University of Bahrain

College of engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
MENG 381
Semester II - 2023/2024

Characteristics of Strain Gauge

Group No: 3

STUDENT NAMES STUDENT ID Contribution

Ahmed Ebrahim Ahmed 202102368 Introduction

Procedure

Results and Discussion

References

Sayed Hasan Ali Ahmed Sharaf 202107805 Objectives

Theory
Results and Discussion

Ali Saleh Ahmed Alekri 202110020 Experimental

Measured Values with
Analytical Calculations
Conclusion
Submission Date: 19/5/2024

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 Content

Contents
Content ............................................................................................................................................ ii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. iii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ iii
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Theory: ............................................................................................................................................ 2
What do we mean by stress? .................................................................................................................... 2
What do we mean by strain? .................................................................................................................... 2
V = - (dε(trans)/ dε(axial)) ......................................................................................................................... 3
Strain Gauge: Types, Parameters and Arrangements ............................................................................... 3
Types of Strain Gauges Based on Principle of Working ........................................................................ 3
About Electrical Strain Gauges .............................................................................................................. 4
Gauge Factor: ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Effect of Temperature:.......................................................................................................................... 4
Arrangement: ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Effect of Lead-Wire: .................................................................................................................................. 6
Types of Strain Gauge Based on Construction .......................................................................................... 7
Types of Strain Gauge Based on Mounting............................................................................................... 9
Strain Gauge Selection Criteria ................................................................................................................. 9
Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Level1: Studying the Working Principle of Strain Gauge ........................................................................ 10
Level2: Effect of Change in Weight Position on Strain Gauge Performance .......................................... 10
Experimental Measured Value with Analytical Calculations ....................................................... 11
Level 1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 11
Level 2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 11
Results and Discussion: ................................................................................................................ 12
Conclusion: ................................................................................................................................... 14
References ..................................................................................................................................... 14

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List of Tables
Table 1: Output Voltage of the Strain Guage for Different Weights Applied on the Beam for Level1 .... 11
Table 2: Output Voltage of the Strain Guage for Different Positions of 10kg Weight Application on the Beam for Level2 .. 11

List of Figures
Figure 1: Strain Gauge .................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 2: Quarter Bridge Configuration ......................................................................................... 5
Figure 3: Half Bridge Configuration............................................................................................... 5
Figure 4:Full Bridge Configuration ................................................................................................ 5
Figure 5: 2 Wire & 3Wire Configuration ....................................................................................... 6
Figure 6: Semiconductor strain gauge. ........................................................................................... 8
Figure 7: Bonded strain gauge. ....................................................................................................... 9
Figure 8: Unbonded Strain Gauge .................................................................................................. 9
Figure 9: Output Voltage(mV) vs. Applied Weight (Kg) – Level1 .............................................. 12
Figure 10: Output Voltage (mV) vs. Position of the Weight on the Beam (cm) – Level2 ........... 12

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Introduction
Obtaining knowledge on the force distribution within certain load-carrying components is
necessary for designing machines and buildings. The design of equipment, such as beams, must
take into account both their load-carrying capacity and the permissible deflections. The field of
mechanics of materials offers a foundational framework for examining the qualities and properties
of a mechanical design, as well as a fundamental comprehension of the behavior of load-bearing
components. Nevertheless, theoretical analysis alone is frequently inadequate, necessitating the
need for experimental observations to attain the ultimate design.

For this experiment, strain gauges will be employed to quantify the deformation experienced by a
beam. Firstly, it is essential to have a fundamental understanding of the functioning principles of
a strain gauge.

A strain gauge utilizes the physical attribute of electrical conductance and its reliance on the
conductor's shape. When an electrical conductor is subjected to stretching within its elastic limits
without breaking or permanently deforming, it will undergo a reduction in width and an increase
in length, resulting in an overall rise in its electrical resistance. On the other hand, when a
conductor is compressed without buckling, it will expand and become shorter, resulting in a
decrease in its overall electrical resistance. The amount of produced stress can be deduced from
the measured electrical resistance of the strain gauge.

A common strain gauge organizes a long, thin conductive strip in a zig-zag pattern of parallel lines.
This does not increase the sensitivity, since the percentage change in resistance for a given strain
over the entire zigzag is the same as for any single trace. A single linear trace would have to be
exceedingly thin, hence prone to overheating (which would change its resistance and cause it to
grow) or would need to be operated at a considerably lower voltage, making it difficult to measure
resistance changes properly.

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 Figure 1: Strain Gauge

Objectives
1. Plot the characteristics of Strain gauge.
2. Understand the effect of various parameters on the strain gauge performance.

Theory:
What do we mean by stress?
Stress is the force generated inside an object in response to an applied external force. This internal
force divided by the cross-sectional area of the object is called stress, which is expressed in Pa
(Pascal) or N/m2. If the direction of the external force is vertical to the cross-sectional area, the
stress is called vertical stress.
What do we mean by strain?
When a bar is pulled, it causes change in its length by ΔL, making its new length = L (original
length) + ΔL (change in length). The ratio of this change in length ΔL, to the original length, L, is
called strain. The strain is expressed in ε (epsilon): ε = ΔL / L Strain in the same direction as the
external force is called longitudinal strain. Since strain is a ratio, it is an absolute number having

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no unit. Strain in the direction perpendicular to the external force is called lateral strain. Each
material has a certain ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain. This ratio is called Poisson's ratio.

V = - (dε(trans)/ dε(axial))
V is the resulting Poisson's ratio, ε(trans) is transverse strain (negative for axial tension
(stretching), positive for axial compression), ε(axial) is axial strain (positive for axial tension,
negative for axial compression). The value of stress is directly proportional to the strain. Thus, we
can find the stress in a material if we can find the strain initiated by external force.

Strain Gauge: Types, Parameters and Arrangements

Types of Strain Gauges Based on Principle of Working

Strain gauge transducer transforms mechanical elongation and compression into measurable value.

1. Mechanical: made up of two separate plastic layers. The bottom layer has a ruled scale on it
and the top layer has a red arrow or pointer. One layer is glued to one side of the crack and one
layer to the other. As the crack opens, the layers slide very slowly past one another, and the
pointer moves over the scale. The red crosshairs move on the scale as the crack widens. Some
mechanical strain gauges are even more crude than this. The piece of plastic or glass is stuck
across a crack and observed its nature.
2. Electrical: the most common electrical strain gauges are thin, rectangular-shaped strips of foil
with maze-like wiring patterns on them leading to a couple of electrical cables. When the
material is strained, the foil strip is very slightly bent out of shape and the maze-like wires are
either pulled apart (so their wires are stretched slightly thinner) or pushed together (so the wires
are pushed together and become slightly thicker). Changingthe width of a metal wire changes
its electrical resistance. This change in resistance is proportional to the stress applied. If the
forces involved are small, the deformation is elastic, and the strain gauge eventually returns to
its original shape.
3. Piezoelectric: some materials such as quartz crystals and various types of ceramics, are
effectively "natural" strain gauges. When pushed and pulled, they generate tiny electrical
voltages between their opposite faces. This phenomenon is called piezoelectricity. By

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 measuring the voltage from a piezoelectric sensor, we can easily calculate the strain.
Piezoelectric strain gauges are the most sensitive and reliable devices.

About Electrical Strain Gauges

A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance. It
does not depend on merely the electrical conductivity of a conductor, but also the
conductor's geometry. When an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of
its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become
narrower and longer. Similarly,when it is compressed, it will broaden and shorten. The
change in the resistance is due to variation in the length and cross-sectional area of
gauge wire.
Gauge Factor:
The characteristics of the strain gauges are described in terms of its sensitivity (gauge
factor). Gauge factor is defined as unit change in resistance per unit resistance divided
by strain.
∆𝑅
𝑅𝑔
G.F. = , where ΔR is the change in resistance caused by strain, RG is the resistance
𝜀

of the unreformed gauge, and ε is strain.

Effect of Temperature:
The resistive type of strain gauges is sensitive to temperature variation; therefore, it
becomes necessary to account for variations in strain gauge resistance due to
temperature changes. Using dummy gauge in opposite arm of the active gauge
compensates for the temperature variation.
Arrangement:
In certain applications where equal and opposite strains are known to exist it is
possible to attach similar gauges in way that one-gauge experiences positive strain and
other negative strain. Depending on the number of gauges used the bridge, the circuit
configurations are quarter bridge, half bridge, and full bridge.

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 Figure 2: Quarter Bridge Configuration

Figure 3: Half Bridge Configuration

Figure 4:Full Bridge Configuration

In Quarter Bridge, the strain gauge is connected in one arm as shown Figure 2. In half bridge
arrangement, two active gauges are used (Figure 3), while in case of full bridge all the gauges are
active (Figure 4). In this arrangement two act in tension while the other two are in compression.
With the help of this type of arrangement temperature compensation is also achieved. When
possible, the full-bridge configuration is the best to use. This is true not only because it is more

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sensitive than the others, but because it is linear while the others are not. Quarter-bridge
and half-bridge circuits provide an output (imbalance) signal that is only approximately
proportional to applied strain gauge force. Linearity, or proportionality, of these bridge circuits is
best when the amount of resistance change due to applied force is very small compared to the
nominal resistance of the gauge(s). With a full bridge, however, the output voltage is directly
proportional to appliedforce, with no approximation.

Effect of Lead-Wire:
Strain gauges are sometimes mounted at a distance from the measuring equipment. This increases
the possibility of errors due to temperature variations, lead desensitization, and lead-wire
resistance changes.

 Two wires: as shown in Figure 5, the two leads are in series with the strain-gauge
element, and any change in the lead-wire resistance (R1) will be indistinguishable from
changes in the resistance of the strain gage (Rg). The error introduced by lead-wire
resistance is a function of the resistance ratio R1/Rg. The lead error is usually not
significant if the lead-wire resistance (R1) is small in comparison to the gage resistance
(Rg), but if the lead-wire resistance exceeds 0.1% of the nominal gage resistance, this
source of error becomes significant. Therefore, in industrial applications, lead-wire
lengths should be minimized or eliminated by locating the transmitter directly at the
sensor.

Figure 5: 2 Wire & 3Wire Configuration

 Three wires: to correct for lead-wire effects, an additional, third lead can be introduced to
the top arm of the bridge, as shown in Figure 5. In this configuration, wire C acts as a sense

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 lead with no current flowing in it, and wires A and B are in opposite legs of the bridge.
This is the minimum acceptable method of wiring strain gages to a bridge to cancel at least
part of the effect of extension wire errors. Theoretically, if the lead wires to the sensor have
the same nominal resistance, the same temperature coefficient, and are maintained at the
same temperature, full compensation is obtained. In reality, wires are manufactured to a
tolerance of about 10%, and three-wire installation does not completely eliminate two-wire
errors, but it does reduce them by an order of magnitude. If further improvement is desired,
four-wire and offset-compensated installations should be considered.

Types of Strain Gauge Based on Construction

 Optical sensors: they are sensitive and accurate, but are delicate and not very popular in
industrial applications. They use interference fringes produced by optical flats to measure
strain. Optical sensors operate best under laboratory conditions. The photoelectric gauge
uses a light beam, two fine gratings, and a photocell detector to generate an electrical
current that is proportional to strain. The gage length of these devices can be as short as
1/16 inch, but they are costly and delicate.
 Semiconductor strain gauges: called piezo resistors, are used for measurements of small
strain, and are often preferred over foil gauges. Semiconductor strain gauges depend on the
piezoresistive effects of silicon or germanium and measure the change in resistance with
stress as opposed to strain. The semiconductor bonded strain gauge is a wafer with the
resistance element diffused into a substrate of silicon. The wafer element usually is not
provided with a backing and bonding it to the strained surface requires great care as only a
thin layer of epoxy is used to attach it. The size is much smaller, and the cost is much lower
than for a metallic foil sensor. The same epoxies that are used to attach foil gages are used
to bond semiconductor gages. The advantages are higher unit resistance and sensitivity
whereas, greater sensitivity to temperature variations and tendency to drift are
disadvantages in comparison to metallic foil sensors. Another disadvantage is that the
resistance-to-strain relationship is nonlinear. However, with software compensation this
can be avoided.

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 Figure 6: Semiconductor strain gauge.

 Thin-film strain gauge: these gauges eliminate the need for adhesive bonding. The gauge
is produced by first depositing an electrical insulation (typically a ceramic) onto the
stressed metal surface, and then depositing the strain gauge onto this insulation layer.
Vacuum deposition or sputtering techniques are used to bond the materials molecularly.
Because the thin-film gauge is molecularly bonded to the specimen, the installation is much
more stable, and the resistance values experience less drift. Another advantage is that the
stressed force detector can be a metallic diaphragm or beam with a deposited layer of
ceramic insulation.
 Diffused semiconductor strain gauges: a further improvement in strain gage technology as
they eliminate the need for bonding agents. By eliminating bonding agents, errors due to
creep and hysteresis are also eliminated. The diffused semiconductor strain gage uses
photolithography masking techniques and solid-state diffusion of boron to molecularly
bond the resistance elements, and electrical leads are directly attached to the pattern. The
diffused gauge is limited to moderate-temperature applications and requires temperature
compensation. However, diffused semiconductors often are used as sensing elements in
pressure transducers. They are small, inexpensive, accurate and repeatable, provide a wide
pressure range, and generate a strong output signal. Their limitations include sensitivity to
ambient temperature variations, which can be compensated for in intelligent transmitter
designs.

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Types of Strain Gauge Based on Mounting
 Bonded Strain gauge: consisting of a metallic wire, etched foil, vacuum-deposited film,
or semiconductor bar, is cemented to the strained surface.

Figure 7: Bonded strain gauge.

 Unbonded Strain Gauge: consists of a wire stretched between two points in an insulating
medium such as air. One end of the wire is fixed, and the other end is attached to a movable
element.

Figure 8: Unbonded Strain Gauge

Strain Gauge Selection Criteria

• Gauge Length and Width
• Number of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
• Arrangement of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
• Grid Resistance
• Mass and Stability
• Temperature Sensitivity and Effect of Ambient Conditions
• Carrier Material
• Availability and Low cost

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Procedure
Level1: Studying the Working Principle of Strain Gauge
1. Select the material of the strain gauge from the available drop-down menu.
2. Select the value of input voltage V in (mV) for the bridge to which strain gauge is connected.
3. Select the strain gauge resistance in ohms.
4. Select the bridge configuration. You can observe the connection diagram, by changing the
selected configuration.
5. Select the gauge factor value from the available drop-down menu.
6. Click on ‘Configure’ tab. The system is configured once the user confirms the values.
7. The weight tab gets enabled. Select the weight in (kg) to be applied to the cantilever beam. Now
the new value of Rg is displayed
8. Enter the expected output value (e) in millivolts to two decimal places and submit the answer
using “Submit” button. For calculations of output, click on formula tab.
9. If your calculation is correct, you will get the message accordingly. If not, you need to repeat
the calculations.
10. Change the value of weight and repeat the steps 7 to 10.
11. A minimum of three calculations are necessary to plot the graph. After three calculations, the
‘Plot’ tab will be activated.
12. Click on ‘Plot’ to see the graph. Study the graph of output voltage variation when weight is
changed.
13. Proceed to the next level by clicking the 'Level 2' enabled tab.

Level2: Effect of Change in Weight Position on Strain Gauge Performance

1. The configuration and selected weight remains the same. Originally, the distance between strain
gauge and the applied weight is 16 cm. You can change that distance by selecting the position of
the weight on the beam. You will observe this change in the available diagram.
2. Observe the displayed output value. Compare this value with the previous value. Refer to
‘Formula’ tab for calculations.
3. A minimum of three calculations are necessary to plot the graph. After three calculations, the
‘Plot’ tab will be activated.
4. Click on ‘Plot’ to see the graph. Study the graph of output voltage variation when position is
changed. Observe the graph carefully.

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 Experimental Measured Value with Analytical Calculations

Level 1
For this level, the following specifications were used to configure the system.
• Material: copper
• Input Voltage (V): 5V
• Resistance(Ω): 120 Ω
• Configuration: Quarter Bridge
• Gauge Factor: 0.9
Since a quarter bridge configuration is used, calculations for output voltage were performed using
the following equation:

1 𝑑𝑅
𝑒= × ×𝐸
4 𝑅

where 𝑒 is the Output Voltage in (mV), 𝑑𝑅 is the change in resistance of the strain gauge due to
the applied strain, 𝑅 is the Resistance of Strain Gauge in (Ω), and 𝐸 is the applied voltage (mV).

Table 1 shows the results of calculated output voltage for the selected weights. Below the table, 2
samples of calculation illustrate how the output voltage was computed.
Table 1: Output Voltage of the Strain Guage for Different Weights Applied on the Beam for Level1
No. Weight (kg) Initial Resistance (𝛀) New Value of Resistance (𝛀) Output Voltage (mV)
1 0.5 120 120.0136 0.14
2 5 120 120.1356 1.41
3 10 120 120.2716 2.82
1 𝜕𝑅 1 120.0136 − 120
𝑒𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡=0.5𝑘𝑔 = × ×𝐸 = × × 5 = 0.14𝑚𝑉
4 𝑅 4 120

1 𝜕𝑅 1 120.1356 − 120
𝑒𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡=5𝑘𝑔 = × ×𝐸 = × × 5 = 1.41𝑚𝑉
4 𝑅 4 120

Level 2
The same specifications were used for level 2, with an applied weight of 10kg. Table 2 shows the
output voltage as shown by the simulator for 3 different positions at which the weight of 10kg is
applied.
Table 2: Output Voltage of the Strain Guage for Different Positions of 10kg Weight Application on the Beam for Level2

Position Number Position (cm) Output Voltage (mV)

1 1 0.18
2 8 1.41
3 16 2.82

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Results and Discussion:
In level 1, the experiment is conducted with a strain gauge constructed of copper, with an input
voltage of 5V, resistance of 120Ω, configured in a quarter bridge, and a gauge factor of 0.9. The
experiment involves applying different weights and observing the change in resistance (Rg) and
output voltage. A plot of the findings of this level is shown in Figure 9.
Output Voltage (mV) 3 2.82

2.5
2
1.41
1.5
1
0.5 0.14
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Applied Weight (kg)

Figure 9: Output Voltage(mV) vs. Applied Weight (Kg) – Level1

From the experimental results, it can be noted that when the weight grows, the value of R g
(resistance of the strain gauge) similarly increases. This is because the strain (deformation) on the
strain gauge increases with the increase in stress that results from weight applications, which in
turn raises the resistance. As a consequence, the output voltage increases with resistance as
illustrated by the formula of the quarter bridge arrangement shown below.
1 𝜕𝑅
𝑒= × ×𝐸
4 𝑅

3 2.82
Output Voltage (mV)

2.5
2
1.41
1.5
1
0.5 0.18
0
0 5 10 15 20
Position of the Weight on the Beam (cm)

Figure 10: Output Voltage (mV) vs. Position of the Weight on the Beam (cm) – Level2

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In level 2, the configuration and weight from level 1 are kept the same, but the position of the
weight on the beam is modified. The original distance between the strain gauge and the applied
weight is 16 cm, and this distance was lowered in level 2 of the experiment. As the position of the
weight is pushed closer to the strain gauge, the output voltage increases. Such an action increases
the strain experienced by the gauge, which in turn increases the change in resistance (dR) and
consequently the output voltage (e).

Both levels of the experiment establish the notion that the output voltage from a strain gauge (in a
quarter bridge design) is directly connected to the strain experienced by the gauge. In level 1, the
strain is increased by raising the weight placed to the gauge, while in level 2, the strain is increased
by bringing the weight closer to the gauge. In both circumstances, an increase in strain leads to an
increase in the output voltage. These experiments provide a practical demonstration of the
fundamental concepts of strain gauges and how they may be used to measure strain through
changes in resistance and output voltage. They also highlight the importance of the gauge factor
and the arrangement of the bridge circuit in determining the sensitivity and response of the strain
gauge.

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Conclusion:

The experiment conducted on the strain gauge provides valuable insights into the principles of
strain measurement and the operation of strain gauges. In Level 1, the experiment demonstrated
that as the weight applied to the strain gauge increases, both the resistance of the strain gauge (𝑅𝑔 )
and the output voltage increase. This is because the strain on the gauge increases with the increase
in weight, which in turn increases the resistance and the output voltage. The experimental results
were found to be in good agreement with the analytical calculations, validating the formula used
for the quarter bridge configuration. In Level 2, the experiment showed that as the position of the
weight on the beam is moved closer to the strain gauge, the output voltage increases. This is
because moving the weight closer to the strain gauge increases the strain experienced by the gauge,
which in turn increases the output voltage. This further validates the principle that the output
voltage from a strain gauge is directly related to the strain experienced by the gauge. Overall, the
experiment successfully demonstrated the fundamental principles of strain gauges and their
applications in measuring strain. The experiment also emphasized the need for careful calibration
and calculation to ensure accurate strain measurement. The results from both levels of the
experiment are consistent and corroborate with each other, providing a comprehensive
understanding of the operation of strain gauges. This experiment is a practical demonstration of
the principles of strain measurement and provides a solid foundation for further studies and
applications involving strain gauges. It underscores the importance of strain gauges in various
fields, including structural engineering, materials science, and mechanical engineering, where
accurate strain measurement is important.

References
[Link]

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