MATH 204
Introduction to Probability and Statistics
FEBB ADAM P. SILAGPO
Mathematics Department
Negros Oriental State University
[email protected]
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
Chapter 1
Introduction to Statistics
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
1.1 BRIEF HISTORY
Definition 1.1.1
Statistics is a branch of mathematics mainly concerned with
describing and interpreting a collection of data, and with
drawing conclusions about populations from knowledge of the
properties of a sample.
The term statistics comes from the Italian world stato which
means “state.” In the early times if someone works with statis-
tics, he/she concerns him/herself with government affairs. The
word statistics first appeared in print in the book by Gottfried
Achenwall entitled “Abriss statswissenschaft der heutigen vornehm-
sten europaishen Reiche und Republiken” in 1749. During this
time, statistics was simply a collection of data on government
records like numbers of deaths, births, causes of death, etc. In
short, in the early-day statistics, data were not utilized to predict
future events nor data were analyzed in relation with other sets
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
of data. This is because the theory of probability was not yet
considered part in the analysis of data. It was only in the 1860’s
that the theory of probability was utilized in relation with data
analysis (Larsen & Marx, 2001).
Definition 1.1.2
The term probability, in layman’s terms, is the degree of
likelihood for an event to happen.
The concise mathematical computation on this degree falls under
the theory of probability. The theory of probability has its be-
ginnings during the time of Cardano in 1525. In 1654, a certain
Chevalier de Mere asked an intriguing question that deals with
probability which provoked the fertile minds of Blaise Pascal and
Pierre de Fermat. A certain Dutch mathematician Christiaan
Huygens also worked on the problem posed by Chevalier. The
work of Huygens led to publication of the first book of probability
entitled “De Ratiociniis in Aleae Ludo” (Calculations in Games
of Chance). The book then became the first standard text in the
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
theory of probability (Larsen & Marx, 2001).
The integration of statistics and probability is the subject matter
that we now call as modern statistics. To integrate probability
and statistics, data will be viewed as coming from a certain math-
ematical distribution or mathematical model. One of the most
common mathematical distributions is the normal distribution.
A discussion on this type of distribution is given in Chapter 7.
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
1.2 SAMPLE AND POPULATION
Definition 1.2.1
In the study of modern statistics, data is the main object of
analysis. If the data is being analyzed is just a portion of the
totality of data available, then we call the set of data at hand as
sample. Otherwise, if all possible data available is at hand,
then we call in population.
Thus, when one makes a survey on the average height of all
teenagers in the Philippines, the data gathered is data coming
from a population. More concisely, the survey is called a cen-
sus. However, if only a few provinces of the country were covered
in the survey, we call the data gathered as data coming from a
sample.
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
Population may be classified into two, namely
a. Target Population; and
b. Study Population
Definition 1.2.2
The target population is the whole group of study units
which the researcher is concerned for his/her findings and
conclusions. The study population, on the other hand, is the
group of study units to which the findings and conclusions may
be applied.
For instance, if the research is about smoking habits of individu-
als in a particular community, the target population is the whole
community but the target population is just the group of people
who smoke.
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
1.3 PARAMETER AND STATISTIC
Definition 1.3.1
The word statistics has two meanings. If one summarizes the
data gathered from a sample into one figure, like average, then
the figure is known as statistic. Thus, the terms mean, median,
percentage, etc. are also called statistics. However, statistics
(as a discipline) is the science of collecting, organizing, present-
ing, analyzing, and interpreting data to assist in making more
effective decisions (Lind, et.al. 2000). According to Dudewics,
statistics is the science of decision-making (Dudewics, 1988).
Parameters, on the other hand, are summary figures from data
gathered from a population.
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
Example 1.3.1
Suppose that from a survey, the following data was gathered:
Population of Teenagers Average Age
Country 50,551,222 18
What is the parameter?
Solution: The table above shows that the average age of teenagers
is 18 years old, that is, µ = 18. Thus, the parameter is 18.
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
Example 1.3.2
Suppose that from the survey from a certain provice, we have the
following data:
Number of teenagers asked Average Age
Province 220 18
What is the statistic?
Solution: The table above shows that the average age of teenagers
is 18 years old, that is x = 18.
Thus, the statistic is 18. The number of teenagers asked is 220.
The figure 220 is the number of elements in the sample.
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
Note that in the population surveym there were more than 50
million teenagers asked of their age while in the sample only 220
were asked. In reality, if one will ask more than 50 million people,
it will take almost 100 years to accomplish the task even if it takes
only one minute to ask one teenager.
Thus, if one makes a study that involves the elements of a pop-
ulation, it is always practical but statistically valid to ask only
a portion of the population. In the next chapter, a discussion is
given on different sampling techniques from a given population.
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
1.4 THE SIGMA NOTATION
Definition 1.4.1
X
The sigma notation, denoted by , is a mathematical symbol
to compress long sums of terms with regularity to a single and
compact form.
Notation:
n
X
f (i)
i=m
Where
f (i) is a function of i
n is the upper limit
i is the index
m is the lower limit
The notation reads as “the summation of f of i from m to n.”
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
In the notation, the value of i in f (i) changes from m to n in
an increment of 1 while inserting the symbol “+” every time.
Formally, this is defined mathematically as follows:
n
X
f (i) = f (m)+f (m+1)+f (m+2)+· · ·+f (n−2)+f (n−1)+f (n)
i=m
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
Example 1.4.1
5
X
Let f (i) = xi . Then find f (i).
i=1
Solution: We have
5
X
f (i) = f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + f (4) + f (5)
i=1
= x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
Example 1.4.2
4
X
If x1 = 3, x2 = 5, x3 = 9, x4 = 7, then find xi .
i=1
Solution: We have
4
X
xi = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4
i=1
= 3+5+9+7
= 24
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
Example 1.4.3
4
X
Evaluate xi .
i=1
Solution: We have
X4
xi = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4
i=1
Example 1.4.4
4
X
Evaluate 2i .
i=1
Solution: We have
X4
2i = 21 + 22 + 23 + 24
i=1
= 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 30
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
Example 1.4.5
4
X
Evaluate 2i.
i=1
Solution: We have
4
X
2i = 2(1) + 2(2) + 2(3) + 2(4)
i=1
= 2+4+6+8
= 20
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
Theorem 1.4.1
n
X n
X
1. If c is a constant, then cxi = c xi .
i=1 i=1
n
X
2. If c is a constant, then c = nc.
i=1
3. The summation of the sum of two or more variables is the
sum of their summations. Thus,
n
X n
X n
X n
X
(xi + yi + zi ) = xi + yi + zi
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
Definition 1.4.2
The notation
m X
X n
f (ij)
i=1 j=1
is called the double summation.
Illustration:
3 X
X 4 3
X
xij = (xi2 + xi3 + xi4 )
i=1 j=2 i=1
= (x12 + x13 + x14 ) + (x22 + x23 + x24 )
+(x32 + x33 + x34 )
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
REFERENCES
Amid, Diego M.. Fundamentals of Statistics. Philippines:
Lorimar Publishing Co., Inc., 2005
Mamhot, Millard R., et.al. Statistics for General
Education (A Keypad Appraoch). Philippines:
Purelybooks Trading and Publishing Corporation, 2013
Pagoso, Cristobal M., et.al.. Fundamental Statistics for
College Students. Philippines: Sinag-Tala Publishers, 1992.
Walpole, Ronald E. Introduction to Statistics. Third
Edition. Philippines: Prentice-Hall International, 1997.
F.A.P. SILAGPO Introduction to Probability and Statistics
