 1-V characteristic curve for forward biasing of the given diode is shown in Fig. 12.13 and
for reverse biasing in Fig. 12.14.
2. From the forward characteristic curve, cut-in voltage for the given junction diode = V.

3. From the reverse characteristic curve, saturation current for the given junction diode =, pA

_^ECAUTIONS
1. Voltmeter, milliammeter and microammeter of appropriate ranges should be used for
forward and reverse biasings of the diode.
2. The p-side of the junction diode should be connected to the +ve terminal of the power supply
during forward biasing and to the -ve terminal during reverse biasing.
3. The potential difference across the diode should be increased gradually in small steps of 0.1 V
or 0.2 V.

4. During forward biasing, the current through the diode should not exceed its permissible limit.
5. During reverse biasing, the applied voltage should be less than the breakdown voltage of
the diode.

6. The current through the diode should be passed only when the observations are being taken.
Sources of Error

1. The junction diode used in the experiment may be a damaged one.

2. The p-?z junction, voltmeter, milliammeter and ammeter may not have been connected with
proper polarities to the power supply.
3. The passage of current through the diode for longer duration may heat up the diode.
»« <♦ »«

172

i
 Cfiopfer 12 : SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

11 Mechanisms of Breakdown in a Junction Diode 13 l-V Characteristic of a Zener Diode

The I-V characteristic of a Zener diode is shown in

The breakdown of a junction diode may occur
through two different processes : Fig. 12.17. When the applied reverse voltage (V) reduces
1. Avalanche breakdown. At a certain high reverse to the breakdown voltage (V^) of fhe zener diode, the
bias voltage, the electric field imparts a sufficiently
current suddenly increases. Thus after the breakdown
/(mA)
high energy to thermally generated electrons and holes
crossing the junction. These accelerated carriers on their
way knock-off electrons from the covalent bonds of the
crystal. The newly generated electron-hole pairs also Reverse bias Forward bias
get accelerated and generate further electron-hole pairs. ^2
This cumulative process produces a very large number
>K{V)
of carriers and is called avalanche multiplication. It
causes a large reverse current. This process occurs in
lightly doped diodes at high reverse biased voltages.
‘ ‘ mA
t

w
7(pA)
Reverse bias ' Forward bias
Fig. 12.17 J-V characteristic of a Zener diode,
Volt-» Flo
voltage {V^), a large change in the current can be

ee
Avalanche
\ Zener produced by almost insignificant change in the reverse
breakdovm

breakdown
liA
bias Fr
voltage. In other words, zener voltage remains
constant, even though current through the zener diode
for
ur
Fig. 12.15 I-V characteristic curve for an avalanche diode.
varies over a wide range. This property of the zener
2. Zener breakdown. In a Zener diode, both p- and diode is used for regulating supply voltages.
ks
Yo

n-sides are heavily doped with acceptor and donor

oo

14 Determination of Protective
impurities respectively. Due to this, the depletion layer
B

formed is very thin (<10"^m). Even a small reverse Resistance for a Zener Diode
re

bias voltage of 5 V sets up a very high electric field of As shown in Fig. 12.18, suppose a Zener diode with
ou

5x 10^ Vm'^This field is strong enough to pull valence a zener voltage

ad

and power dissipation rating is

Y

electrons from the host atoms on the p-side which are connected across a potential divider arrangement with
accelerated to w-side. These electrons give irse to a a maximum potential difference V applied across it. At
nd
Re

large reverse current or breakdown current. The breakdown voltage, the current through the Zener
Fi

emission of electrons from the host atoms due to high electric diode suddenly increases to a very large value. But such
field is known as internal field emission or field ionisation. The a large current will damage the diode due to excessive
breakdown of the diode due to internal field emission is called heating. To protect the diode from such a damage, we
Zener breakdoim.
connect a protective resistance in series with the
12 Zener Diode Zener diode such that the potential drop across the
diode is and the remaining drop occurs across R^.
A junction diode specially designed to operate only in the
reverse breakdown region continuously (without getting "0^
iiA
damaged) is called a Zener diode. Zener diodes with
different breakdown voltages can be obtained by
changing the doping concentrations of p- and n-sides IV
Rh
which, in turn, change the width of depletion layer and
also the barrier field across the junction. The symbol of
a Zener diode is shown in Fig. 12.16.
p «

Anode ^ Cathode

Fig. 12.16 Symbol for Zener diode. Fig. 12.18 Circuit for Zener diode characteristic curve.
173

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Then
V = Vz + lz>p For zener diode IN 738,

Maximum safe current through the Zener diode is V2 = 10 V and = 0-4 W

h ~
Ez If maximum applied voltage is 15 V, then
_(15-10)xl0 = 125 0
y=y+h L \7
0.4

Therefore, a protective resistance of 125 O should

be connected in series with the Zener diode IN 758 to
and
A protect it from damage.

(.

EXPERIMENT BIO
Aim

lo draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine its reverse
breakdown voltage.

Apparatus and Material Required

A p-n junction Zener diode (IN 758), a variable d.c. power supply (0 - 15 V), a microammeter
(0 -100 pA), a voltmeter (0 -15 V), a resistance of 125 O, a high resistance rheostat, a plug key and
connecting wires.
n

Theory

Cause of reverse breakdown of a junction diode. When the reverse voltage across a p-n junction
reaches a critical value, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. It is due to the
increase in the number of minority charge carriers because of the breakdown of the diode. The
breakdown of a diode occurs through tzuo different processes :
1. Avalanche breakdown. It occurs in lightly doped diodes at high voltages due to ionisation
by collisioa
2. Zener breakdown. It ocairs in heavily doped diodes at low voltages by field emission Due
to heavy doping of p- and ?hregions, the depletion layer becomes very thin. An applied
voltage of 6 V or less creates a strong field of 10^ V/m at the junction. This strong field pulls
valence electrons from host atoms on the p-side which are V'z
accelerated to «-side. This gives rise to a large reverse 0^
current. This breakdown of the diode due to internal
Rp(125fl)
field emission is called Zener breakdown. tzr*"AW—
p «
Zener diode. A heavily doped junction diode designed to 0^A
operate only in the reverse breakdown region continuously
+

(without getting damaged) is called Zener diode. When a MAAV

Rh(l kn)
Zener diode is operated in the reverse breakdown region, the
voltage across it remains practically constant (V^) ^ large
change in reverse constant. i-y
K
£
Circuit Diagram (At 15 V)

See Fig. 12.19 Fig. 12.19 Circuit for characteristic

of a Zener diode.

174
 Chapter 12 : SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Procedure

1. Draw the circuit diagram for reverse bias of the Zener diode as shown in Fig. 12.19 and
arrange the various components accordingly on the working table.
2. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter and microammeter.
3. With the help of a sand paper, remove the insulations from the ends of the connecting wires.
4. Make neat tight connections as per the circuit diagram of Fig. 12.19. See that the p-end of the
Zener diode is connected to the -ve terminal of the power supply while the positive marked
terminals of voltmeter and miCToammeter are connected to the +ve terminal of the power supply.
5. Check that the microammeter is connected in series with the Zener diode alongwith a series
protective resistance (« 125 Q) and the voltmeter is parallel to the Zener diode.
6. Move the sliding contact of the rheostat to the positive end and switch on the power supply
(15 V). Both voltmeter and microammeter will show zero readings.
7. By moving the sliding contact of the rheostat, start increasing the reverse bias in steps of 0.5 V.
Initially, for low reverse bias, the microammeter will show zero current.

w
8. On further increasing the reverse bias in steps of 0.5 V, the reverse current shows a slow
increase. Note the readings of voltmeter and microammeter in each case.
Flo
9. A stage is reached when the reverse current shows a sudden increase. Note this value of
reverse bias. It gives value of Zener breakdown voltage. Take few more readings after the

ee
breakdown voltage by increasing the reverse bias in steps of 0.2 V.
10. Record all your observations in a tabular form. Fr
for
ur
I Reservations
V
ks

Zener diode used (diode no.) = Range of voltmeter = 0 to

Yo
oo

Least count of voltmeter = V; Range of microammeter = 0 to pA

B

Least count of microammeter =. pA

re

Table 12.2 : Variation of reverse current 1^. with reverse bias across the Zener diode
ou
ad

S.No. Voltmeter reading V, (V) Microammeter reading J,(uA)

Y

1. 0.0
nd
Re

2. 0.5

3. 1.5
Fi

4. 2.0

5. 2.5

6. 3.0
7. 3.5

8. 4.0

9. 4.5

10. 5.0

11. 5.5

12. 6.0

13. 6.2

14. 6.4
15. 6.6

16. 6.8

17, 7.0
18.

7 75

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

a ^LOTTING Graph
Choosing suitable scales, plot a graph between reverse voltage V^. (along -^e X-axis) and reverse
current (along -ve Y-axis). We get a graph as shown in Fig. 12.20.

Z-V diaractei istics o E a Zen^ diodi t y

I
<- Reversebiased voltage / (volt)
X' -il -1)'. : .^1
0 X

i»r ●26-
brei kdowr t
I

Scale: ■ (H

X-axis; 1 cm = 2 V
Y-axis: 1 cm = 20 nA ■ir.

Fig. 12.20 Characteristic curve of a Zener diode.

From the graph, reverse breakdown voltage of the Zener diode = V.

Result

1. The Vr'^r given Zener diode is as shown in Fig. 12.20. With the increase in
reverse bias voltage, the reverse current first shows a slow increase and then increases
abruptly at the reverse breakdown voltage.
2. The breakdown voltage of the given Zener diode = V.

Precautions

1. Voltmeter and microammeter of appropriate ranges should be used. Their zero readings
must be checked properly.
2.
Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned properly with sand paper.
3. The p-end of Zener diode should be connected to the “ve terminal of the power supply.
4.
The current through the diode should be passed only when the observations are being taken.
5. A protective resistance of appropriate value should be connected in the circuit to limit the
value of current at breakdown.
6. The reverse bias voltage should be increased from zero (in small steps) upto 5% above the
breakdown voltage.

a Sources of Error

1.
Zener diode used in the experiment may be a damaged one.
2. Zener diode might not have been reverse biased.
3.
The reverse bias applied across the Zener diode may exceed well beyond the breakdown
value.

J76

i
 Chopfer 12 : SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

VIVA VOCE

A. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number densities

1. What is an energy band ? of holes and conduction electrons are equal i.e.,
so«,,:«^=l:l
A very large number of energy levels lying closely
within a very small energy range is called an energy 12. Name two factors on which electrical conductivity of
band. a pure semiconductor at a given temperature depends.
2. What is valence band ? (/) Width of the forbidden band.

The highest energy band that contains valence electrons (ii) Intrinsic charge carrier concentration.
is called valence band. 13. How does the conductivity of a semiconductor
3. What is conduction band ? change with the change in temperature ?
The conductivity of a semiconductor increases
The lowest unfilled allowed energy band next to
valence band is called conduction band. exponentially with temperature.

4. Define forbidden energy gap. 14. Why does the conductivity of a semiconductor
increase with the increase in temperature ?

w
The energy gap between the valence band and
When a semiconductor is heated, more and more
conduction band in which no allowed energy levels electrons jump across the forbidden gap from valence
can exist is called forbidden energy gap.
5. Distinguish between conductor, semiconductorand
Flo band to conduction band where they are free to
conduct electricity. Hence the conductivity increases

ee
insulator on the basis of the values of their forbidden with the increase in temperature.
energy gaps.

(0 In a conductor, either the conduction band is

Fr
15. Why does a semiconductor get damaged when a
heavy current flows through it ?
for
ur
partially filled or the valence and conduction When a heavy current flows, the semiconductor gets
bands partially overlap, so £ = 0. heated up. Many covalent bonds break liberating a
ks

large number of free electrons. The semiconductor

Yo

(ii) In a semiconductor, EX < 3eV.

oo

loses its property of controlled conduction. It

(lit) In an insulator, £ > 3eV.
B

o becomes an ordinary conductor.

re

6. How much is the energy gap in an insulator like 16. Why is silicon preferred over germanium for making
diamond ?
semiconductor devices ?
ou
ad

6eV.
This is because the energy gap for germanium
Y

7. How do silicon and germanium behave at 0 K ? {£ = 0.7 eV) is smaller than the energy gap for
nd

silicon (£ = 1.1 eV).

Re

Silicon and germanium are perfect insulators at 0 K, o

because all the valence electrons are utilised in 17. What is the SI unit of conductivity ?
Fi

forming covalent bands. Siemen per metre (Sm"*^).

8. What is an intrinsic semiconductor ?
18. What is doping a semiconductor ? Why is it done ?
A pure semiconductor {Ge or Si) in which electrical Doping is the process of addition of small amounts of
conductivity is totally governed by electrons trivalent or pentavalent impurity atoms to a pure
thermally excited from valence band to conduction tetravelent semiconductor. Doping is done to increase
band is called an intrinsic semiconductor. the number of mobile electrons/holes and hence to

9. Name the charge carriers in an intrinsic increase the conductivity of a semiconductor.

semiconductor. 19. What is an extrinsic semiconductor ?

Electrons and holes. A semiconductor obtained by doping a pure

10. What is a hole ? semiconductor with acceptor or donor impurity
atoms so as .to increase its conductivity is called an
Hole is a vacant state in the covalent band of a intrinsic semiconductor.
semiconductor. It acts as a +ve charge carrier in the
valence band.
20. What are donor and acceptor impurities ?
Pentavalent dopants such as As, Sb and P are called
11. What is the ratio of the number of holes and the donors.
number of conduction electrons in an intrinsic
semicondcutor ?
Trivalent dopants such as In, B and Al are called
acceptors.

177
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xll

21. Name the two types of extrinsic semiconductors. 34. Name the factors on which barrier potential depends ?
l^type semiconductors and p-type semiconductors. The barrier potential depends on (i) nature of the
22. What is an ii-type semiconductor ? semiconductor, (ii) temperature, and {in) the amount
of doping.
A tetravalent semiconductor of Si or Ge doped with
pentavalent impurity atoms of As, Sb or P is called an
35. What are the values of barrier potential for silicon
l^type semiconductor. type and germanium type junction diodes ?
23. What is a ;>-type semiconductor ? (f) 0.7 V for silicon type diode.
A tetravalent semiconductor of Si or Ge doped with (i7) 0.3 V for germanium type diode.
trivalent impurity atoms of B, A1 or In is called a 36. Can we measure potential difference of a p-njunction
p-type semiconductor. by cormecting a sensitive voltmeter across its
terminals ?
24. What type of charge carriers are there in an ii-type
semiconductor ? No, there are no free charge carriers in the depletion
Electrons as majority charge carriers and holes as region. So it offers infinite resistance in the absence of
minority charge carriers. any forward biasing.
25. What type of charge carriers are there in a p-type 37. Can a slab of p-type semiconductor be physically
semiconductor ? joined to another ?htype semiconductor slab to form
Holes as majority charge carriers and electrons as p-n junction ? Justify your answer.
minority charge carriers. The two separate semiconductors cannot have a
26. Why is p-type semiconductor so called ? conti- nuous contact at the atomic level. The junction
Because a p-type semiconductor has holes, the positive will behave as a discontinuity for the flowing charge
carriers.
charge carriers, as the majority charge carriers.
27. How does the energy gap in an intrinsic semicon 38. To forward bias a junction diode, its p-side is
ductor vary, when doped with a pentavalent impurity ? connected to the +ve terminal of a battery and Ji-side
The energy gap in the semiconductor decreases due to the negative terminal of the battery. Is it
to the creation of a donor energy level just below the necessary ?
bottom of the conduction band. No, not necessary. If the potential of the p-side is
28. Why is the conductivity of ii-type semiconductor greater than the potential of n-side by at least barrier
greater than that of ptype semiconductor even when potential, then tire diode is forward biased.
both of these have same level of doping ? 39. To reverse bias a junction diode, its p-side is
This is because under a given electric field, free connected to the -ve terminal of the battery and
electrons have higher mobility than holes. fj-side to the -i-ve terminal of the battery. Is it
29. What is the ratio of to in a ;>type semiconductor ? necessary ?
Greater than unity, because H;, » n^. No, not necessary. If the potential of the p-side is
greater than the potential of «-side, then the diode is
30. What is the ratio ofto in an ii-type semiconductor ? reverse biased.
Less than unity, because « n^.
40. Which type of biasing of the junction diode offers low
resistance ?
B. p-n Junction
31. What is a junction diode ? Forward biasing.
A junction diode or a p-ii junction is a single crystal of 41. Which type of biasing of the junction diode offers
Ge or Si doped in such a mannerthat one half portion very high resistance ?
of it is a p-type semiconductor and other half portion Reverse biasing.
is l^type semiconductor. 42. When a p-njuncHon is forward biased, what happens
32. What is depletion region in a p-« junction ? to (/) the potential barriers, (ii) the width of depletion
It is a thin region around the junction of p- and layer, and {in) the effective resistance across the
if-sections which is devoid of free electrons and holes junction diode ?
and has only immobile ions. (/) The potential barrier decreases.
33. What is barrier potential ? {ii) The width of depletion of depletion layer
decreases,
It is the potential difference set up across the junction
of a junction diode due to the electric field in the (ill) The effective resistance across the junction
decreases.
depletion region.
 Chopfer 12 : SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

43. Why does the width of depletion layer of a p-n the difference in their concentrations on the two sides
junction increase in reverse biasing ? of the junction. The current flow from p —> n side
During reverse biasing, the positive terminal of the during forward biasing is due to diffusion current.
external battery attracts electrons from the ?^region 52. What is drift current in a junction diode ?
and its negative terminal attracts holes from the
The current set up by the minority charge carriers
p-region i.e., the majority charge carriers move away
from the junction. This increases the width of the under the influence of the barrier field £g from « —> p
depletion layer. side is called drift current.

44. How does the width of the depletion region of a p-n 53. Under what condition does a p-»f junction work as a
junction vary, if the reverse bias applied to it decreases ? closed switch ?

If the reverse bias decreases, the width of depletion When a p-n junction is forward biased, it offers very
region of the p-n junction decreases. low resistance and so it works as a closed switch.

45. Define dynamic resistance of a junction diode. 54. Under what condition does a p-njunction work as an
It is the ratio of the small change in applied voltage open switch ?
across the junction to the small change in current When a p-n junction is reverse biased, it offers very
through it. high resistance and so it works as an open switch.

w
Ay
55. What is a rectifier ?
AI
A device which converts a.c. into d.c. is called a
46. The resistance of a junction diode is of tlie order of a
few ohms. Is the }>-n junction forward or reverse
Flo rectifier.

ee
56. How' does a junction diode act as a rectifier ?
biased ?

Forward biased. Fr
A junction diode conducts current when forward
biased and does not conduct when reverse biased.
for
ur
47. How much is the reverse current in a reverse biased When a.c. is fed to a diode, the diode is forward
p-n junction ? biased during positive half cycle and a current flows
ks

Very high of the order of few kQ. through it. During negative half cycle, the diode is
Yo

reverse biased and it does not conduct. Thus the

oo

48. What is the order of reverse current in a reverse

signal gets rectified.
B

biased p-N junction ?

re

57. What is a half wave rectifier ?

Few pA.
A half wave rectifier uses only a single diode and
ou

49. What is threshold or knee voltage for a junction

ad

diode ? What are its values for Ge and Si diodes ?

gives d.c. output only for one half cycle of a.c.
Y

58. What is a full wave rectifier ?

When the forward bias across a p-n junction is
nd
Re

increased (starting from zero), the current first A full wave rectifier uses two junction diodes which
increases very slowly and then after a certain
Fi

alternately give d.c. output for both half cycles of a.c.

characteristic voltage, the diode current increases
59. If you use different diodes (Ge or Si), what change do
significantly (exponentially), even for a small
you observe in their I-V characteristics ?
increase in forward bias. This characteristic voltage is
called threshold voltage or knee voltage or cut-in During forward biasing, Ge diode shows a knee
voltage. Its value is -0.2 V for Ge diode and - 0.7 V for voltage of ~ 0.2 V while Si diode shows a knee voltage
Si diode. of ~ 0.7 V.

50. What is reverse saturation current in a junction diode ? 60. Which region of a junction diode acts as a capacitor ?
When a diode is reverse biased, a very small current Depletion region.
of few pA flows across the junction due to the drift of
minority charge carriers across the junction. The C. Zener Diode
magnitude of this current is almost independent of
applied voltage but is limited by the concentration of 61. What is Zener breakdown ?
minority charge carriers on either side of the p-n When a large reverse voltage is applied across a p-n
junction. junction, a large reverse current flows through it. This
51. What is diffusion current in a junction diode ? effect is called zener breakdown.

Diffusion current is the current set up by die diffusion 62. What is Zener breakdown voltage or peak-inverse
of majority charge carriers across the junction due to voltage ?

179

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYS1C5-XII

The voltage at which breakdown of a junction diode 70. Can a Zener diode be used in place of ordinary
occurs or the voltage at which the current suddenly junction diode in a rectifier circuit ?
increases to a large value in a reverse biased p-n Yes, Zener diode can be used in place of ordinary
junction diode is called Zener breakdown voltage or junction diode, below breakdown voltage.
peak-inverse voltage. 71. In which type of biasing a Zener diode is used as a
63. Name the two different mechanisms in which voltage regulator ?
breakdown of a junction diode occurs.
Reverse biasing.
Avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown.
72. State the principle on which Zener diode acts as a
64. When does Avalanche breakdown occur ? voltage regulator.
Avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped Wlaen a Zener diode is operated in the reverse
diodes at high reverse bias voltages due to ionisation breakdown region, the voltage across it remains
by collision. practically constant (equal to the breakdown voltage
65. When does Zener breakdown occur ? K.) for a large change in the reverse current. Any
Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped diodes at increase/decrease of the input voltage results in
small reverse bias voltages by field emission. increase/decrease of voltage drop across a series
66. What is internal field emission ? resistor without any change in voltage across zener
diode.
The emission of electrons from the host atoms due to
73. Name the factors on which Zener voltage depends.
high electric field is known as internal field emission.
The breakdown of a diode due to internal field The value of Zener voltage depends on (i) nature of
emission is known as Zener breakdown. semiconductor, (ii) amount of doping, (Hi) method of
67. What is Zener diode ? fabrication of the junction diode and (iv) the working
temperature.
A heavily doped junction diode specially designed to
74. How does the value of breakdown voltage of a
have sharp reverse breakdown voltage is called
junction diode depend on amount of doping ?
Zener diode. It can be operated in reverse breakdown
region continuously, without getting damaged. With the increase in doping level, the value of the
68. How does heavy doping of p- and fi-sides of a />-» breakdown voltage decreases. For lightly doped
diode, the breakdown voltage is high.
junction bring a reverse breakdown at a small
voltage ? 75. How does breakdown voltage depend on
temperature ?
The heavy doping of p- and ^^sides of p-n junction
makes the depletion region very thin (<10"^m). The value of breakdown voltage decreases with the
Even a small reverse bias of 5 V sets up a strong field increase in temperature because the energy of
of SxlO^Vm”^. This field is strong enough to pull valence electrons increases with temperature and so
valence electrons from the host atoms on the p-side these electrons easily break away from the covalent
bonds.
which are accelerated to ^^side. These electrons give
rise to a large reverse current or breakdown current.
69. In which type of biasing Zener diode characteristic is
same as that of ordinary junction diode ?
Forward biasing.

180

V
 Section B : Activities

ACTIVITY B1
Aim

To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of

such items.

I Apparatus and Material Required

A multimeter, a mixed collection of diode, LED, resistor and capacitor.

Lih

w
EORY

Diode. A two terminal device which conducts current when forward biased and not when
Flo
reverse biased. It does not emit light during its conduction.

ee
LED. A light emitting diode is a two terminal device which conducts current when forward
Fr
biased and not when reverse biased. It emits a characteristic light during its conduction.

Resistor. A two terminal device which conducts equally in both directions.

for
ur
Capacitor. A two terminal device which offers infinite resistance to dc but has a finite reactance
for ac. When connected across a dc source, a multimeter shows a large current initially (for
ks
Yo

C >pE) which decreases to zero quickly. This is because the capacitor initially draws a charge.
oo

I
B

Diag rams
re

Violet Orange
ou
ad

Red
1 I Silver
Y

A
nd

\J.
Re

P n P n
Fi

Carbon resistor Diodes n

P
LED
1000 ^F
6V
■(^0.47 hF}- +

Paper
Electrolytic
CAPACITORS

Fig. 1 Diagrams of carbon resistor, diodes, LED and capacitors.

|_Procedure
1. Look for the colour bands on the given components. If a component has a set of three colour
bands followed by a silver or gold band, then the component is a resistor.
2. Insert the black and red leads (or probes) into common and positive terminals of the
multimeter. Turn its selector switch to resistance mode - highest range (O-MH).

3. Touch the two probes to the two ends of each component one by one. Note the direction of
deflection in the multimeter. Interchange the positions of two probes for each component
and again note the direction of deflection.

181

k
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

4. If the multimeter shows an equal deflection in both directions, tlien the component is a resistor.
5. If a multimeter shows deflection in one direction without any emission of light from the
component and no deflection in the opposite direction, then the component is a diode.
6. If the multimeter shows deflection in one direction alongwith the emission of light from the
component and no deflection in the opposite direction, then the component is an LED.
7. If the multimeter does not show any deflection on connecting its probes either way to a
component, then the component is a capacitor. But if the capacitance of the capacitor is large,
the multimeter will show a large deflection initially which gradually decreases to zero.
8. Record all your observations in a tabular form.
Observations

Table B1 : State of conduction of each component

Item code State of conduction of a component Identified component

A
Conducts equally in both directions
B Conducts in one direction without emission of light
C Conducts in one direction with emission of light
D Does not conduct, gives an initial deflection which
decays to zero

Result

From the mixed grouping of components, the components marked A, B, C and D have been
identified as resistor, diode, LED and capacitor respectively.
Precautions

1. While checking the conduction state of any component, clean its leads properly.
2. Use the selector switch of the multimeter in resistance mode with highest range option.

3. While testing any component, avoid touching the metal end of either of multimeter probe.
Body resistance in parallel with the component resistance may create confusion about the
conduction state of the component.

VIVA VOCE
1. What is a resistor ? 5. How do Ihe conduction states of an ordinary diode
and an LED differ ?
Any material that has some resistance is called a
resistor. An ordinary diode conducts in forward biasing
2. What is a linear resistor ? without any emission of light while an LED conducts
in forward direction with emission of light. Both do
A linear resistor is one which obeys Ohm's law or for
not conduct in reverse biasing.
which V-I graph is a straight line passing through the
origin. 6. How does a capacitor behave towards dc ?
3. What is a non-ohmic device ? A capacitor does not conduct dc. But a capacitor of
A device which does not obey Ohm's law is called a large capacitance shows an initial deflection in the
non-ohmic device. Semiconductor diodes, LEDs, etc; ammeter which decays to zero quickly. This is due to
are non-ohmic devices. charging of the capacitor.
7. How does a capacitor behave towards ac ?
4. Does an ohmic resistor conduct equally for both
forward and reverse biasing ? A capacitor conducts ac because its capacitive
Yes, an ohmic resistor conducts equally when current is reactance ^— is finite against ac.
passed in one direction and then in opposite direction. 2n/CJ

182
i
 Section B : ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY B2
Aim

Use of multimeter to see the unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and an
LED and check whether a given electronic component (e.g., diode) is in working order.

^PARATUSAND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A multimeter, a diode, LED, sand paper.
n Theory

1. To check the unidirectional flow of current through a junction diode/LED. When a

junction diode/LED is forward biased, a substantial current (wfew mA) will flow through it.

w
When a junction diode/LED is reverse biased, a negligible current (« few pA) will flow
through it.
2. Flo
To check whether a diode is in working order. A junction diode offers a low resistance (a

ee
few n to kn) during forward biasing and it offers a very high resistance (« M H) during
Fr
reverse biasing. Thus the working of a junction diode can be examined by measuring its
resistance in forward and reverse biased conditions.
for
ur
Working Diagram
ks
Yo

Diode
oo

{>1—m}
B

p-H
+ d Red probe
re

“*[ Black probe

ou
ad

+ y
Y

K
6 V variable
dc battery
nd
Re

Fig. 2 To check unidirectional flow of current through a diode.

Fi

Procedure

(a) To check unidirectional flow of current through a junction diode/LED

1. As shown in Fig. 2, connect the junction diode, a resistance box, a 6 V variable dc battery
and a plug key K in series. Adjust the battery to minimum voltage.
2. Set multimeter in current measuring mode at a suitable range of mA (starting from high
current range). Take out a suitable resistance R from the resistance box so that the current
flows within the range chosen. Insert the plug in the key K and note the value of current
flowing in the circuit.
3. Increase the forward bias in steps of 0.2 V. Note the current in each case. Beyond a certain
applied voltage, current increases rapidly with the increase in forward bias.
4. Reverse the terminals of the junction diode so that its p-end is at lower potential and «-end is
at higher potential. Observe the current in multimeter on pA scale. Negligible current
reading will indicate the unidirectional feature of the diode. Increase in reverse bias will
show negligible change in reverse current.

183

J
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

5. Replace the diode by LED and repeat steps 1 to 4. It will be seen that LED allows the flow of
current only when it is forward biased. LED starts glowing when the applied voltage
exceeds 1.2 V. Initially, it glows faintly. Its glow becomes brighter and brighter as the voltage
is gradually increased.

(b) To check whether the junction diode is in working order or not

6. Set the multimeter in resistance measuring mode.
7. Touch the two probes of the multimeter to the two end terminals of the junction diode. Note
the diode resistance. Reverse the diode connections. Again note the diode resistance. If the
diode resistance is low in one case and high in the other case or vice versa, then the diode is
in working order.
8. If the diode resistance is low both during forward and reverse biasings, then the diode is
short-circuited. If the diode resistance is very high both during forward and reverse
biasings, then the diode junction is discontinuous or open. In both of these situations the
diode is not in working order. Record the observations in a tabular form.
Observations

A. For unidirectional flow of current through the junction diode

Table B2 : When the junction diode is connected in forward bias

S.No. Forward bias voltage Forward current

m
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Table B3 : When the junction diode is connected in reverse bias

S.No. Reverse bias voltage Reverse current

Ml
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

B. For unidirectional flow of current through the LED

Table B4 : When the LED is connected in forward bias

S.No. Forward bias voltage Forward current

m.
1.

2.

3.
4.

5.

184
 Sed/on B : ACTIVITIES

Table B5 : When the LED is connected in reverse bias

Reverse bias voltage Reverse current

S.No.
lYl Ml
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

C. For working condition of the junction diode

Table B6 : Measurement of the diode resistance with multimeter

Resistance
S.No. Biasing condition of the diode Nature of resistance
M
1. Forward biasing LowA^ery high
2. Reverse biasing LowA^ery high

w
Result

1. Flo
The unidirectional feature of a junction diode and LED has been established, both conduct

ee
only when forward biased and not when reverse biased.
2.
Fr
The given junction diode is in working order as it offers low resistance in forward biasing
and high resistance in reverse biasing/Tlre given junction diode is not in working order as it
for
ur
offers low (or high) resistance both during forward and reverse biasing.
ks

Precautions
Yo
oo

1. For measuring resistance of any component, its leads should be cleaned properly with a
B

sand paper.
re

2. For measuring current and resistance, appropriate selection of function switch and range
switch should be made.
ou
ad

The polarity probe leads should be connected to the proper polarities for measurements in dc
Y

3.
circuits.
nd
Re

4. While measuring resistance of any component, avoid direct touching of the metallic ends of
Fi

the multimeter leads. Body resistance in parallel with the component resistance will affect
the resistance measurement.

5. Each time when we select a resistance scale of different range, we should set the pointer to
zero using 'zero Adj. knob'.

VIVA VOCE
1. What do you mean by unidirectional flow of current reverse biasing (» MQ), then the diode will be in
in a junction diode/LED ? working order.
A junction diodeA-ED conducts current easily when 3. What is difference between normal junction diode
forward biased and does not conduct current in and an LED ?

reverse biasing. This is the unidirectional feature of When forward biased, a junction diode conducts
current flow of a junction diode/LED. current without emitting any light. An LED when
2. How do you check whether a diode is in working forward biased conducts current and glows
order or not ? brighter and brighter as the forward bias voltage is
increased.
If junction diode offers low resistance (few Q to kQ)
in forward biasing and a very high resistance in

185

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

ACTIVITY B3
Aim

To study the effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the source) on
an LDR.

j Apparatus and Material Required

LDR, 3 W LED bulb with holder, an iron stand for the bulb, a battery eliminator (12 V), a plug
key, milliammeter (0-500 mA), voltmeter (0-10 V), a resistance of 47 H, a half metre scale,
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

I Theory
A light dependent resistor or a photoresistor is a light sensitive device whose resistance decreases with the
increase in intensity of incident light. It is made from a semiconductor material cadmium sulpliide,
CdS [other materials being CdSe, PbS, PbSe, InSb].
The basic structure of an LDR and its symbols are shown in Fig. 3. A snake like or zigzag pattern
of the light sensitive material is deposited on an insulating substrate such as ceramic. Such a
pattern provides desired resistance and power rating. Also this zigzag pattern separates a thin metal
film into two areas for which two low resistance metal contacts are made. A thin transparent
coating on the top surface provides a window for the incident light.

Transparent coating over entire surface

Electrode 1 Electrode 2
(Thin metal film)

Photoconducdve
Metal
material over
contact
top surface
Ceramic-
substrate
Ni:
■^Wire
terminal

(fl) ib)

Fig. 3 (a) Basic structure (b) Symbol of an LDR.

When light of certain minimum frequency falls on the LDR, the absorbed photons give bound
electrons enough energy to jump to the conduction band where they are free to conduct
electricity. This increases the conductance or lowers the resistance of the device. A typical LDR
has a high resistance of several MD in total darkness and just a few hundred ohms in
bright light.

/^6
i
 Section B : ACTIVITIES

Circuit Diagram
To ac

^2 mains

f 3 WLED

47 Q
iU LDR
VA-
Iron
stand

12 V

w
Fig. 4 Circuit to study the effect of intensity of light on an LDR.
Procedure
Flo
1. Draw the circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 4 and assemble the apparatus on the working

ee
table accordingly.
2. Make neat and tight connections by connecting a Fr
12 V battery eliminator in series with the
LDR, milliammeter mA, plug key K and a 47 Q resistor. Connect the voltmeter V in parallel
for
ur
with the LDR.
ks

3. Keeping the LED lamp switched off, insert the plug in the key K.
Yo
oo

4. Note the readings of voltmeter and milliammeter. Then calculate the value of LDR resistance R .
B

5. In order to take into account the background illumination, the reference resistance R' is
re

added to all further measurements of resistance R of LDR.

ou

6. Clamp a 3 W LED lamp on a rigid iron stand facing LDR. Adjust the lamp normally above
ad
Y

the LDR at a distance of 10 cm with the help of half metre scale.

7. Switch on the LED lamp and note the voltmeter and milliammeter readings.
nd
Re

8. Repeat the activity by adjusting the LED lamp at distances of 15 cm, 20 cm, 25 cm, and 30 cm
Fi

from the LDR. Record the reading of voltmeter and milliammeter in each case, calculate the
resistance of LDR at different distances of the lamp.
Observations and Calculations

Range of voltmeter = 0 to V

Least count of voltmeter = V

mA
Range of milliammeter = 0 to .
Least count of milliammeter = mA

Observations for background illumination

Reading of voltmeter = V

mA = A
Reading of milliammeter =

LDR resistance for background illumination, R' 1

n

187

k
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Table B7 : Variation in resistance of LDR with distance

Observed resistance
Distance of LDR Voltmeter MilUammeter Actual resistance of
V
S.No. from the lamp reading V reading I of LDR R
0 ~ T
I LDR R=Rq+R'
(cm) (V) (mA) P)
(n)
1. 10

2. 15

3. 20

4. 25

5. 30

Result

1. As distance of LDR from the source increases, intensity of light decreases and resistance of
LDR increases.

Precautions

1. All the connections should be neat and tight.

2. LDR must be placed normally to the light source so that angle of incidence of light rays
remains same throughout the experiment.
3. A suitable protective resistance must be connected in series with LDR to prevent it from
damage.
4. Resistance of LDR for background illumination must be taken into account.

VIVA VOCE

1. What is an LDR ?
bands of the photosensitive material. These electrons
A light dependent resistor is a device whose become free to conduct electricity. This increases the
resistance decreases with the increase in intensity of conductance or decreases the resistance.
light incident upon it. 5. How does the intensity of light vary with the distance
from the source ?
2. Name some materials used for making LDRs.
Semiconductor materials like CdS, PbS, CdSe, PbSe Intensity of light is inversely proportional to the
and InSb. square of the distance from the source.
6. How are LDRs different from photodiodes and
3. How does the resistance of an LDR change with the phototransistors ?
light intensity ?
Even though LDRs are made from semiconductor
At low light intensities, an LDR has a high resistance. materials, yet they are different from photodiodes
As the intensity of incident light increases, the and phototransistors because they are simply passive
resistance of an LDR decreases.
devices and do not have p-n junctions.
4. Why does the resistance of an LDR decrease with the 7. Name some applications of LDRs.
increase in intensity of incident light ? LDRs are used as light sensors in alarm clocks, street
As the intensity of incident light increases, more and lights, light intensity meters and burglar alarm
more electrons are knocked off from the valence circuits.

188

i
 Sed/on 8 : ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY B4
Aim

To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a

glass slab.

Apparatus and Material Required

A rectangular glass slab (preferably of larger size), a drawing board, white paper sheet,
cello-tape/drawing pins, alpins, protractor, ruler, sharp pencil and eraser.
n Theory

Figure 5 shows the path ABCD of a ray suffering refraction through a rectangular glass slab

w
PQRS. It is seen that

Angle of incidence i = Angle of emergence e

Flo
ee
Fr
for
ur
ks
Yo
oo
B
re
ou
ad
Y

Fig. 5 Refraction through a glass slab.

nd
Re

Thus the emergent ray CD is parallel to the incident ray AR But the emergent ray gets laterally
Fi

displaced with respect to the incident ray. The perpendicular distance between the incident and
emergent rays, when light is incident obliquely on a refracting slab with parallel faces, is called laterial shift
or lateral displacement.
It is given by
t cost
d = sin(f-r) = fsin/ 1-
cosr

Clearly, d max
= fsin90®=f

The lateral shift produced by a glass slab increases with

(i) the increase in thickness t of glass slab,
(ii) the increase in the value of angle of incidence i, and
(n'/) the increase in refractive index p of the glass slab.

189
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

I Ray Diagrams

A3 N3
p '
11 '

P2
Q
55-1 = 40®
Q
T B.\
j|\v M
I
^3
1 ‘3
s R

\Q\Pl
R D3

id)

Fig. 6 Lateral displacements for different i and t.

Procedure
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of cello-tape or drawing pins.
2. Place the glass slab breadthwise on the white sheet [Fig. 6(a)]. Mark its boundary PQRS with a
sharp pencil.
3. Remove the glass slab. Take a point on face AR Draw normal Bj on PQ. With the help of a
protractor, draw an incident ray making an angle of incidence of 40® with the normal Bj N r
4. Again, place the glass slab within its boundary PQRS. Fix two alpins Pj and P2 vertically on

the incident ray A^ B■^, about 8 to 10 cm apart.

5. Looking into the slab from the opposite face SP, position the eye in such a way that the feet of
pins Pj and P2 appear to be one behind the other. Now fix pins P^ and P^ vertically in line
with pins Pj and P2 as viewed through the slab.
6. Remove the alpins and encircle the pin-pricks. Remove the slab and complete the path of the
ray of light A^ B^ . Draw perpendicular on Bj produced and measure the length
of Cj . This gives a measure of lateral displacement d.
7. Place the glass slab lengthwise as shown in Fig. 6{b). Repeat the experiment again for the same
angle of incidence of 40°. Measure the lateral displacement.
8. Place the glass slab thicknesswise as shown in Fig. 6(c). Repeat the experiment again for the
same angle of incidence of 40°. Measure the lateral displacement.
9. By placing the glass slab lengthwise as shown in Figs. 6(d) and (e), repeat the experiment twice
for angles of incidence of 50° and 60°. Measure the lateral displacement in each case.

190
 SecNon 6 ; ACTIVITIES

10. Measure the length, breadth and thickness of the glass slab using a ruler. Record all your
observations in a tabular form.

Observations and Calculations

Least count of the protractor = degrees
Least count of the ruler = mm = cm ; Length of the glass slab, = cm

Breadth of the glass slab, ^2 = cm ; Thickness of the glass Mab, = cm

Table B8 : Variation of lateral displacement with angle of incidence i and thickness t of glass slab
Thickness of glass Angle of incidence Angle of Lateral
S. Difference i ~ e Ratio -
slab traversed emergence displacement
No. (degrees) d (cm)
t
(cm) i (degrees) e (degrees)

f
i-
1. 1 40° t1

iz. -

w
2. 40°
^2
i-
3. ^3 40° Flo ^3
^3

ee
4.
h 50° ^4
5.
Iz 60°
Fr A
for
ur
Result

As difference eis small, so i = e. When light refracts through a glass slab, the emergent ray
ks

1.
Yo

is parallel to the direction of incident ray.

oo

Within the limits of experimental error, from observations 1, 2 and 3 we see that the ratio
B

2.

d /1 = constant. The lateral displacement of the emergent ray is directly proportional to the
re

thickness of the glass slab (for constant i).

ou
ad

3. From observations 2, 4 and 5, we note the lateral displacement of the emergent ray increases
Y

with the increase in the angle of incidence i (for constant t).

nd
Re

Precautions
Fi

1. The boundary of the glass slab should be marked with a sharp pencil.
2. Alpins should be fixed vertically and about 8 to 10 cm apart.
3. The feet of the alpins and not their heads should be adjusted in the same straight line.
4. Just after removing an alpin, encircle the pin-prick with a sharp pencil.
5. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.

VIVA VOCE

1. What is lateral shift in refraction ? 3. For what angle of incidence, the lateral shift
The sidewise shift in the path of light on emerging produced by a parallel sided glass slab is zero ?
from a refracting medium with parallel faces is called For i = 0°, lateral shift is zero.
lateral shift.
4. For what angle of incidence, the lateral shift
2. On what factors does the lateral shift depend ? produced by a parallel sided glass slab is maximum ?
Lateral shift depends on angle of incidence, the For I = 90°, lateral shift is maximum and is equal to
refractive index and thickness of the refracting the thickness of the glass slab.
medium.

191

J
 LAB MANUAL PHY5ICS-XII

ACTIVITY

Aim

To observe polarisation of light using two polaroids.

Apparatus and Material Required

Two Polaroid sheets and a source of light (electric bulb).

L 1 Theory
1.
Unpolarised light. A light wave in which the electric field vector vibrates in all directions in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
2.
Plane or linearly polarised light. A light wave in which the electric field vector vibrates just in
one direction in a plane peiyendicular to the direction of propagation.
3.
Polaroid. A polaroid consists of long chain molecules aligned in a particular direction.
When unpolarised light wave is incident on a polaroid, its electric field vibrations along the
direction of aligned molecules get absorbed while the emerging light wave gets linearly
polarised with its electric field vibrations along a direction perpendicular to the aligned
molecules. This direction is known as pass-axis of the polaroid.
4.
Demonstration of polarisation of light. As shown in Fig. 7, when ordinary (unpolarised
light) falls on a polaroid Pj, called polariser, it transmits the vibrations parallel to its
pass-axis and absorbs the vibrations in the perpendicular direction. The transmitted light is
plane polarised. This can be examined by using second polaroid P2, called analyser. When
the pass-axes of the two polaroids are parallel, maximum intensity is transmitted by ?2. If
the Polaroid ?2 is rotated in its own plane, the intensity of light gradually decreases until it
becomes zero when the axes of the two polaroids are perpendicular to each other. This
experiment demonstrates that light has transverse wave nature.
Diagram
Transmitted
Pi
polarised
light/fiTTf

Light
■
source Polariser Analyser Polarising films
(«) (b)
Pi
No

M hght

Light
source Polariser Analyser
(c) id)

Fig. 7 Polaroid sheets. When the sheets are oriented with the same polarisation direction,
the transmitted light is polarised (a and b). When one of the sheets is rotated
through 90° (crossed polaroids), no light is transmitted (cand d).
192

i.
 Secf/on B : ACTIVITIES

i Procedure
1.
Take a polaroid Pj and look through it towards a light bulb in the laboratory. The bulb looks
dimmer because only half of the incident light is transmitted by the polaroid .
2.
Rotate the polaroid Pj in its own plane. In this way we change the direction or pass-axis of
the Polaroid P,, keeping its plane perpendicular to the direction of incident light. It is
seen that the illuminance of the bulb, as seen through the polaroid P, is not affected as we
rotate Pj.
3.
Now place the second polaroid P^ between tire first polaroid P^ and your eye. Slowly rotate
the Polaroid P^ in its own plane with respect to the polaroid P,. In one of the positions, the
intensity of light transmitted by P^ becomes maximum. This happens when the pass-axes of
the two polaroids are parallel to each other.
4.
Keeping P, fixed in its position, now start rotating P^ in its own plane. The intensity of light
transmitted by P2 goes on decreasing until it becomes zero. This happens when the
pass-axes of Pj and P2 are perpendicular to each other i.e., the two polaroids are in crossed

w
position. This implies that the light incident on P2 emerging from Pj is plane polarised.
Polaroid P^ is called polariser while polaroid P2 is called analyser.
Conclusions
Flo
ee
1. The first polaroid polarises the unpolarised light from the electric bulb.
2. The polarised light does not pass through the second
Fr polaroid when its pass-axis is
for
ur
perpendicular to the pass-axis of the first polaroid.
I
ks

Precautions
Yo
oo

1. Handle the polaroids carefully so as not to leave finger prints on them.

B

2. The centres of the two polaroids and the source of light should be in the same direction.
re

3. The planes of the two polaroids should be perpendicular to the direction of incidence light.
ou
ad

4. The second polaroid should be rotated slowly with respect to the first polaroid.
Y
nd
Re

VIVA VOCE
Fi

1. What do you mean by polarisation of light ? What can you say about its polarisation condition ?
The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of the How does an analyser make it possible to detect
electric field vector of a light wave to just one polarisation condition ?
direction in a plane perpendicular to the direction of The light falling on the polariser is unpolarised.
wave propagation is called polarisation of light. When the pass-axes of the polariser and analyser are
2. Can sound waves be polarised ? perpendicular to each other and no light is
Sound waves have longitudinal wave nature, so they transmitted by the analyser, then light transmitted by
cannot be polarised. the polariser is plane polarised.
6. State Malus law.
3. Name the crystals commonly used for polarising light.
Tourmaline and calcite crystals. When a beam of completely plane polarised light is
passed through analyser, then intensity / of the
4. Name a source of light which directly gives plane transmitted light varies directly as the square of the
polarised light.
Laser.
cosine of the angle 0 between the transmission
directions of polariser and analyser.
5. While observing light from some source through a / - Kcos^O
0
polariser, there is no change in the intensity of light.

193
 LAB MANUAL PHYStCS-XIl

ACTIVITY B5(^)
Aim

To observe dijfraction of light due to a thin slit

Apparatus and Material Required

Two razor blades, a cello-tape, source of light (electric bulb/laser pencU), a glass plate and a piece of
black paper.

Theory

1. Diffraction of light It is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of small obstacles
orapertures and its consequent spreading into the region of geometrical shadow. Diffraction effect is
highly pronounced if the size of the obstacle/aperture is of the order of wavelength of light.
2. Diffraction due to a single slit. Diffraction arises due to the interference of light waves from
different parts of the same wavefront Two razor blades with their sharp edges held parallel
to, quite close to each other (separation form a fine single slit. The diffraction pattern
due to a single slit consists of a central bright band, surrounded on both sides by coloured
bands (with electric bulb) and alternate dark and bright bands (with laser pencil) of
decreasing intensity.
Diagram

Glass plate

I ●Black paper

Fig. 8 A fine slit made by using two razor blades, one glass plate and a piece of black paper.

Procedure

To make a fine slit using razor blades

1. Take a glass plate and fix a black paper on its top with a cello-tape. Using a razor blade, cut
out a narrow slit in the central part of the black paper.
2. With the help of cello-tape, fix the two razor blades. With their sharp edges parallel and
quite close to each other over the slit cut in the black paper. Thus a narrow slit is formed in
between the edges of the two razor blades.
To observe diffraction pattern due to single slit
3. Hold a clear electric bulb with straight filament at a distance of about 4 m behind the slit
between the sharp edges of the razor blades. Switch on the bulb, observe the lamp through
the slit. A diffraction pattern is seen with a central bright band, surrounded on both sides by
coloured bands.

194

I
 Section B : ACTIVITIES

4. Place the slit about 0.5 m from the wall and the electric bulb at a distance of about 15 - 20 cm

behind the slit. Observe the light falling on the wall. Again a coloured diffraction pattern is
seen on the wave.

5. Repeat steps 2 and 3 using a laser pencil instead of electric bulb. A diffraction pattern is seen
on the wall consisting a central bright band and alternate dark and bright bands of
decreasing intensity.
Conclusion

Light waves incident on a fine aperture bend around its comers and show the phenomenon of
diffraction.

Precautions

1. The edges of the two blades should be held parallel and quite close to each other.
2. The electric bulb should be held at a distance more than 2 m form the slit.

w
VIVA VOCE

1. What is diffraction of light ? Flo Diffraction is prominent when we use a narrow slit

ee
The phenomenon of bending of light around the having parallel edges. Such a slit can be obtained by
using two blades and not by using two fingers.
comers of small obstacles or apertures and its
spreading into the regions of geometrical shadow is Fr
5. Why does the intensity of secondary maximum
for
ur
called diffraction of light. become less as compared to central maximum ?
2. What should be the approximate slit size to observe The central maximum is due to the constructive
ks

diffraction of light with it ? interference of wavelets from all parts of the slit. With
Yo

the increase in the value of n, the wavelets from lesser

oo

The size of the slit should be of the order of

and lesser parts of the slit produce constructive
B

wavelength of light used.

interference to form a secondary maximum. Hence
re

3. What is the condition for first minimum in case of

the intensity of secondary maximum decreases with
diffraction due to single slit ?
ou

the increase in the value of .n

ad

If a is the slit width, then the condition for first

Y

minimum is asin 0 = X,
nd

4. Why are diffraction effects more prominent through a

Re

slit formed by two blades than through a slit formed

Fi

by two fingers ?

ACTIVITY

Aim

To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen by
using a candle and screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens).

Apparatus and Material Required

An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens of small focal length, a candle, a cardboard
screen/ground glass screen, metre scale and a match box.

795

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xll

Theory

The position, nature and size of image formed by a convex lens depends on the position of the
object with respect to the lens. Following ray diagrams show the various possible cases.

A
A
B 2F F 0

(<?) Object at infinity. {b) Object beyond 2F.

(c) Object at 2F. (d) Object between F and 2f.

I
I
'"vA r
2F
i
2F 2F B’ F B 2F

V To infinity
(c) Object at F. (/) Object between F and optica! centre.

Fig. 9 The position, nature and size of the image A'B' formed by a convex lens for different positions of object AB.

I Working Diagrams

L L
Screen
A A Image
-Image

2F
F O

F 2F
F
9—-rHi 2F
2F
-► ●< H) ^ ●( >0
Object
V L' Object
V
L'

i‘j) ib)

Fig. 10 Real images of a lighted candle for a convex lens: (a) u < v and (b) u>v.
Procedure

1. Determine the rough focal length of the convex lens by obtaining a sharp image of the
Sun/distant object on a plain wall and measuring the distance between the lens and the wall
with a metre scale.

2. Mount the convex lens L in the clamp of the central upright and make its plane vertical so

that its principal axis becomes parallel to the length of the optical bench.

196
 Section B : ACTIVITIES

3.
Mark points F and 2F with a chalk piece on the optical bench on both sides of the lens, at
distances equal to rough focal and twice the rough focal length from the lens L, respectively.
4.
Mount the lighted candle in the clamp of the left upright so that the tip of the flame lies on
the principal axis of the convex lens. In this position, the height of the tip of the flame
becomes equal to the height of the optical centre of the lens.
5.
Hold the screen vertically in the right upright so that its centre lies at the same height as that
of the optical centre of the lens.
6.
Place the candle upright far away {*2 m) from the lens. Shift the screen slowly towards the
lens till a sharp image of the candle's flame is obtained on the screen. Note the distances of
the candle and the screen uprights from the lens. The screen will be nearly at the focus of the
convex lens. The image be real, inverted and very small in size.
7.
Shift the candle towards the lens to a position little beyond 2f on the optical bench. Move
the screen slowly away from the lens till a sharp image is obtained on the screen. Note the
positions of the candle and screen uprights. The image will be real, inverted and smaller in size.

w
8.
Repeat the experiment by placing the candle at2 F and adjust the screen to get a sharp image
which will be almost at the same distance from the lens as the candle. The image will be real,
Flo
inverted and of same size as that of candle's flame.

ee
9.
Place the candle between 2 F and F and obtain the image as before. It will lie beyond 2 F and

10.
will be real, inverted and magnified.
Fr
Place the candle at the focus F of the lens. Only a diffused image is obtained, being formed at
for
ur
infinity.
ks

11. Place the candle between the focus F and the lens LIt will be seen that the image cannot be
Yo
oo

obtained on the screen, being virtual and on the same side as the object.
B

Observations
re

Rough focal length of the convex lens,/ = cm.

ou
ad

Position of 2F from the lens =2 / = cm

Y

Table B9 : Nature and position of image formed by a convex lens

nd
Re

Position of the candle flame Position of the image Nature of the image
Fi

S. Side Distance Position Side Distance Position

No. of the Real or Erect or Diminished or
from the relative to of the from the relative to
lens virtual inverted magnified
lens the lens lens lens the lens
1. Left Several At 00 Right cm At F Real Inverted Diminished
metres

2. Left cm
Beyond 2f Right cm Between Real Inverted Diminished
f and 2F
3. Left At 2F
cm
Right cm At 2F Real Inverted Same size as of
the object
4. Left Between
cm
Right cm
Beyond 2F Real Inverted Magnified
F and 2f
5. Left At F
cm
Right Several At 00 Real Inverted Highly magni
metres fied and blurred
6. Left Within F Left Not Between Virtual Erect
cm
Magnified
measurable 00 and 2F
for virtual

image

197

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYStCS-XII

Conclusions

1. As the object moves from infinity towards the focus of the lens, the size of the image
increases and the image moves away from the focus. In all these positions the image is real
and inverted and is formed on the other side of the lens.

2. When the object is at the focus, the image is real, inverted and blurred being highly
magnified.
3. When the object is at a distance less than the focal length, the image is virtual, erect and
magnified. It is formed on the same side as the object.
Precautions

1. The experiment must be performed at a shaded place free from the air droughts.
2. The candle flame should be as higii as the optical centre of the lens.
3. The principal axis of the lens should be horizontal and parallel to the optical bench.
4. The uprights holding the lens, saeen and candle should be rigid and mounted vertically.
5. The aperture of the lens must be small for getting a distinct image.
6. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image formed on the screen.

VIVA VOCE

1. Why should the eye be placed at a distance more than 4. What should be the position of the object to get an
25 cm from the image formed on the screen ? image on the same side of the lens as the object ?
So that the image can be seen without any strain on Between focus and optical centre of the convex lens.
the eyes. 5. How does the position of the image formed by a
2. How does the size of tlie image formed by a convex convex lens vary as you move along the principal axis
lens vary as you move froni the other end of the table of the lens from infinity to its focus ?
towards the lens ? The image moves from focus to infinity.
As the object moves from infinity towards the convex 6. What will be the position of an object to get a real
lens, the size of the image gradually increases. image having the same .size as the object ?
3. Where should an object be placed from the convex The object should be placed at a distance 2 / from the
lens to got a virtual and erect image of the object ? convex lens.

Between focus and optical centre of the convex lens.

ACTIVITY
B6(^)
Aim

To study the nature and size of the image formed by a concave mirror using a candle
and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the mirror).

Apparatus and Material Required

An optical bench with three uprights, a concave mirror {/ « 25 cm), a candle, a match box, a
screen and a metre scale.

198
 Section B : ACTIVITIES

Theory

The position, nature and size of the image formed by a concave mirror depends on the position of
the object relative to the mirror. Following ray diagrams show the various possible cases.

(fc)
M

w
A
D

B' c rxT P
B
Flo
ee
Fr
A’
id)
A'
for
ur
M
%
A
ks
Yo
oo

C P
P
F B B'
B

J M'
re
ou
ad

(/) Virtual image cannot be

obtained on a screen
Y

A'B' formed by a concave mirror for different positions of object AS.

nd

Fig. 11 The position, nature and size of the image

Re
Fi

WORKING Diagrams

M
u

X P
1 C F
P
C F
(H H (H )>

(H )● (H >■
u
V
M'
M'

2/ 2/

(«) (t)

Fig. 12 Real images of a lighted candle formed by a concave mirror (a) u > v; and (b) u <v.
199

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Procedure

1. Find the rough focal length of the given concave mirror by getting an inverted, clear and
sharp image of a distant object like a building or a tree on a plain wall and then measuring
the distance between the mirror and the wall.
2. Hold the concave mirror with its face vertical in a damp mounted on an upright so that its
principal axis is horizontal. With a piece of chalk, mark the approximate positions of focus F
and centre of curvature C on the optical bench, at distances equal to rough focal length and
twice the rough focal length, respectively.
3.
Mount the screen on another upright and place it near the focus F so that the upper edge of
the screen lies just below the principal axis of the mirror. Look for the image of a distant
object, say a building or a tree, as formed by the concave mirror on the screen. It will be seen
that a sharp image of the distant object is obtained when the screen is near the focus F. Note
whether the image is erect or inverted, diminished or enlarged.
4.
Hold a lighted candle on an upright so that its flame lies just above the principal axis of the
mirror
. Place the upright beyond the centre of curvature C Slowly move the screen towards
the candle till a sharp image is formed on the screen. Note the position of candle, and screen
on the optical bench. Observe the nature and size of the image.
5.
Repeat step 4 when the candle is kept (0 at C, (//) between C and F, (Hi) at f, and finally (iv)
between F and the mirror. It will be seen that when the object is around C, the screen has
also to be adjusted around C to get the sharpest image. When the object lies between C and
F, the screen has to be placed beyond C to get the best image. When the object is at F, the
screen has to be taken quite away from the mirror to obtain a reasonably well-defined
image. When the object lies between F and pole P, an erect and magnified image is formed
behind the mirror which cannot be taken on the screen.
6.
Record all your observations in a tabular form.
Observations

Rough focal length of the concave mirror, f cm

Approximate radius of curvature of the concave mirror, R=2f = cm

Table BIO : Nature and position of image formed by a concave mirror

Position of the candle flame Position of the image Nature of the image
S.No. Position Position with
Distance from Distance from the Real or
relative Erect or Diminished or
the minor minor respect to the
to the minor virtual inverted magnified
mirror
1. Several metres At infinity cm At F Real Inverted Diminished
2. cm
Beyond C cm Between F Real Inverted Diminished
and C
3. cm At C cm Around C Real Inverted Same size as
of the object
4. cm Between F cm
Beyond C Real Inverted Magnified
and C
5. At F
cm Several metres At infinity Real Inverted Highly
magnified
and blurred
6. Within F
cm Not measurable Between co Virtual Erect Magnified
for virtual image and 2F

200
i
 Section B : ACTIVITIES

I Conclusions
1. As the object moves from infinity towards the concave mirror, the image moves away from
the focus till when the object is at the focus, the image moves away to infinity.
2. The size of the image increases as it moves away from the mirror.
3. If the object is placed between infinity and F, the image formed by a concave mirror is real
and inverted.

4. If the object is placed between F and the pole, the image is formed behind the concave
mirror and it is virtual, erect and magnified.
I Precautions
1. The principal axis of the concave mirror should be horizontal.
2. The uprights holding the mirror, candle and screen should be rigid and vertical.
3. The candle's flame should be stable in a position. For this, the experiment must be
performed at a place free from air draughts.
4. The experiment must be performed in a shaded region where no direct light reaches.

w
5. The aperture of the mirror should be small otherwise the image formed will not be distinct.
Flo
6. When the screen is placed between the mirror and the candle, the upper edge of the screen
should be just below the principal axis and the candle's flame should be just above the

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principal axis.
Fr
7. When the candle is placed between the screen and the concave mirror, the centre of the
for
screen and the upper edge of the flame should be at the height of the principal axis.
ur
8. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image formed on the screen.
ks
Yo
oo
B

VIVA VOCE
re
ou

1. The focal length of a concave mirror is 20 cm. What is 5. Is it possible to get a virtual image on the screen ? If
ad

its radius of curvature ? so, how ?

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40 cm.
Virtual images cannot be obtained on the screen
nd
Re

2. When an object is placed at 30 cm in front of a because the image is formed from the light rays
Fi

concave mirror, image of the same size is formed. which do not actually meet but they appear to meet
What is the focal length of the mirror ? when produced backwards.
Image of same size is formed at a distance of 2/ So 6. In a similar experiment using lenses, the images look
focal length of the mirror is 15 cm. a little coloured, unlike this experiment. What is the
reason for this ?
3. Focal length of a concave mirror is 30 cm. What will
be the characteristics of the image formed, when the The refractive index of glass is different for different
object is placed at a distance of 40 cm in front of the wavelengths, so the different component colours of
mirror ? white light from the object are focussed at different
As the object is placed between f and Cof the mirror, points by the glass lens. This forms a coloured image
the image will be formed beyond C and it will be real, of the white object.
inverted and magnified. 7. Why should the experiment with candle flame be
performed in a dark room ?
4. What is the effect on the size and intensity of the
image formed when the lower half of the concave In a dark-room, the images of the candle formed by
mirror is painted black ? the convex lens will be distinctly visible.
Size of the image remains unaffected but the intensity
of the image is reduced.

201
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XIl

ACTIVITY B7
Aim

To obtain lens combination with the specified focal length by using two lenses from
the given set of lenses.

Apparatus and Material Required

A set of convex lenses of known focal lengths, an optical bench with uprights and screen.

Theory

1. Principal focus. A narrow beam of light parallel to the principal axis either converges to a point or
appears to diverge from a point on the principal axis after refraction through the lens. This point is
called principal focus of the lens.
2. Focal length. It is the distance between the principal focus and optical centre of the lens.
3. Power of a lens. The ability of a lens to converge or diverge a parallel beam of light on refraction
through it. It is equal to the reciprocal of focal length expressed in metres.
100

/(m) /(cm)

The SI unit of power is dioptre (D). Power of a convex lens is taken as positive while that of
a concave lens as negative.
4. Equivalent focal length and power of two thin lenses in contact. If two thin lenses of focal
lengths /j and /j are placed in contact, then the focal length F of the combination is given by
1-JL J_

Power of the combination is given by

Ray Diagrams

Combination of
lenses Lj and L2
Screen

Distant Inverted I
candle, image of I
flame I candle I
I
flame

oTo
I
I
F
I
I

Li L2 I

Fig. 13 Focal length of combination of lenses. Fig. 14 Focussing parallel beam of light on
combination of lenses.

202
 Section 6 : ACTIVITIES

Procedure

1
1. Calculate the power of each convex lens by using the relation, calculate the
power of the lens combination corresponding to the required focal length.
2. From the given set of lenses, select a lens whose power is less than that of the combination as
calculated above.

3. Calculate the power of second lens required to be kept in contact with the lens Lj so as to
obtain lens combination of desired power by using the relation, ?2 =P-Pi.
4. From the given set of lenses, select the lens whose power is closest to the calculated
power P2.
5. Place the optical bench horiwntaUy on the working table. Mount the lenses Lj and on two
uprights such that the two lenses are in contact with each other. A single upright can also be used
to hold the two lenses in contact by fixing the lenses on grooves carved on a thermocol sheet.
6. Mount the screen on another upright and adjust its height so that centre of the screen and

w
centre of the lens combination are at the same horizontal level.
7. Mount a burning candle on an upright and place it at the other extreme end of the optical
Flo
bench as shown in Fig. 13. This will serve an object at infinity because the focal length of the
lens combination will be very small.

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Fr
8. Adjust the position of the upright holding the lens combination so that a sharp inverted
image of the flame is obtained on the screen.
for
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9. Measure the distances and of the screen from the centres and O2 of the two lenses.
The mean of the two distances will give focal length of the lens combination.
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10. Repeat the activity two more times by slightly changing the position of the lens combination
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on
the optical bench. Record your observations in a tabular form.
B
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Observations and Calculations

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ad

Least count of the scale on the optical bench = mm = cm

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For the given set of lenses, focal lengths are

nd
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1. cm 2. cm 3. cm 4. cm 5. cm
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1
Powers of the lenses P =— are

/J
1. D 2. D 3. D 4. D 5. D

Focal length of chosen lens Lj = cm

Focal length of chosen lens = cm

Calculated focal length F of the combination is given by

1-J_ J_

or f =
/1/2 cm

/1+/2

203

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 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Table Bll : Focal length of the combination of lenses

Mean distance of the screen

Distance of lens Distance of lens from the lens combination
S.No. from the screen from the screen
F =
d^+d^
dj (cm) dg (cm) 2
(cm)
1.

2.

3.

Focal length of the lens combination =Mean value of F = cm

I Result

Calculated value of focal length of the lens combination = cm

Measured value of focal length of lens combination = cm

Difference between measured value of focal length and the calculated focal length cm

Within the limits of experiment error, the measured and calculated values of focal length of the
lens combination are equal.
I Sources OF Error

1. Thickness of the lenses may cause an error.

2. The peripheral regions of the two lenses are not in contact.
3. Spherical aberration of the lenses causes an error in locating the position of sharp image i.e.,
causes an error in the focal length of the combination.

VIVA VOCE

1. A convex lens of focalTength 20 cm is put in contact modified formula. Will the focal length of the
with a concave lens of focal length 10 cm. What will combination be (/) < F and (/i) > F ?
be the effective value of the combination ?
When the lenses are placed d distance apart, the
Here /j = + 20 cm, /2 = - 10 cm formula
1 1 1
fJi _20x(-10) = - 20 cm.
fl + fi 20+ (-10) ^ ,/ fi
will not be valid.
2. If a convex lens is dipped completely in water, what
The modified formula is
will be the effect on its focal length ?
1
/ X
^=1 iL
p-1
p' fi Ah f Ah
The refractive index of glass with respect to water is 1 1
=> F'> F
less than the refractive index of glass with respect to => — <; —
F' F
air i.e., “’p ^ < “p so the focal length increases when
lens is dipped in water. 4. What are the focal length and power of a rectangular
glass slab ?
3. If the two convex lenses are placed distance d apart, is
Focal length of a glass slab = oo
the formula — =: —i- — still valid ? If not, give the
F ,f h Power of a glass slab = 0

204
 Investigatory Projects
A project is a bit of real life that has been imparted into school.
~ Ballard

D! Project Work and Its General Aims Qj Organization of Project Work

The various factors involved in the successful
A project is an activity in which the learner acquires and
applies knowledge and skills through practical involve organization of a student's project are as follows :
ment in an actual or stimulated real life problem or task. 1. Selection of a problem. Some students may have
Some of the general aims for project work are as follows: ideas of their own. Students may also approach
1. Project work is a highly responsible form of study. teachers for suggestions. The students must be aided
Some of the activities involved in doing project work towards choosing a problem for themselves rather
are: planning, collecting information, analysing it, hypo than being provided with a ready-made one. As to the
thesising from the data, testing, evaluating and bringing kind of topic tl-iat is likely to be suitable, it must involve

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out informative, balanced and interesting reports. an element of inquiry, be simple and limited in scope
2. Project work involves the students in a wide and not depend too much on sophisticated apparatus.
variety of situations and activities. The road to know
Flo
Tlie feasibility of such a topic should be carefully
considered before hand. As far as possible, students

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ledge by construction and experimentation was the road
should be encouraged to initiate their own projects. In
of J.J. Thomson and Rutherford, Faraday and Newton.
3. Project work is a means for developing general
Fr
order to stimulate ideas, the teacher may suggest
several general possibilities to the class. The students
for
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professional skills and attitudes. Here the aims are con
may find interest in any one of them, or from the
cerned with the development of general ability to make suggestions students may find clues to new ideas.
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decisions and critical judgements ; with the skills of

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2. Preliminary reading. Some preliminary reading

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communications; with effective use of books and other

is required in order
B

learning resources ; with an awareness of cultural and

(fl) to ascertain whether or not the material required
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economic factors in the application of science and tech

nology, with a recognition of the range of applications be easily available, and
ou
ad

and limitations of a discipline and of the interdiscipli (b) to learn more about the dimension of the subject
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narity of real life problems. The aims are really very broad. so tliat a student can reduce his topic to manageable
4. Project work is learning to inquire. It is a process proportions.
nd
Re

by which work is carried out without knowing what 3. Designing and investigation. The design of the
Fi

will happen. It involves a scientific watchfulness ; investigation decides the actual framework of the project
seeing what happens, and recognising peculiar and work. One has to sort out basic matters such as boun
interesting results. It involves realizing one's mistakes daries of the problem, the materials required and the
and trying to correct them. methods to be adopted. The apparatus required should
5. In project work the students get a feeling for be simple and should be in accordance with the resources
how scientists work. Some project work may show the available. Time is another important factor to keep in
need for precision and other the theoretical mind. For example, the normal time of completion of a
requirements for the interpretation of the practical Physics project should not exceed 15 periods.
data available ; and so projects illustrate the different The framework may include the following points :
ways of approaching problems and solving them. (n) Statement of the problem.
Indirectly the work helps to increase background (1?) Assimilation of available information,
knowledge and experimental skills.
(c) Decision on the data to be found out.
6. Project work may involve other activities such
as: developing the abilities to organise and administer; (d) Decision on the materials required.
writing letters and reports ; using libraries ; (e) Collection of materials.
interviewing ; collecting data ; utilizing audio visual (f) A flexible approach in obtaining data.
equipment, etc. (^) Hypothesising, testing and conclusions.

205
 lAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

4. Practical work. The students must perform the work jointly on projects, to pool their enthusiasm,
practical work alone as far as possible without much and to informally evaluate each other's efforts.
external help. A diary may be maintained by the (f) encourage students to undertake projects which
student. Any failure, any decision taken, and all results are socially relevant and/or personally involving
should be noted in this diary which should form the rather dwi to go for safe and standard procedure,
basis for writing the final report. (g) face (and solve) the dilemma of trying to give
5. Final report. Much importance should be given to students the freedom to try (to learn themselves),
the final report and tliat should include the following yet the encouragement to try (personal support)
points: without the latter invading the former, by finding
(a) A clear statement of the problem requisite attitudes and structuring appropriate
situation which will promote these ends.
(&) Preliminary discussion
(c) Description of experimental work El Success and Lack of Success
(d) Tables and graphs
{e) Theoretical interpretation (/) Inferences dravm This largely depends on the design of the project.
Success should not be evaluated in terms of the final
(^) Suggestion for further investigation if need be
results alone, but should be based on the project's
(h) Time spent (i) Conclusion objectives.
(/■) References, if any
The students should attach the diary to the final report, H Evaluation of a Project
as this gives an idea of how the student planned his or
The evaluation of a project is based on a viva, and a
her work on a day-to-day basis.
written report by the external examiner. A total of
Teacher's Role about 5 marks out of the total of 30 for practical is
allotted to projects.
Project work is obviously expected to be more a The viva for the project may be related to the following
student's responsibility than the teacher's. The teacher
aspects :
should act as a permanent consultant, not as a
(i) Knowledge and understanding of the material
managing partner. The teacher's role may involve
involved in the project,
guidance towards defining a project idea or locating
material, confirming the course of action, encouraging (ji) The practical skills displayed in executing the
the student when dispirited, arranging for any visits if project and solving associated problems.
needed, etc. In any case no teacher should do a project (»■/) Interpretation of project results.
for a student as this defeats the aims of the project (iv) Appreciation of the limitation of the project and
itself. Students must be allowed to experience setbacks what contributed to its successes and failures,

and to face up to them. (u) Background reading.

The teacher’s role should be such as to (i7i) Interest shown in and generated by the project.
(fl) accept that process in this case is more (vii) The social significance of the project.
important than the product.
While evaluating the report, the following points may
(Ij) withdraw the teacher control and to encourage also be examined :
and require decision-making and personal
(/) Clear mention of the discussions, success and
responsibility by the student, failures,
(c) relate to the student as a fellow student in
(n) Mention of the suggestions received,
search of knowledge and skill,
(m) Data and observations appropriately presented
(d) encourage confidence and personal commit
in tables, graphs, etc.
ment among students by valuing their percep
(iv) Reference to further investigation,
tions and refusing to substitute the teacher's
(u) Interpretation, conclusion, comments or
perceptions for the students.
limitations, reasons for successes and failures,
(<?) help tlie students to develop skills of communi
cation and cooperation by encouraging them to (vi) Proper Bibliography.

206
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

Sample Projects

PROJECT 1.
Aim

To study various factors on which the internal resistance/EMF of a cell depends.

Apparatus and Material Required

An improvised simple voltaic cell, a potentiometer, a battery, three one-way keys, a high
resistance box, a low resistance box, a low resistance rheostat, electrolytes {H2SO4) of different
concentrations, a galvanometer, a jockey, connecting wires and sand paper.

w
Theory

EMF of a cell. The emfofa cell is equal to the maximum potential

Flo difference across its terminals when no
current is drawn from the cell. It depends on the nature of the electrodes used in the cell.

ee
Fr
Internal resistance of a cell. The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to the flow of current
through it.
for
ur
Factors on which the emf of a cell depends :
(i) Nature of the electrolyte.
ks
Yo

(ii) It is directly proportional to the distance between the two electrodes,

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(in) It varies inversely as the common area of the electrodes immersed in the electrolyte.
B

(iv) It is directly proportional to the concentration of the electrolyte,

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(i?) It increases with the decrease in temperature of the electrolyte.

ou
ad

Principle of a potentiometer. When a constant flows through a wire of uniform cross-sectional

Y

area.
and composition, the potential drop across any length of the wire is directly proportional to
nd
Re

that length.
Fi

Vccl or V = kl

Potential gradient. The potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire is known as
potential gradient.
I

Its SI unit is Vm“^ and practical unit is Vcm

Determination of internal resistance using a potentiometer. If f is the balancing length without
shunt and is the balancing length with shunt R for a cell, then internal resistance of the cell is
given by
r = xR

Setting up an Improvised Simple Voltaic Cell

Take a glass beaker of capacity 500 mL. With the help of a cello-tape, attach a vertical centimetre
scale on its outer surface so that zero of the scale coincides with the bottom of the beaker.

207

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Take copper and zinc plates, each of size 5 cm x 10 cm x 1 cm. Solder threaded bolts of length 8 cm
and diameter 3 mm in the middle of both plates. Each bolt has a tightly fitting nut in the middle
and a connecting terminal at the top.
The beaker is covered with a wooden lid having a rectangular slot of width slightly greater than
the diameter of the bolt(ss3.5mm)and length about 12 cm. The copper and zinc plates are fitted
into the slot of the lid with their parallel faces
facing each other and tightened by nuts. A h
horizontal scale is attached parallel to the
length of the slot for measuring the Scale to measure distance
separation between the two electrodes. Fill Slot for
lA between the plates
- th of the beaker with a dilute solution of shifting Wooden lid
U/i plates

H2SO4. Dip the two metallic plates (electrodes) Cu Zn

in the solution without touching the bottom of Very dil. H2SO4

the beaker. Thus we get an improvised solution

simple voltaic cell needed for the project.

Scale to measure the depth upto which the
Circuit Diagram two plates are dipped in the electrolyte
R ^2
6 >€ I t—OH—(●)-,
K.
+
+

A0
0 100
A

200 /

Rh ■4- 300

400 Fig. 1 Circuit to measure internal

B
resistance of a simple voltaic
|0 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 lOCj cell using a potentiometer.

fl Procedure

To test the correctness of connections

1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 1 and arrange the apparatus on the working
table accordingly.
2. Connect the positive terminal of the auxiliary battery to the end A and its negative terminal
to through a one-way key K-^ and low resistance rheostat Rh to the other end B of the
potentiometer wire.
'3'
3- Take the simple voltaic cell filled th of its capacity with very dilute H2SO^ solution.
Connect its positive terminal (Cu electrode) to the end A and its negative terminal (Zn
electrode) to the jockey through a high resistance box H.R.B. and a galvanometer G. Connect
a low resistance box L.R.B. across the voltaic cell
through the one-way key K^. The high
resistance box H.R.B. is shunted by means of one-way key Ky
4. To test the connections, introduce a 2000 Q resistance from the high resistance box H.R.B.
and insert the plug in the key . Press the jockey first at the end A and then at the end B of
the potentiometer wire. If the galvanometer shows deflections in opposite directions in the
two cases, then the connections are correct. If the deflections are in the same direction, then

208

i
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

increase the current in the auxiliary circuit by adjusting the rheostat till the above condition
is satisfied or check the connections. See that the emf of the auxiliary battery is greater than
the emf of the simple voltaic cell.
To study the effect of separation between the plates
5. In the circuit, we have simple voltaic cell with very dilute H^SO^ as the electrolyte. Adjust
the separation between the plates equal to 10 cm. Move the jockey along the wire and find a
point where galvanometer shows no deflection and let length A}^ = .
6. Take out a plug of 3 O from the low resistance box L.R.B. Find the null point in this
position and note the length AJ2.
7. Take out the plugs from keys , K2 and With a time gap of 1 minute in between, repeat
steps 5 and 6 by adjusting the separations between the plates equal to 7 cm and 4 cm and
find the balancing lengths /j and I2 without and with shunt across the simple voltaic cell.
Record the observations in a tabular form. Find the internal resistance of the cell in each case.
To study the effect of common area of plates immersed in the electrolyte

w
8. Keeping the cell filled with very dilute H^SO^ solution, fix the distance between the plates
equal to 8 cm.
Flo
9. Adjust the height of the two plates so that 8 cm length of each plate remains immersed in the
electrolyte. Now find the balancing lengths /j and I2 for the simple voltaic cell without and

ee
with shunt of resistance 3 Q as before.
Fr
10. Keeping the distance between the plates fixed at 8 cm, find the balancing lengths and I2 by
for
ur
immersing the plates upto lengths 6 cm and 4 cm. Record the observations in each case and
find the internal resistance of the simple voltaic cell.
ks

To study the effect of concentration of the electrolyte

Yo
oo

11. Maintain a constant distance of 8 cm between the two plates and keep them immersed in
B

very dilute H2SO^ solution upto a fixed length of 8 cm. Find the balancing lengths /j and I2
re

for the simple voltaic cell without and with shunt resistance of 3 Q as before. Record the
observations and find the internal resistance of the voltaic cell. With a high resistance
ou
ad

voltmeter, measure the emf of the voltaic cell.

Y

/ o

12. Remove the electrolyte (very dilute H2SO4 from the beaker) and fill ^ th of its capacity with
nd
Re
Fi

dilute H2SO4 solution. For the same separation of 8 cm between the plates and same length
8 cm immersed in the electrolyte, find the balancing lengths /j and I2 for the simple voltaic cell
without and with shunt resistance of 3 Q as before. Record the observations and the internal
resistance of the voltaic cell. With a high resistance voltmeter, measure die emf of the voltaic cell.
Observations

EMF of the voltaic cell with very dilute H2SO4 as electrolyte = V

EMF of the voltaic cell with dilute H2SO4 as electrolyte = V

Table PI : Dependence of internal resistance on separation between the plates

Shunt Balancing length Internal resistance
Separation
S.No. between plates resistance Without shunt With shunt R
(cm) m)
r = xi? (Q)
(cm) h 2

1. 10 cm 3Q
2. 7 cm 30
3. 4 cm 30

Breadth of each plate = cm.

A
209
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Table P2 : Dependence of common area of plates immersed in electrolyte

Balancing length Internal resistance
Length of each Shunt 1,-1,
plate immersed T = xR
S.No. resistance Without shunt With shunt R
in electrolyte R{Q) I, (cm) V ‘2
I, (cm)
(cm) M
1. 8 cm

2. 6 cm

3. 4 cm

Table P3 : Dependence of internal resistance on the concentration of the electrolyte

Balancing length Internal resistance
Concentration Shunt
r =
I, -I, xR
S.No. level of the resistance Without shunt With shunt R
V ‘2 y
electrolyte R{Q) I, (cm) I, (cm)
M
1. 3Q
Very dil. H2SO4
3Q
2.
Dil. H2SO4

[ Conclusions
1. EMF of the simple voltaic cell is constant, £ V. It depends on the nature of the electrolyte.
2. Internal resistance of a primary cell increases with the increase in distance between the electrodes.
3. Internal resistance increases with the decrease in common area of electrodes dipped in the electrolyte.
4. Internal resistance increases with decrease in concentration of the electrolyte.
Precautions

1. The emf of the auxiliary battery should be constant and greater than the emf of the primary cell
whose internal resistance is to be measured.
2. Positive terminals of both auxiliary battery and the primary cell should be connected to the
same end A of the potentiometer.
3. During experimentation, the current passing through the potentiometer wire must remam

constant. This can be ensured by using an ammeter in the auxiliary circuit. If the current
changes, it should be adjusted with the help of the low resistance rheostat.
4. The balancing lengths should be measured from the zero end A of the potentiometer.
5. The primary cell should not be disturbed during the course of the experiment as it may change
the internal resistance of the cell.
6. The current should be passed only for the duration it is absolutely essential as otherwise the
null point will keep on changing.
7. Jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire otherwise the diameter of the wire may not
remain uniform. Also do not press the jockey on the wire while sliding it.
8. A resistance box should be connected in series with the galvanometer to prevent any damage
due to excessive currents.

^Sources of Error
1. Potentiometer wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section throughout its entire length.
2. The emf of the auxiliary battery may not be constant during the course of experiment.
3. The resistance of the potentiometer wire may change due to heating.
4. End resistances of the potentiometer wire may not be negligible.

210
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

VIVA VOCE
1. What do you mean by internal resistance of a cell ? 5. Why should the cell be not disturbed during
The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to experimentation ?
the flow of current through it is called its internal The internal resistance of the cell changes when it is
resistance. disturbed.

2. How does internal resistance of a cell depend on the 6. Does the internal resistance of a cell depend upon the
separation between its electrodes ? current drawn from the cell ?
Internal resistance of a cell increases with the increase Yes, the internal resistance increases as we draw
in separation between its electrodes. more current from the cell.

3. How does internal resistance of a cell depend on the 7. How does the internal resistance of a cell depend on
common area of electrodes immersed in the
temperature ?
electrolyte ? The internal resistance of a cell increases with the
Internal resistance increases witli decrease in common
decrease in temperature of the electrolyte.
area of electrodes immersed in the electrolyte. 8. Can R, the external resistance across the cell be varied
4. How does internal resistance of a cell depend on over large range ?

w
concentration of the electrolyte ? No, a wide variation in the value of shunt resistance R
Internal resistance increases with the decrease in
will cause a significant change in the current drawn
concentration of the electrolyte. Flo from the cell and hence internal resistance of the cell

will change appreciably.

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Fr
for
ur
PROJECT
ks
Yo
oo

I Aim
B
re

To study the variation in current flowing in a circuit containing an LDR because of

variation in
ou
ad

(a) the power of the incandescent lamp, used to 'illuminate' the LDR (keeping the
Y

lamps at a fixed distance)

nd
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(b) the distance of a candescent lamp (affixed power) used to 'illuminate' the LDR.
Fi

I Apparatus and Material Required

LDR, two battery eliminators/two power supplies of 12 V each, milliammeter (0-500 mA),
voltmeter (0-10 V), a resistance of 47 D, 12 V bulbs (of powers 10 W, 15 W, 25 W and 40 W)
one-way key and connecting wires.
I Theory

Refer to the theory of activity B3 on page 186.

I Diagram

12V, low

47 W K mA

Fig. 2 Circuit to
-Wv (●)■ "0
study the effect of
intensity of light 6> 12 V »6

211

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 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xil

{ ^OCEDURE
To study the variation of current through LDR with power of incandescent bulb
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig. 2. Connect an LDR, a milliammeter (0-500 mA), one-way
key K and a resistor of 47 Q all in series across a power supply of 12 V.
2. Connect a 12 V, 10 W bulb to another power supply of 12 V. Hang this bulb vertically from
the clamp of an iron stand so that it just faces LDR. Adjust LDR normally below the bulb at a
distance of 10 cm. Switch on the bulb and insert the plug in the key K. Note the current
through the LDR.
3. Keeping the distance fixed at 10 cm from the LDR, replace the 10 W bulb, one by one, by bulbs
of powers 15 W, 25 W and 40 W. Record the current through the milliammeter in each case.
To study the variation of current through LDR with distance from the incandescent bulb
4. Hang the 12 V, 25 W bulb at a distance of 25 cm from the LDR. Switch on the bulb and note
the current in the milliammeter.

5. By adjusting the 25 W bulb at distances of 20 cm, 15 cm and 10 cm from the LDR, record the
values of current through the milliammeter in each case. Interpret the observations.

I Observations
Range of milliammeter = 0 to _ mA

Least count of milliammeter = mA

Table P4 : Variation of current through LDR with power of incandescent bulb

Distance of LDR
S.No. from the bulb
Power of the Bulb Milliammeter reading
(W) I (mA)
1. 10 cm 10 W

2. 10 cm 15 W

3. 10 cm 25 W

4. 10 cm 40 W

Table P5 : Variation of current through LDR with distance from incandescent bulb
Distance between LDR
S.No.
Power of bulb
and bulb
Milliammeter reading
(W) I (mA)
(cm)
1. 25 W 25 cm

2. 25 W 20 cm

3. 25 W 15 cm

4. 25 W 10 cm

I Conclusions
1. Electric current through the LDR increases with the increase in power of the incandescent bulb.
It implies that the resistance of LDR decreases with the increase in intensity of incident light.
2. Electric current through the LDR increases with the decrease in distance from the source
bulb of constant power. It implies that the resistance of LDR decreases with the increase in
1 \
intensity of incident light (because 1 cc — .
J

212
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

a Precautions
1. All the connections should be neat and tight
2. with LDR to prevent it from damage.
A suitable resistance must be connected in series

3. LDR should be placed normally to the light source so that angle of incidence of light rays
remains constant and normal throughout the experiment.
Source of Error

An error is introduced in the result due to background illumination.

VIVA VOCE

Refer to the Viva Voce of activity B3 on page 188.

w
PROJECT
Flo
ee
Aim

Fr
To find the refractive indices of (a) water (b) oil (transparent) using a plane mirror,
for
an equiconvex lens (made from glass of known refractive index) and an adjustable
ur
object needle.
ks
Yo

Apparatus and Material Required

oo
B

Double convex lens (/ « 20 cm), plane mirror (of size bigger than the aperture of convex lens), an
re

iron stand with a clamp, half-metre scale, plumb line, transparent liquids (water and vinegar/
glycerol) and a liquid dropper.
ou
ad
Y

Ray Diagrams
nd
Re

F'
/' o
Fi

CF'=/'
-F

C «—Liquid
Plane mirror Plane mirror

(«) (£>)
Fig. 3 Image formed by a equiconvex lens backed by a plane mirror coinciding
with object AB with (a) air (b) liquid, in between lens and plane mirror.

213

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

fl Formulae Used

(i) Focal length of a convex lens having surfaces of radii of curvature Rj and R2 is given by
1 . 1/ 1 1]
— =m-l)
/ V, R 2y

(fO For an equiconvex glass lens, ^^=1.5, R^= + R and R2=-R, so

i = (1.5-1) ^1 11 = 1 f=R
f .R RJ R

Thus, the radius of curvature R can be known by measuring focal length / of the convex lens.
(m) The lens combination consists of glass convex lens and a liquid plano-concave lens of radius
of curvature R. If is the focal length of liquid lens and /' that of lens combination, then
1 1 1 1 ff
— = — H— or or
fi-
/' / // fi~ ff /-/'
(iv) Using lens maker's formula for the liquid plano-concave lens,
1 ^
lA/=l+-r
f,
a Procedure

To measure focal length / of the convex lens

1. Find the rough focal length of the convex lens by focusing the image of a distant object on a
plane wall and measuring the distance between the lens and the image with a half-metre scale.
2. Place the plane mirror on the horizontal base of an iron stand with its reflecting surface facing
upwards.
3. Plane the convex lens on the plane mirror. The plane mirror should be at such a level so that
you can conveniently look it from above.
4. Fix a bright optical needle in the clamp of the iron stand and hold it horizontally above the
lens. Adjust the position of the needle so that its tip lies on the vertical optical axis of the
convex lens at a height equal to rough focal length of the convex lens.
5. Keeping the eye 30 cm above the optical needle, look down for its image in the lens. Adjust
the height of the optical needle till there is no parallax between the tip of the optical needle
and its image.
6. Using a half-metre scale and a plumb line, measure the distance of the tip of the needle
from the top of the convex lens, and also the distance ^2 from the top of the plane mirror.
The average of these two distances gives the focal length (CF = /) of the convex lens.
To measure focal length of combination of glass convex lens and water plano-concave lens
7. With the help of a dropper, pour a small amount of water under the lens so that the space
between mirror and lens is filled with water.

8. By gradually shifting the optical needle upward, adjust the height of the needle so that its
tip again coincides with its image formed by the lens combination. Remove the parallax
between the needle and its image.
9. Measure the distance of the tip of the needle from the top of the convex lens, and also the
distance d2 from the top of the plane mirror. The average of these two distances gives the
focal length (Cf' = /') of the lens combination.

214
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

To measure the focal length of the convex glass lens and liquid plano-concave lens
10. Remove water from the space between convex lens and plane mirror and dry up the surfaces.
11. With the help of a dropper, pour a small amount of a transparent liquid (vinegar/ glycerol/
and lens is filled with
cooking oil) under the lens so that the space between mirror
transparent liquid.
12. Determine the focal length CF"{= /") of the combination by adjusting the needle for no parallax
position and measuring its distances from the top of the lens and from the plane mirror.
Observations
Rough focal length of the convex lens = cm

Table P6 : Observations for focal lengths of convex lens/lens combination

Distance of the optical needle from
Focal length of lens
S. Top of convex Plane mirror Mean d - or lens combination
No.
Arrangement lens 2
d^ (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm)
1. Convex lens on plane mirror / = CF = ,

w
2. Water in between lens and f' = CF =
plane mirror
3. Transparent liquid in between
Flo /"= CF"=

ee
lens and plane mirror

Calculations Fr
for
ur
(0R = / = cm

£L- R
ks

=1+
(^’0 /«, =
Yo

cm ; It;

f-f /,
oo

w
B

ff R
M/ =1 +
re

(nO fi = cm ;
f-f f:
w
ou
ad
Y

Result

Refractive index of water from the experiment, \x

nd

1.
Re

Refractive index of water from standard table, = 1-33

Fi

m'
It; It; o/
% error Xl00 = /o.

It;

2. Refractive index of transparent liquid from the experiment, p j -

Refractive index of transparent liquid from the standard table, p) =
o/
% error = xl00 = /o.

Precautions

1. The principal axis of the convex lens should be vertical and the optical needle should be held
horizontally.
2. The tip of the optical needle should lie above the optical centre of the lens on its vertical
principal axis.
3. The convex lens should be of large radius of curvature.

2i5

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

4.
The parallax between the needle and its image should be removed tip to tip.
5.
The eye should be kept at a distance of about 30 cm above the needle.
6.
The distance of the optical needle should be measured from both surfaces of the convex lens
and their mean should be taken as the focal length of the lens or the lens combination.
7.
Only a small amount of water should be put gently between the mirror and the lens surface
with the help of a dropper so that it may fill up the entire space between them without
disturbing the position of the lens.

^URCES OF Error
1. The two surfaces of the convex lens may not have the same radius of curvature.
2. The mirror may not be exactly horizontal.

VIVA VOCE

Refer to the Viva Voce of experiment B8 on page 160.

PROJECT 4
Aim

To investigate relation between the ratio of (i) output and input voltage and (ii)
number of turns in the secondary coil and primary coil of a self-designed
transformer.

Apparatus and Material Required

A soft iron rod {length 15 cm and diameter 1.3 cm), enamelled copper wire (20 or 22 SWG),
enamelled copper wire (16 or 18 SWG), a step-down transformer (having tappings of 3, 6, 9 and
12 ac volts), two ac voltmeters (0-10 V) and a thick paper sheet.
Theory

Transformer. It is an electrical device for converting an alternating current at low voltage into that at
high voltage or vice versa.
Principle. A transformer works on the principle of mutual induction i.e., when a changing current
is passed through one of the two inductively couple coils, an induced emf is set up in the other coil.
Construction. A transformer essentially consists of two coils of insulated copper wire having
different number of turns and wound on the same soft iron core. The coil P to which electric
energy is supplied is called the primary and the coil from which energy is drawn or output is
obtained is called the secondary.
Voltages and currents in primary and secondary coils. If there are no energy losses, then
I
P
= Transformation ratio
V 1
P

216
i
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

In a step-up transformer. Ng > Np ^ V/ > Vp i.e., voltage increases and current decreases.
In a step-down transformer. => i.e., voltage decreases and current increases.
n
Circuit Diagram

220 V O
ac maLnsx

Step-down
transformer
Iron core
(3, 6, 9,12 ac volts)

Fig. 4 A self-designed transformer.

n Procedure

w
1. Take a soft iron rod of length 15 cm and diameter 1.3 cm. Wrap a thick sheet of paper on it.
2.
3.
Flo
Wind 200 turns of a coil P of enamelled copper wire of 20 or 22 SWG.
Wind 50 turns of another coil S of enamelled copper wire of 16 or 18 SWG.

ee
4.
the current in coil P is linked to the coil S. Fr
Both coils are wound over same length of the rod, so that almost the entire flux produced by
for
ur
5. .Connect a step-down transformer (having tappings of 3, 6, 9 and 12 ac volts) and an ac
voltmeter (0-10 V) across the ends of the coil P, as shown in Fig. 4.
ks
Yo

6. Connect an ac voltmeter (0-10 V) across the ends of the coil S.

oo

7. Connect the step-down transformer to the ac mains of 220 V. From it, supply 3 V to the coil
B

P. Note the readings in the two ac voltmeters.

re

8. Using output tapping of 6 V and 9 V of the step-down transformer, supply 6 V and 9 V to

ou
ad

the coil P, in turn, and note down the readings of the two ac voltmeters in each case. Record
Y

the observations in a tabular form. Switch off the ac mains.

nd
Re

Observations
Fi

Number of turns in the primary coil.

Number of turns in the secondary coil, =

Ratio =
Ns

Table P7 ; Ratio of input and output voltages of self-designed transformer

Input ac voltage Output ac voltage Ratio

S.No.

1. 3 V

2. 6 V

3. 9 V

217

k
 LAB MANUAL PHY51CS-X1I

Conclusions

1. Within the limit of experimental errors, the ratio is constant and is equal to the ratio
Nj / i.e., the ratio of output and input voltages of a transformer is equal to the turns ratio
Ng / of the transformer.
2. By appropriate choice of the turns ratio / N^, we can get a step-up or step-down transformer.
3. The coils P and S are placed very close to each other but they are insulated. The power in the
primary is transferred to the secondary through mutual induction.
4. A steady dc voltage cannot be stepped up or stepped down by a transformer, because a steady
dc current does not produce changing magnetic flux and therefore cannot produce induced voltage.
Precautions

1. All the connections should be tight.

2. Care should be taken while working with ac mains.
3. After each observation, the circuit should be switched off for a short time.
4. Number of turns in the two coils should be counted carefully.
5. The wires should not be touched with naked hands.

Sources of Error

1. The number of turns in the two coils might not have counted accurately.
2. The setting up of eddy currents in the core of the self-designed transformer may affect the result.

VIVA VOCE

1. State the principle of a transformer. (0 Magnetic flux leakage

A trar\sformer works on the principle of mutual (ii) Hysteresis loss.
induction i.e., when a changing current is passed 7. What causes the core of a transformer under operation
through one coil, an induced emf is set up in the to get heated up ?
neighbouring coil.
Tlie eddy currents set up in the iron core heat up a
2. Which device will you use to step up a.c. voltage ? transformer under operation.
Can we use the same device to set up d.c. voltage ? 8. Why is the core of a transformer laminated ?
(0 A transformer is used to step up a.c. voltage. The core of a transformer is laminated so as to
(ii) No, transformer cannot be used to step up d.c. minimise energy losses due to eddy currents.
voltage. 9. Why is the core of a transformer made of a magnetic
3. Why can’t transformer be used to step up d.c. material of high permeability ?
voltage ? Due to high permeability of core material, the
The d.c. supply does not produce a changing magnetic lines of force will crowd the core. Most of
magnetic flux in the primary and hence no emf is set the flux linked with the primary will pass through the
up in the secondary of the transformer. secondary. Flux leakage decreases and efficiency of
4. Does a transformer change the frequency of a.c. ? transformer increases.

No. The frequency of alternating voltage obtained 10. The core of transformer is made of a material having
across the secondary is same as that of voltage narrow hysteresis loop. Why ?
applied across the primary. The alternating current carries the iron core through
5. What is copper loss in a transformer ? the cycles of magnetisation and demagnetisation.
Due to the resistance of primary and secondary Work is done in each of these cycles and is lost as
windings of a transformer, some electrical energy heat. This is called hysteresis loss which can be
is wasted as heat. This energy loss is called copper loss. reduced by using core material having narrow
hysteresis loop.
6. Give two reasons for power loss in a transformer.

218

i
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

PROJECT 5
Aim

To investigate the dependence of the angle of deviation on the angle of incidence

using a hollow prism filled, one by one, with different transparent fluids.

Apparatus and Material Required

Drawing board, hollow glass prism, alpins, cellotape/drawing pins, white paper sheets, graph
papers, protractor, a ruler and a sharp pencil.
Theory

Refraction through a prism : Deviation Refracting edge

A

w
produced by a prism. Figure 5 shows the path Angle of
''prism
PQKS of a ray of light suffering refraction Normal Refracting
Normal
through a triangular glass prism. The angle
between the directions of the incident ray PQ
Flo
ee
and the emergent ray RS is called the angle of
deviation, & Let i and r be the angles of Fr
incidence and refraction at the face AB, and r
for
ur
and e be angles of incidence and emergence at
ks

the face AC. Let A be the angle of the prism.

Yo

Fig. 5 Refraction through a prism.

oo

From the quadrilateral AQNR, A+ ZQNR = m°

B

FromAQNR, r+r' + ZQNR = lSO° A = r+r'

re

5 = ZMQR + ZMRQ = {i-r) + {e-r') = i + e-A

ou
ad

or 1 + e = A + 6 or Angle of incidence + Angle of emergence = Angle of prism + Angle of deviation

Y

So, when a ray of light is refracted through a prism, the sum of the angle of incidence and the angle of
nd
Re

emergence is equal to the sum of the angle of the prism and the angle of deviation.
Fi

Variation of angle of deviation with angle of incidence. Figure 6 shows the variation of angle of
deviation 5 with the angle of incidence i. For a given prism and for a green colour of light, the angle 5
depends on i only. As i increases, the angle 6 first decreases and reaches a minimum value 6,^, and
then increases. Clearly, any given value of 6 corresponds to two angles of incidence i and e.
The minimum value of the angle of deviation suffered by a ray on passing through a prism is called the angle of
minimum deviation and is denoted by 5^ or .
Relation between refractive index and angle of minimum deviation. c

When a prism is in the position of minimum deviation, a ray of light

o
●J3
re

passes symmetrically (parallel to the base) through the prism so that ■>
(U
■a

i = e, r = r', 8=8
m o 5

As A+8=i+e bO

A + Sm
A + 8m = 1 + 1 or i =
2 I i = e e

A
Also A= r + r' =r + r=2r Fig. 6 Plot of variation
2 of 5 versus i.

219

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

From Snell's law, the refractive index of the material of the prism will be
A + 5
m

Ray Diagrams

o
O)
c
(V
v>
o

0>

Cj
2 2
-c
c

o
x:
o
o

nj

>>
JS
0>

●Q

2 cu

nj
5
c

,p

o
*3
●5:
a>

2 2
S
e
.5
S
o

c
nJ
01
2 2 a

XJ
S3
CO

oi
u.

2 2

220

i
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

a Procedure

1. Fix a sheet of white paper on the drawing board with drawing pins/cellotape. Draw a long
straight line XY in the middle of the paper and parallel to its longer side. Mark six points Oy
Oy ●●●/ Og at suitable (a few cm more than the side of the prism) and equal distances on the
line. Draw perpendiculars ^2^2' ●” ' ^6^6
2. Draw incident rays at the points O^, O2,Og making angles of incidence of 35®, 40®, 45°,
50®, 55® and 60° respectively with the normals, using a protractor.
3. Fill the hollow prism with water and close its plastic lid. Dry drops of water, if any, sticking
on its outer surface.

4. Place the prism with its refracting face AB on the line XY with point Oj in the middle of AB,
as shown in Fig. 7{a). Draw the boundary of the prism with a sharp pencil.
5.
Fix two pins Pj and on the incident ray already
marked. Looking into the prism from the opposite
refracting face AC, position the eye in such a way o Y yi—

w
T 9
that the feet of Pj and Qj appear to be one behind T
the other. Now fix pins and Sj in line with Pj
and Flo
so as viewed through the prism. Keep the
1

ee
eye at some distance from the pins so that all the
Eye
pins can be seen in clear focus simultaneously, as
shown in Fig. 8. Distances PjQj and R^Sj should
Fr
Fig. 8 How to trace the path of
for
ur
not be less than 6 cm so as to locate the directions a ray through a prism.
of the incident and emergent rays accurately.
ks
Yo

6. Remove the pins and encircle their pin pricks. Draw the line joining R, and . Produce lines
oo

PjQj and RjSj so that they meet at point Mj. Measure the angle of incidence i = ZP^O^N^
B

and the angle of deviation 5 = ZSjMr.

re

7. Repeat the experiment with angles of incidence like 40®, 45°, 50®, 55° and 60® and measure
ou
ad

the corresponding angles of deviation in each case, as shown in Fig. 7{a).

Y

8. Repeat the experiment by filling the hollow prism with ethyl alcohol and kerosene. Note the
nd
Re

values of / and 5, as shown in Figs. 7{b) and (c).

Fi

9. Note the angle of the prism.

Observations
Least count of the protractor = degrees
Angle of prism, A = degrees
Table P8 : Variation of angle of deviation 5 with angle of incidence i
for a hollow prism filled with different transparent liquids

Angle of incidence i Angle of deviation 5 for hollow prism filled with

S.No.
(degrees) Water Ethyl alcohol Kerosene oil
1. 35° 27° 28° 38°

2. 40° 25° 26° 36°

3. 45° 24° 25° 35°

4. 50° 25° 26° 36°

5. 55° 26° 27° 38°

6. 60° 28° 29° 40°

227
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xtl

Dotting the graphs between i and 6

Choosing suitable scales, plot graphs between i and 6 taking i-values along X-axis and 5-values
along Y-axis for the three transparent liquids. We obtain a U-shaped graph in each case.

V I vs. 16 graph for a prism Y i ds. 5 gralph for a prism

filed w; th water fil ed wit t ethyl alcohoi
{●r
.i
1 1
"w 30 30
Q>
o o
o> o>
0
2, 28 ●o 28
JO CO
c
unt

<0
26 16 8_“2S^
tg "U
> >
0 0
T3 6_ffl = 2^° ■o
T
"o 24 24
0 ® ●
O)
c
Scale: O)
c ■' j Scale :
X-axis; 1 div. = 1° — X-axis: 1 div. = 1°
22
1 Y-axis : 1 div. = 0.2° Y-axis : 1 div. = 0.2°

20, 20:
0 30 40j 50 60 70 ^ 0 30 40 SO 60 70
X
Kngle of incidence /.(d jgreesi -> Angle oMncide lee /(d agrees) r^;.

Fig. 9 i vs. 5 graphs.

n
Calculations

Draw tangent on the lowest point of each graph parallel to the X-axis and note the value of angle
of minimum deviation 8,^ on the Y-axis for each liquid.
(/) Angle of minimum deviation for water, 5 III degrees
A-1-5
m
sm
2
Refractive index of water. water
. A
sm
2

222
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

(n) Angle of minimum deviation for ethyl alcohol, S m degrees

A + Sm
sm
2
Refractive index of ethyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol “ . A
sin - -
2

(Hi) Angle of minimum deviation for kerosene oil, 6 m degrees

A+5 m
sm —
2
Refractive index of kerosene oil, n kerosene . A
sm —
2

Result

1. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation first decreases, reaches a

w
minimum value and then again increases, as is obvious from the U-shaped i versus 5 graph.
2. Angles of minimum deviations are :
8^ (water) = Flo
degrees, 8,^ (ethyl alcohol) = degrees.

ee
8„j (kerosene oil) = degrees
3. Refractive indices of the transparent liquids are Fr
for
ur
1^ water ethyl alcohol “ ' kerosene

Precautions
ks
Yo

Same angle of prism should be used for all observations.

oo

1.

The angle of incidence should not be less than 30°, as the ray may get totally reflected inside
B

2.
re

the prim.
For prisms of side 2.5 or 3 cm, the distance between any two pins should not be less than
ou

3.
ad

6 cm.
Y

4. Pins should be fixed vertically and the pin pricks should be encircled immediately after they
nd
Re

are removed.
Fi

5. The feet of the pins (and not their heads) should be in the same straight line.
6. Indicate the path of the incident, the refracted and the emergent rays by arrowheads.
7. A smooth best fitting curve should be drawn through the plotted points.
8. Position of the prism should not be disturbed for a given set of observations.
9. After filling the hollow prism with a liquid, it should be covered properly by its plastic lid.
Also, liquid drops left on its outer surface should be dried with a tissue paper.

VIVA VOCE

Refer to the Viva Voce of experiment B5 on page 145.

225

k
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

PROJECT
6
Aim

To estimate the charge induced on each one of the two identical styrofoam (or pith)
balls suspended in a vertical plane by making use of Coulomb's law.

Apparatus and Material Required

For small identical balls of styrofoam/pith, a sensitive physical balance/electronic balance,
silk/cotton thread, a half metre scale, a rigid stand, a glass rod and a piece of silk cloth.
Theory

Two kinds of electric charges. The charge developed on a glass rod when rubbed with silk is called
positive charge, while the charge developed on plastic/ebonite rod rubbed with fur is called negative charge.
Electronic theory of frictional electricity. During rubbing, electrons are transferred from the
object with lower work function to another with higher work function. The object with excess of
electrons develops a negative charge, while the object with deficit of electrons develops a positive
charge.
Fundamental law of electrostatics. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
G ©—►
Repulsion Repulsion

©—►
Attraction

Fig. 10 Repulsion between like charges and attraction between unlike charges.

Coulomb's law of electric forces. The force of attraction or repulsion between two stationary point
charges is (i) directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the two charges and (ii) inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. This force acts along the line joining the two
charges.

'll 72
●-

Fig. 11 Coulomb's law

or F = /cM2
r^

For two charges located in free space and in SI units.

1
Jt = =9xl0^Nm2C'^
4;re
0

1
F =

224
V
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

SI unit of charge is coulomb. One coulomb is the amount of charge that repels an equal and similar
charge with a force o/9x 10^ N when placed in vacuum at a distance of one metre frorn it.
Determination of charge from Coulomb's law. In Fig. 12, two similar balls each having mass m
and charge q are hung from a silk thread of length 1. Let x be the equilibrium separation between
two balls when each thread makes angle 0 with the vertical.
//////////^///////////
Rigid support

/e I®

I /

●5.
<5

w
xl2 ■ \ e ro.
(S>

Flo mg

ee
Fig. 12

According to Coulomb's law, the electrostatic repulsion between the two balls will be Fr
for
ur
f-JC
ks
Yo
oo

For small angular displacement 0, we have

B

sin 0 = 0 (rad) =
arc
x/2_^
re

radius I ~2l
ou
ad

Restoring force on each ball = mg sin 0 = mg —

21
Y

For equilibrium,
nd
Re

kq^
Fi

ni/2
or
mgx^
q =
2kl

By measuring the values of m, x and /, we can determine the value of q.

I Procedure

1. Take two identical styrofoam balls. With the help of a sensitive physical balance/electronic
balance, measure the mass of each ball.

2. Hang the two balls from a rigid support using light silk or cotton threads of same length
(« 50 cm). By using half metre scale, measure the length of eadi thr-'acl
3. Rub the glass rod with a silk cloth. Positive charge is developed on tlie glass rod. Now touch
the glass rod with both the balls together. The two balls acquire equal positive charges.
4. When left freely, the two balls repel each other. When the two balls attain an equilibrium
condition, measure the distance between the balls using a half metre scale.

225

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xli

5. To change the charge on one ball take third similar uncharged ball and touch it with this
ball. The two balls share equal charges (ij/2). Take the third ball away and measure the
equilibrium separation between the two suspended balls again.
6. Touch other suspended ball with 4th uncharged ball and take the 4th ball away from the
suspended balls. Measure the equilibrium separation between the two balls again.
Observations
Mass of each ball m= S = kg
Length of each thread, I = cm = m

Table P9 : Equilibrium separation between the two charged balls

Charges on the suspended balls Separation between the balls A and B

S.No.
Ball A BallB X (m)
1. (I 9

2. (J

3. ^/2 ‘1/2

O^LCULATIONS

From each of the three observations, we determine the value of q using the relation,
ll/2
mgx^ C =
9 =
2kl

Mean charge on each ball q = mC

Result

Charge on each ball q = pC

^ECAUTIONS
1. Both the balls should be charged in similar manner so that both acquire equal charges.
2. Glass rod should be rubbed properly with silk cloth so that it develops sufficient charge.
3. Mass of the balls should be measured accurately.
4. The charged bodies should not be touched with naked hands.
5. Lengths of threads and equilibrium separation between the two balls should be measured
accurately.

Sources of Error

1. The two balls may not have same size and mass.
2. Length of threads and equilibrium separation might not have been measured accurately.

226

L
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

VIVA VOCE

1. A glass rod is rubbed with silk. What type of charges magnitudes of the two charges and (ii) inversely
do they acquire ? proportional to the square of the distance between
The glass rod acquires positive charge and silk them. This force acts along the line joining the two
acquires an equal negative charge. charges.
2. What is the cause of charging a body ? 6. In Coulomb's law, F = k m , what are the factors on
Charging occurs due to the transfer of electrons from
one body to another. which the proportionality constant k depends ?
3. Is the mass of a body affected on charging ? The proportionality constant k depends on the nature
Yes, electrons have a definite mass. The mass of a
of the medium between the two charges and the
system of units chosen.
body slightly increases if it gains electrons while the
mass decreases if the body loses electrons. 7. In the relation f = k , what is the value of k in free
r

4. Electrostatic experiments do not work well on humid space ?

days. Give reason.
fc = 9xl0^ Nm^“^.
Electrostatic experiments require accumulation of

w
charges. Whatever charges appear during the experi 8. Name and define die SI unit of charge.
mentation, they are drained away through humid air If = q2 = 1C and r = 1 m, then
which is more conducting than dry air due to the
presence of a larger number of charged particles in it.
Flo f= 1 9
= 9x10’ N

ee
4ti6q 4k e
0
5. State Coulomb's law.
Coulomb's law states that the force of attraction or Fr
So one coulomb is that amount of charge that repels
an equal and similar charge with a force of 9 x 10^
N
for
ur
repulsion between two stationary point charges is when placed in vacuum at a distance of one metre
(i) directly proportional to the product of the from it.
ks
Yo
oo
B
re

7
ou
ad

PROJECT
Y
nd
Re

Aim
Fi

To study the factors on which the self-inductance of a coil depends by observing the effect
of the coil, when put in series with a resistor/bulb in a circuit fed up by an ac source of
adjustable frequency.

I Apparatus and Material Required

An inductor coil having large number of turns, a soft iron rod, ac source (0-12 V) with adjustable
frequency, a 6 V bulb, ac ammeter (0-5 A), a low resistance rheostat, one-way key and connecting
wires.

I Theory
Self-induction. When a changing current flows through a coil, the magnetic flux linked with the coil
changes and an opposing cmfis induced in the coil. This phenomenon is known as self-induction.
Inductance or Self-inductance. Inductance is the ratio of flux-linkage to the current. It is a
measure of inertia of the coil against the change of current through it.

22:
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Flux linked with N turns of a coil x Current through the coil

N^cc I or N<1)=LJ

Inductance,
I

Induced emf, £ = -N^

dt
= --(N(t))
it

g = -l(U)
dt
= -L-
dt

Self-inductance is the magnetic flux linked with the coil when ur\it current flows through the coil.
It is also defined as the negative induced emf in the coil when the rate of change of current
through the coil is unity.
i,dt
As L=- or
dl 1

volt second weber

SI unit of L is or

ampere ampere

This unit is given the name henry (H).

Self-inductance of a long solenoid. The self-inductance of a long solenoid of length I, area of
cross-section A and having N turns is

L=
I

When the solenoid is wound over a soft iron core of relative permeability

Self-inductance depends on the number of turns in the solenoid, its area of cross-section and
relative permeability of the core material.
Current through an L-R circuit. When an inductor is connected in series with a bulb (resistor R)
to an ac source of frequency /, current in the circuit is
Vrms rms
V.rms
1 rms

Brightness of the bulb increases with the increase in current in the circuit.
Circuit Diagram
6 V bulb
(resistor)

£
L
ac ammeter

(0-5 A) 0
e <-)-AVvW-
K Rh
ac source

(0-12 V)

Fig. 13 L-R circuit connected to an ac source of variable frequency.

 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

I Procedure

1. Connect an inductor I, a 6 V bulb, ac source of variable voltage and frequency (audio

frequency oscillator), ac ammeter (0-5 A) and a rheostat Rh all in series, as shown in Fig. 13.
2. Set the ac source to a voltage of 6 V and frequency 60 Hz. Put the plug in the key K and
adjust the rheostat so that current in the circuit is within the ammeter scale.
3. Note the current shown by the ac ammeter and check the brightness of the bulb.
4. Now insert the iron rod inside the inductor coil. Again note the current in the ac ammeter
and check the brightness of the bulb. Both the current and brightness are found to decrease.
5. Switch off the circuit and remove the iron core from the coil. Adjust the frequency of ac
supply at 50 Hz.
6. Switch on the current. By using the rheostat, adjust the current in the circuit at the same
voltage of 6 V. Note the current in the ammeter also check the brightness of the bulb. Both
the current and brightness are found to increase.
7. Again insert the soft iron rod inside the inductor coil. Note the current and brightness. Both

w
are found to decrease.

8. By adjusting the frequency at 40 Hz, 30 Hz and 20 Hz, turn by turn, repeat steps 5, 6 and 7.
Flo
Note the current and brightness in each case. Record your observations in a tabular form.

ee
Observations
Least count of ammeter =

Zero error of ammeter = _ A

A
Fr
for
ur
A
Range of ammeter = to
ks
Yo

Cunent in the ac ammeter

Frequency of
oo

S.No. applied voltage Without iron core With soft iron core
B

(Hz)
re

1. 60 2 1.8
ou
ad

2. 50 2.5 2.3
Y

3. 40
4. 30
nd
Re

5. 20
Fi

I Qdnclusions

1. At a constant frequency of applied voltage, when soft iron rod is inserted inside the inductor
coil, the current in the circuit decreases and hence the brightness of the bulb decreases.
2. When the frequency of the applied voltage is decreased, the current in the L-R circuit
increases and hence the brightness of the bulb increases.

1 Precautions

1. The inductor coil should have a large number of turns so as to have large inductance.
2. The current should be passed through the circuit only for the duration it is absolutely
essential for taking the observations otherwise heating effect would cause error.
3. Current in the ac ammeter should be noted accurately.

^URCES OF Error
1. Resistance of the circuit may change due to heating effect.
2. Eddy currents may set up in the soft iron core.

i
229
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

VIVA VOCE

1* Define self-inductance of a coil. 5. Write three factors on which the self-inductance of

Self-inductance of a coil may be defined as the coil depends.
induced emf set up in the coil due to a unit rate of The self-inductance of a coil depends on :
change of current through it. {/) its number of turns,
2. Define the SI unit of self-inductance. (ii) its area of cross-section, and
The SI unit of self-inductance is henry (H). The self- (Ui) the permeability of the core material.
inductence of a coil is said to be one henry if an induced
emf of one volt is set up in it when the current in it 6. How does the self-inductance of a coil change when
an iron rod is introduced in it ?
changes at the rate of one ampere per second.
3* If the number of turns of a solenoid is doubled, The soft iron has a large relative permeability (p ^). Its
presence increases the magnetic flux times. The
keeping the other factors constant, how does the self
self-inductance also increases by the same ratio.
inductance of the solenoid change ?
7. A lamp connected in parallel with a large inductor
As L=
/ glows brilliantly before going off when the switch is
put off. Why ?
so when N is doubled, the self-inductance becomes
four times the original one. As the circuit breaks, a very large induced emf is set
up in the inductor. This makes the bulb glow
4. If the number of turns and the length of the solenoid brilliantly before it finally goes off.
are doubled keeping the area of cross-section same, 8. A solenoid with an iron core and a bulb are connected
how is the inductance affected ?
to a dc source. How does the brightness of the bulb change
Inductance gets doubled, because when the iron core is removed from the solenoid ?
^„(2NfA = 2L. The brightness of the bulb remains unchanged because
21 the reactance of inductor is zero in a dc circuit.

PROJECT 8
Aim

To study the earth's magnetic field using a compass needle-bar magnet by plotting
magnetic field lines and tangent galvanometer,

A. To Study the Earth's Magnetic Field using a Compass

Needle-Bar Magnet by plotting Magnetic Field Lines
Apparatus and Material Required
A bar magnet, compass needle, drawing board, sheet of paper, half-metre scale, sharp pencil,
brass pins or cellotape.
Basic Concepts
!● Magnetic field line. It may he defined as the curve the tangent to which at any point gives the direction
of the magnetic field at that point. It may also be defined as the path along which a unit north pole
would tend to move if free to do so. No two magnetic field lines can intersect each other.
The magnetic field around a magnet can be traced with the help of a magnetic compass needle. It
consists of a small and light magnetic needle pivoted at the centre of a small circular brass case

provided with a glass top.

 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

S N

*N s*

Fig. 14 Compass needle. Fig. 15 To plot magnetic field of a bar magnet with a compass needle.

2. Earth's magnetic field. When a magnet is freely suspended, it sets itself in the north-south
as a huge magnet with its south pole somewhere
direction. This is due to the fact that our earth behaves
near
the geo-graphical north pole and its north pole somewhere near the geographical south pole. It is
the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field which is effective in orienting the magnet in a
particular direction.
3. Elements of earth's magnetic field. The earth's magnetic field at a place can be completely
described by three parameters which are called elements of earth's magnetic field.
(0 Magnetic declination. The angle between the geographic meridian and the magnetic meridian at a

w
place is called the magnetic declination (a) at that place,
(ii) Dip angle. The angle made by the earth's total magnetic field with the horizontal is called
Flo
dip angle at any place. It is equal to the angle made by a freely suspended magnetic needle

ee
with the horizontal. It is denoted by &
Fr
(ill) Horizontal component of earth's magnetic field. The component of the earth's total magnetic
field along the horizontal direction is called the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field. If
for
ur
6 is the dip angle at any place where the earth's magnetic field is B, then horizontal
ks

component of the earth's magnetic field will be : = 6 cos 6

Yo
oo

(iv) Neutral point. It is the point where the magnetic field due to a magnet is equal and opposite to the
horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field. The resultant magnetic field at the neutral point
B
re

is zero. N

:P
(u) Position of neutral points
ou
ad

N
W E S
(fl) Magnet placed in the magnetic
Y

/ I
meridian with its N-pole pointing north.
nd

r
Re

The two neutral points P and Q lie on P Q

Fi

the equatorial line of the magnet, as l

shown in Fig. 16. At any neutral point. N

S
Horizontal component of earth's ●Q

magnetic field Fig. 16 Neutral points for a Fig. 17 Neutral points for a
= Field of the magnet at magnet with its 7^*pole magnet with its S-pole
equatorial point pointing north. pointing north.

or B., = a or B
H ~
^ M [For a short magnet]
H equa 471

where r is the distance of each neutral point from the centre of the magnet and M is the
dipole moment of the magnet,
(h) Magnet placed in the magnetic meridian with its S-pole pointing twrth. The two neutral
points P and Q lie on the axial line near the ends of the magnet, as shown in Fig. 17. At any
neutral point.
B„
H
=Baxial or B=
47t
[For a short magnet]

25/

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XIl

[ Procedure for Plotting Field Lines of a Magnet in the Broad-Side on Position

1. Fix a sheet of paper on the drawing board with brass pins or cellotape.
2. Remove the magnets and the magnetic substances from the vicinity of the drawing board. Draw
a line joining the midpoints N and S of the longer sides of the paper. To adjust this line along
the magnetic meridian, place a compass needle at the middle of this line. Rotate the drawing
board till the middle line is parallel the compass needle. During the process, tap the needle
gently to ensure that the friction between the needle and its pivot is minimised and that it
rotates freely. Then the needle will point along the north-south direction. Mark the
boundary of the drawing board with a piece of chalk.
3. Place the bar magnet symmetrically in the middle of the line NS as shown in Fig. 18, with its
north pole pointing towards north. Mark the boundary of the magnet with a sharp pencil. See
that the positions of the magnet and the board are not disturbed during the experiment.
4. Place the compass needle near the North
north pole of the magnet. Tap it gently
and mark two dots A and B against the C
N
south and north poles of the magnet, B
'W-
respectively. Shift the compass so that N

the south pole of the needle coincides

with the second dot Band mark a third S Earth's
field
point C now against the north pole of
the compass needle. In this manner, go
on
step by step till the other end of the South
magnet is reached. A smooth free-hand
curve drawn through the marked points Fig. 18 Magnetic field and neutral points of
gives a magnetic line of force. a bar magnet with itsAT-pole pointing towards north.
5. Plot several lines of force around the magnet, indicating their directions by arrowheads from the
north to the south pole of the magnet. An area around the point P is observed such that the
fields at D and £ are in opposite directions. If the compass needle is moved from D to £, the
direction of the field reverses. This region is the neutral point region. There is another similar
region around the point Q.
6. To locate the neutral points accurately, plot the lines of force in the neutral point regions as
close to each other as possible. We can plot small portions of lines of force in order to narrow
down the neutral regions. These lines of force should give rise to a curvilinear quadrilateral in
the neutral point regions. In a neutral point region such as shown in Fig. 19, place the plotting
compass at such a position by trial and error that its needle stays in any direction and has no
preferred direction. Mark the circular boundary of the compass needle. The centre of the
circular boundary gives the position of the neutral point.
In this manner locate both the neutral points P and Q
along the equitorial line.
Neutral
Test for neutral point. At the neutral point, the compass point
needle stays in any direction. To test it, bring an iron nail
or a needle near the compass needle which will be
attracted by it. Now take the nail or the needle gently
away from the compass without disturbing it. There
should be no change in the direction of the compass Fig. 19 Magnetic lines of force in the
needle at the neutral point. neutral point region.

252
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

7. Locate the N- and Spoles of the magnet accurately. For this purpose, we remove the
magnet, we produce the field lines drawn near the ends of the magnet to meet just inside the
magnet at points N and S.

I Procedure for Plotting the Field Lines of a Magnet in the End-On Position

1. Fix a sheet of paper on the drawing board with brass pins or cellotape.
2. Remove the magnets and the magnetic substances from the vicinity of the drawing board. Draw a
line joining the midpoints N and Sof the shorter sides of the paper. To adjust this line along
the magnetic meridian, place a compass needle at the middle of this line. Rotate the drawing
board till the middle line is parallel to the compass needle. Mark the boundary of the
drawing board with a piece of chalk.
3. Place the bar magnet symmetrically in the middle of the line NS as shown in Fig. 20, with its
north pole pointing towards south. Mark the boundary of the magnet with a sharp pencil.
See that the positions of the magnet and
the board are not disturbed during the

w
experiment.
4. Place the compass needle near the south
pole of the magnet and mark two dots A Flo
ee
and B against the south and north poles of
the needle, respectively. Shift the compass
so that the south pole of the needle Fr
for
ur
coincides with the second dot B and mark
a third point C now against the north pole
ks

of the compass needle. In this manner, go

Yo
oo

on step by step till the other end of the

B

magnet is reached. A smooth free-hand

re

curve drawn through the marked points Fig. 20 Magnetic field and neutral points of a
gives a magnetic line of force. bar magnet with its J/-pole pointing towards south.
ou
ad

5. Plot several lines of force around the magnet, indicating their directions by arrowheads from
Y

the north to the south pole of the magnet. An area around the point P is observed such that
nd
Re

points D and £ are in opposite directions. If the compass needle is moved from D to £, direction
of the field reverses. This region is the neutral point region. There is another similar region
Fi

around the point Q.

6. To locate the neutral points accurately, plot the lines of force accurately in the neutral point
region as close to each other as possible. Lines of force in these regions may be rather short
in length. These lines of force should give rise to a curvilinear quadrilateral in the neutral
point regions. In a neutral point region, place the plotting compass at such a position by trial
and error that its needle stays in any direction and has no preferred direction.
Mark the boundary of the compass needle. The centre of the circular boundary gives the
position of the neutral points along the axial line.
Test for neutral point. Using a compass needle, check the location of neutral points P and Q
as explained in previous case.
7. Locate the positions of N- and S-poles accurately.

I Conclusions
1. The resultant magnetic field of the magnet and the earth with N-pole of the magnet pointing
north is shown in Fig. 18. The neutral points Pand Qlie on the equatorial line of the magnet.

255

i
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

2. The resultant magnetic field of the magnet and the earth with N-pole of the magnet point
south is shown in Fig. 20. The neutral points P and Q lie on the axial line of the magnet.
3. From the above two observations, it can be concluded that the direction of the earth's
magnetic field is from geographic south to north.

!1 Precautions

1. Mark the boundary of the drawing board and that of the magnet. The board and the magnet
should not be disturbed throughout the experiment.
2.
There should be no magnetic materials near the working table.
3. Brass pins (non-magnetic), gum or cellotape should be used for fixing the sheet on the
drawing board. Drawing pins of iron should not be used.
4.
Tap compass needle gently every time so as to avoid its sticking.
5. The ends of the compass needle should be marked with a sharp pencil and the dots so
obtained should be joined by smooth free-hand curve.
6.
To locate neutral points accurately, a large number of lines of force should be drawn in the
neutral point regions.
7.
The poles of the magnet should be located more accurately.
8. The directions of the lines of force should be indicated by arrowheads.

B. To Study the Earth's Magnetic Field using a Tangent Galvanometer

I J^PPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A tangent galvanometer, an ammeter (0-3 A), a battery/battery eliminator (0-6 V), a rheostat
(20 Q), a reversing key, one-way key, spirit level and connecting wires.
Tangent Galvanometer
It is a moving magnet type galvanometer used for measuring very small currents. Its working is
based on tangent law.
1. Construction. It consists of
a circular coil of several turns
Coil
of insulated copper wire
Circular scale
wound on a non-magnetic
vertical brass frame which is Short magnetic needle
Pointer made of
capable of rotation about a aluminium
vertical axis. Usually, there
Compass box
are three separate coils of 2,
50 and 500 turns. The ends of
these coils are brought to
three terminals at the base.
Base terminals
The frame is mounted on a
horizontal platform provided Levelling screws
with levelling screws and is
capable of rotation about a
vertical axis.
Fig. 21 Tangent galvanometer.

234
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

A compass box is mounted at the centre of the vertical frame. The box has a small magnetic
needle pivoted at its centre which is free to rotate in a horizontal plane. A light aluminium
pointer is fixed to the needle and moves over a circular scale graduated in degrees from 0 to 90®,
in four quadrants. A plane mirror is fixed below the pointer to avoid error due to parallax while
reading the scale. The box protects the needle from the effects of air currents.
2. Setting
(i) All the magnetic materials are removed from the vicinity of the tangent galvanometer,
(n) The horizontal platform is levelled with the help of levelling screws,
(ill) Rotate the plane of the coil till it becomes parallel to the magnetic needle. This sets the
plane of the coil in the magnetic meridian.
(it>) Rotate the compass box till the aluminium pointer lies along 0®-0® position.
3. Theory and Working. The working of tangent galvanometer is based on tangent law. When no
current is passed through the coil, the magnetic needle is influenced only by of earth's
magnetic field. When a current I is passed, there is a magnetic field B along the axis of coil
perpendicular to B^, as shown in Fig. 22. The magnetic needle is influenced by two

w
perpendicular magnetic fields and it comes to rest at an angle 0 with Bh such that
B = B,, tan 6 (Resultant)

This relation is known as Tangent law.

H
Flo Coil in
vertical
B
,,

ee
plane, N-Tums, N
Now magnetic field at centre of coil is

B=
1^0 NI
Fr
radius R

6H
for
ur
2R
Q
where N and R are number of turns and radius of the coil. Compass
ks

needle
Yo
oo

= B,,
H
tan 0
2R Fig. 22
B

2RB„ tan0
re

H
/ = = K tan 0
ou
ad

2R B
Y

H :
where K = IS a constant for the tangent galvanometer and is called its reduction factor.
nd
Re
Fi

Clearly, B
H ~ [ D = Mean diameter of the coil]
D tan0

Circuit diagram
Magnetic
needle
Tangent
galvanometer

Battery
Pointer

S- -
0

?S\"
U-_ hi
T BH
T
B2 K 0

C*B 1

<4 ?
K Rh

Fig. 23 Circuit for measuring using tangent galvanometer.

a Procedure

1. Remove all the magnetic substances from the vicinity of the tangent galvanometer.

235

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

2. Adjust the circular scale of the compass box horizontal with the help of levelling screws and
a spirit level. The plane of the coil will be vertical and can be rotated about a vertical axis
passing through the centre of the coil, which will be the centre of compass needle also.
3. Rotate the plane of the coil about a vertical axis till it becomes parallel to the magnetic
needle. This sets the coil in the vertical plane. Tap gently the compass box a number of times
to ensure that the compass needle moves freely. Rotate the compass box till 0®-0° line of the
circular scale coincides with the pointer.
4. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 23 and arrange the required apparatus on the
working table accordingly. Connect the tangent galvanometer to the commutator C,
ammeter A, battery B, one-way key K and rheostat Rh according to the circuit diagram. For
this purpose, use long parallel wires so that they cancel each other's magnetic field and the
tangent galvanometer is at large distance from the rest of the apparatus.
5. Choose a suitable pair of terminals on the tangent galvanometer and adjust current by rheostat
such that (0 ammeter reading is more than half of its full scale deflection and (n) deflection
of the tangent galvanometer is between 25® and 65°.
6. Now pass the current in one direction. Note the current I in the ammeter. Also note the
deflections (0^02) of both ends of the pointer. Reverse the direction of the current with the
help of commutator C and again note the deflections (03,0^) of both ends of the pointer.
7. Repeat experiment at least five times by changing the current with the help of rheostat and
taking care that the deflection of the compass needle in each case lies between 25® and 65®.
8. In each case, calculate the deflection 0 of the pointer as the mean of the four readings, 0i,02/03
and 0^.
9. Taking at least two perpendicular readings, measure the inner and the outer diameters of
the coil and find the mean diameter, D.
10. Record your observations in a tabular form.

Observations and Calculations

Internal diameter of the coil: (i) cm (^0 cm

Mean internal diameter, Dj = cm = m

Outer diameter of the coil: (0 cm (n) cm

Mean outer diameter. °2=- cm = m

Mean diameter of the coil, D= ^1 + ^2 _ m

2

Number of turns of the coil used, N =

Least count of the ammeter = A; Zero error of the ammeter = A

Table PIO Deflections of the magnetic needle

Current I Deflection of the magnetic needle 9 in degrees Mean
S.
Observed Corrected For direct cunent For reverse current 0j + ^ + 0^ + 0^ tan 0
No. 0 =
(A) (A) one end 0 i other end 9, one end 0, other end 0^ 4
1. 0.15 0.15 35° 35° 35° 35° 35° 0.70
2. 0.20 0.20 49° 47° 60° 64° 53.6° 1.37
3.

4.

5.

236
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

i Graph
Plot a graph between the corresponding
values of I and tan 0, by taking 1 along
X-axis and tan 0 along Y-axis. It will be a
straight line passing through origin, as
shown in Fig. 24.
Change in tan 0
Slope of graph =
Change in I
BC
A-'
AC

Horizontal component of earth's

magnetic field is

BH ~
D tan0

w
4itx10 ^xN
tesla.
Dx slope Flo Fig. 24 Graph between I and tan 0.

ee
Result

Horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field, B

H ~
Fr tesla.
for
ur
a Precautions
ks

1. All magnetic materials must be removed from the vicinity of the tangent galvanometer.
Yo
oo

2. The compass box must be set horizontal so tliat the compass needle and the pointer move freely.
B

3. The plane of the coil must be set in the magnetic meridian so that tangent law may be used.
re

4. The coil should be connected to the reversing key by a long piece of twin flexible wire, so that
ou
ad

the ammeter and the connecting wires carrying the current exert no appreciable field on the
Y

needle of the tangent galvanometer.

nd

5. Battery or accumulator used must be freshly charged so that it supplies a steady current.
Re

6. Check the ammeter for zero-reading. If necessary reset it by the adjusting screw provided for
Fi

this purpose.
7. While noting the deflection of the pointer in the compass box or while observing its
zero-reading, the box should be gently tapped so that friction between the magnet and pin on
which it is suspended is minimised.
8. The values of current should be such that the deflection of the pointer lies between the limits
30®-65® because accuracy is maximum for deflection around 45°.
9. To avoid error due to eccentricity {i.e., the centre of the pointer may not be coinciding with the
centre of the compass box), read both ends of the pointer.
10. While reading the ends of the pointer, place eye in such a manner that the pointer coincides with
its image formed by the plane mirror fixed below the pointer. This avoids error due to parallax.

[_SouRCEs OF Error
1. Some magnetic materials may be present in the vicinity of the tangent galvanometer.
2. The plane of the coil may not be exactly in the magnetic meridian.

237

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

VIVA VOCE

A. Magnetic Field of a Bar Magnet component of the earth's magnetic field. The
1. What are magnets ? resultant magnetic field at the neutral point is zero.
The substances which have the property of attracting 10. What will be the location of neutral points when a bar
small pieces of iron, nickel, cobalt, etc., are called tmgnets magnet is placed in the magnetic meridian with
and this property of attraction is called magnetism. (i) its north pole pointing towards the geographical
north ?
2. From where did the word magnetism originate ?
The word magnetism originated from the place (if) its north pole pointing towards the geographical
south ?
Magnesia - a province in the upper part of Greece,
where the natural magnet - loadstone or magnetite or (i) Neutral points will lie on the equatorial line of
the magnet.
black iron oxide Fe203 was first found.
3. State Coulomb's law of magnetostatics. (ii) Neutral points will lie on the axial line of the
magnet.
Coulomb's law of magnetostatics states that the force of
11. How is a neutral point tested ?
attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is
(0 directly proportional to the product of their At neutral points, compass needle does not come to
pole strengths, and rest in any preferred direction. If it is disturbed by
bringing an iron needle near it, it will continue to
(ii) inversely proportional to the square of the dis point in the new direction.
tance between them. If nl^ and W2 are the pole
strengths of the two magnetic poles which are 12. WTiy does a compass needle suddenly reverse its
distance r apart, then the force between them direction as it crosses the neutral point ?
will be Near the magnet from the neutral point, the field due
471 to the magnet is stronger and when we cross the
neutral points, the field due to the earth becomes
where p q is the permeability of free space and is stronger and as a result, the direction of the compass
equal to 4tcx10"' henry/metre. needle is at once reversed.
4. What are the poles of a magnet ? 13. Why is the compass needle tapped gently at the
The regions of apparently concentrated magnetic neutral point ?
strength are called poles of a magnet. At poles, the Near the neutral point, the magnetic field is very
magnetic attraction is the maximum.
weak which may not be able to overcome the force of
5. What do you mean by magnetic equator ? friction at the pivot of the needle.
The line through the centre of the magnet and B. Tangent Galvanometer
perpendicular to the magnetic axis is called the
magnetic equator of the magnet. 14. What is the expression for the magnetic field at the
centre of a circular coil carrying current ?
6. What is the magnetic meridian ?
The magnetic field at the centre of a circular coil of N
The vertical plane passing through the axis of a freely
MqM
suspended magnet is called the magnetic meridian. turns, radius r and carr)'^ing current 7 is B =
2r
7. What is a magnetic line of force ?
15. What is the rule for deciding the direction of the
A magnetic line of force is the path along which a unit magnetic field of a circular current carrying coil ?
north pole will tend to move, if free to do so.
Looking at the face of the coil, the direction of the
8. Why can't two lines of force intersect ?
field is towards the observer if the current is
If two lines of force intersect, then that would mean
anticlockwise. The direction of the field is away from
that there are two directions of the magnetic-field at the observer if the current is clockwise.
the point of intersection and a unit M-pole placed at 16. What is a tangent galvanometer ?
this point should move in the two directions simul
It is a moving magnet type galvanometer in which
taneously which is impossible. Hence two magnetic
lines of force never intersect. the coil through which the current flows is fixed
while the magnet moves. Its working is based on
9. What is a neutral point ? tangent law.
It is the point at which the magnetic field due to a 17. Why is a tangent galvanometer so called 7
magnet is equal and opposite to the horizontal
Because its working is based on tangent law.
2J8

L
 INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS

2RB
18. What is tangent law ? Here, K =
H
, is called the reduction factor of the
According to tangent law, if a small magnet
suspended freely in two mutually perpendicular tangent galvanometer. When 0 = 45°, 1 = K
—♦ —» —*

magnetic fields B and makes an angle 0 with Thus, the reduction factor of a tangent galvanometer
may be defined as that current, which when flows
in the state of equilibrium, then
B through the galvanometer coil, produces a deflection
= tan0 or B= ^ tan0. This is tangent law. of 45°.
Bh 27. Why do we take readings both with direct and
19. What are the two fields used in the tangent galvano reverse currents ?
meter ?
This avoids errors arising due to the inaccurate setting
One field is the horizontal component of the earth's of the galvanometer coil in the magnetic meridian.
magnetic field (B^) and the other is the field B 28. Why is the reduction factor so called ?
produced by the current flowing through the circular As I = Ktan0, i.e., when the factor Kis multiplied by
coil of the tangent galvanometer. tan 0, it reduces to the current I; hence K is called the
20. Why is tangent galvanometer set in the magnetic reduction factor of the tangent galvanometer.
meridian ? 29. On what factors does the reduction factor of a tangent
galvanometer depend ?

w
This makes the field of the circular coil perpendicular to
. 2KB H
the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field. K = . Thus, the reduction factor K depends on (i)
21. How do you set the coil of tangent galvanometer in
the magnetic meridian ?
Flo K, radius of the coil, (if) N, number of turns of the coil,

ee
To do so, we rotate the plane of the coil about a and {Hi) B^, the horizontal component of earth's
vertical axis till the coil, the compass needle and its
image in the plane mirror fixed below it, all lie in the
magnetic field.
Fr
30. What is the SI unit of reduction factor ?
for
ur
same vertical plane. This sets the plane of the coil of Ampere, i.e., same as that of current I.
the tangent galvanometer parallel to the magnetic 31. What do you mean by sensitivity of a tangent
ks

meridian.
galvanometer ?
Yo
oo

22. What is the purpose of the mirror fixed at the base of If a tangent galvanometer produces a large deflection
B

the tangent galvanometer ? for a small value of current flowing through it, we say
re

To avoid the parallax error while reading the ends of that the galvanometer has high sensitivity. For large
the pointer. sensitivity, — should be as large as possible, where d0
ou
ad

dl
23. What is the use of the pointer in the compass box ?
Y

is tlie change in the deflection when current changes

The long and light pointer attached perpendicular to
by dl.
nd

the magnetic needle helps us to determine the angle

Re

of deflection of the small magnetic needle accurately. 32. When is a tangent galvanometer most sensitive ?
Fi

24. Of what material the pointer is made ? A tangent galvanometer is most sensitive when
9=45°.
The pointer is made of a non-magnetic material like
aluminium. 33. How does the sensitivity of a tangent galvanometer
25. Why do we read both ends of the pointer ? depend on reduction factor ?
dl rf0 1
This avoids error due to eccentricity of the pivot on I = Ktan0 = Ksec^0 or
de dl Ksec^e
which the needle rotates with respect to the circular dO
scale, i.e., the axis of rotationof the needle may not be For larger sensitivity should have a large value
dl
passing through the centre of the circular scale. The and hence K should be a smaller one.
mean of the readings of the two ends gives the correct
value of deflection even if the pointer is eccentric. 34. How can we increase the sensitivity of a tangent
26. What is the reduction factor of the tangent galvanometer ?
galvanometer ? 2RB H
K= . To have higher sensitivity, K should be
The current through the tangent galvanometer coil is
given by decreased. So sensitivity can be increased
2 KB:H
/ = tan0 = Ktan0 (i) by decreasing K, the radius of the coil, and
(jj) by increasing N, the number of turns in the coil.

239
 Tables of Physical Constants
Table 1 : Some important constants
Name Symbol Value

Speed of light in vacuum c 2.9979 xlO®ms

-1

Charge of electron e 1.602 xlO -19 c

Gravitational constant G
6.673 xlO“”Nm^kg“2
-34
Planck constant h 6.626 X 10 Js
-23
Boltzmann constant k 1.381 X 10 JK-1
Avogadro number 6.022 X lO^mol"^
Universal gas constant R 8.314 J mor’K"*
Mass of electron m
e 9.110 X 10"^^ kg
Mass of neutron m
n 1.675 X 10“^^ kg
Mass of proton 1.673 xlO'^^kg
Electron-charge to mass ratio elm^ 1.759 X 10*^C/kg
Faraday constant F 9.648 xlO^C/mol
Rydberg constant R 1.097 X 10V“^
Bohr radius a. 5.292 X 10
-II
m
0

Stefan-Boltzmann constant CT 5.670 X 10'®W

Wien's constant b 2.898 xlO'^mK
Permittivity of free space 8.854 xlO"^- C^N"^m"^
Electrostatic force constant l/4n8Q 8.987 xlO^Nm^-2
Permeability of free space tSL 4ti xl0"^TmA"’ ^ 1.257 x 10‘^Wb A"^ m -1

Table 2 : Electrical resistivities of typical metals and alloys

-8
Resistivity (10 ohm metre) Temperature coefficient at 0°C
Material
0°C lOO^C 300®C 700°C (over range 0°C-100°C) (lO"*^)
Aluminium 2.45 3.55 5.9 24.7 45
Chromium 12.7 16.1 25.2 47.2

Copper 1.56 2.24 3.6 6.7 43

Iron 8.9 14.7 31.5 85.5 65
Lead 19.0 27.0 50 107.6 42
Gold 2.04 2.84 40

Mercury 94.0766* 103.5 128 10

Nickel 6.14 10.33 22.5 68
Platinum 9.81 13.65 21.0 34.3 39.2

Platinum-Rhodium (87/13) 19.0 22.0 15.6

Platinum-Rhodium (90/10) 18.7 21.8 16.6

Platinum-Iridium (90/10) 24.8 28.0 13

Silver 1.51 2.13 3.42 6.5 41
Tin 11.5 (20°C) 15.8 50 60 46

Tungsten 4.9 7.3 12.4 24 48

Zinc 5.5 7.8 13.0 37(5Q0°C) 42

* Mercury at 0°C is used as a secondary standard to realise the standard unit of resistance, ohm.

240
 TABLES OF PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

Table 3 : Alloys of high resistance

Alloy and its Resistivity at 20® C Temperature coefficient Max. operating

composition (10"® ohm metre) in range 0®-100®C (10"^) temperature (®C)

Constantan 44 to 52 -0.4 to + 0.1 500

(58.8®/o Cu, 40% Ni, 1.2% Mn)

German Silver 28 to 35 + 0.4 150 to 200

(65®/o Cu, 20®/o Zn, 15®/o Ni)

Manganin 42 to 48 0.3 100

(85®/o Cu, 12®/o Mn, 3®/o Ni)

Nickeline 39 to 45 0.2 150 - 200

(54% Cu, 20% Zn, 26% Ni)

w
Nichrome 100 to 110 2.0 1000
(67.5®/o Ni, 15% Cr, 16% Fe, 1.5®/o Mn)

Flo
ee
Table 4 : Resistances of wires of various gauges and materials

Diameter
Fr
Resistance per metre in ohm
for
ur
SWG. No.
(mm) Copper Constantan Manganin
ks

10 3.25 0.0021 0.057 0.051

Yo
oo

12 2.64 0.0032 0.086 0.077

B

14 2.03 0.0054 0.146 0.131

re

16 1.63 0.0083 0.228 0.204

ou
ad

18
Y

1.22 0.0148 0.405 0.361

20 0.914 0.0260 0.722 0.645

nd
Re

22 0.711 0.0435 1.20 1.07

Fi

24 0.559 0.070 1.93 1.73

26 0.457 0.105 2.89 2.58

28 0.374 0.155 4.27 3.82

30 0.315 0.222 6.08 5.45

32 0.274 0.293 8.02 7.18

34 0.234 0.404 11.1 9.9

36 0.193 0.590 16.2 14.5

38 0.152 0.950 26.0 23.2

40 0.122 1.48 40.6 36.3

42 0.102 2.10 58.5 53.4

44 0.081 3.30 91.4 81.7

46 0.061 5.90 162.5 145.5

241

A
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

Table 5 : Important features of some commonly used cells

Cell Anode Cathode Electrolyte Depolariser emf

CUSO4 1.1 V
Daniel cell Copper Zinc Dil, H2SO4
Leclanche cell Carbon Zinc NH4CI MnOj + Carbon powder 1.5 V

Dry cell Carbon Zinc container Paste of NH4CI + ZnCl^ Mn02 + Carbon powder 1.5 V

Mercuric oxide KOH 1.4 V

Mercury Zinc
or Button cell + Graphite
Dil. H2SO4 Reversible chemical 2.1 V
Lead-acid PbOj Pb
accumulator reaction

H-O fuel cell Porous nickel Porous nickel KOH 1.0 V

Table 6 : Refractive index of substances

SoUd Refractive index liquid Refractive index

Diamond 2.417 Canada balsam 1.53

Glass (crown) 1.48-1.61 Water 1.333

Glass (flint) 1.53 - 1.96 Alcohol (ethyl) 1.362

Glass (soda) 1.50 Aniline 1.595

Benzene 1.501

Ice 1.31 Cedar oil 1.516

Mica 1.56 - 1.60 Chloroform 1.450

Rock-salt 1.54 Ether 1.350

Glycerine 1.47

Quartz (O-ray) 1.5443 Olive oil 1.46

Quartz (E-ray) 1.5534 Paraffin oil 1.44

Quartz (fused) 1.458 Kerosene oil 1.39

Turpentine oil 1.44

-10
For sodium light X = 5896 x 10 m

Table 7 : Electromagnetic Spectrum : Wavelengths

Part of Spectrum Wavelength range

Wireless waves 5 metres and above

Infra red 3xl0"^m to 7.5 x 10~^m

Visible red 7.5xl0”^m to 6.5 x 10~^m
Visible orange 6.5 X 10"^m to 5.9 x lO'^m
Visible yellow 5.9 X 10"^m to 5.3 x 10”^m
Visible green 5.3 X 10~^m to 4.9 x 10"^m
Visible blue 4.9 X 10~^m to 4.2 x 10~^m
Visible violet 4.-2 X 10“^m to 3.9 x 10’^ m
Ultra violet 3.9 X 10“^m to 1.8 X 10"^m
Soft X-rays 2.0 xlO^^m to 1.0 xl0“^°m
-10 -11
Hard X-rays 1.0 X 10 m to 1.0 X 10 m

-11 -12
Gamma rays 5.0 X 10 m to 5.0 X 10 m

-14
Cosmic rays 5.0 X 10 m

242
 TABLES OF PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

Table 8 : Wavelength of spectral lines in A

Hydrogen Helium Mercury Neon Sodium

3970 V 3889 V 4047 V 5765 y (D2) 5890 o

4102 V 4026 V 4078 V 5853 y (q) 5896 0
4340 b 4471 b 4358 V 5882 o

4861 gb 5876 y 4916 bg 6507 r

6563 r 6678 r 4960 g 7245 r

7065 r
5461 g
5770y
5791 y
6152 o

6322 o

Here the visible spectrum colours have been indicated by r, o, y, g, b, i and v, respectively.

w
Table 9 : Magnetic elements
Flo Horizontal component

ee
Place Angle of declination Angle of dip
(S^) tesla X 10
Agra 0°10' E 40°40' Fr 0.348
for
ur
Ajmer 39°46' 0.358

Aligarh 0°20'E ■ 41°50' 0.346

ks
Yo

Allahabad 0°20' E 37°10' 0.353

oo

Amritsar 47°21.3' 0.30

B

Bangalore 9°21.2' 0.405

re

Bareilly 0°20' E 42°20' 0.344

ou
ad

Bombay 0°20' E 25“30' 0.376

Y

Calcutta 0°00' 30°31' 0.382

nd
Re

Chandausi 0°30' E 42°40' 0.343

Fi

Dehradun 0°50' E 45°50' 0.332

DeU-ii 0°40' E 42°52' 0.345

Hyderabad (Deccan) 19°39.2' 0.397

Gorakhpur 0°20' W 39°40’ 0.358

Gwalior 0“20'E 39°00' 0.353

Jaipur 0°30'E 40°30' 0.347

Kanpur 0°00' 38°39’ 0.363

Khurja 0°30'E 42°10’ 0.343

Lucknow 0°I0' W 40°00' 0.354

Ludhiana 45°13.3' 0.335

Merrut 0°40'E 43°30’ 0.339

Nagpur 2°09’ 0.385

Patna 36°24' 0.373

Varanasi 0“30' W 37°10' 0.364

243
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 ● Lab Manual of Chemistry Rajesh C. Laxman
● Lab Manual of Biology Sushil Chaudhaiy
● Lab Manual of Physical Education Arshdeep Sahni
● Move Fast Physics S.L Arora

● Move Fast Chemistry Shashi Chawla

● Move Fast Biology Sushil Chaudhary

● Move Fast Computer Science Sumita Arora

● Move Fast Informatics Practice Sumita Arora

● Move Fast Economics Radha Bahuguna

X
● Numerical Physics S.L. Arora

\
...

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