DC-AC Power Converters

MARINA S. PERDIGÃO (perdigao@[Link])

Inverters: circuits that convert dc input voltage to a symmetric ac output
voltage by which both magnitude and frequency may be controlled

Basic specifications of an inverter:

 Output voltage and current regulation
 Controllability of the output frequency
 Harmonic content
Other specifications:
 Galvanic isolation
 Size and weight of the converter
 Simplicity of the control circuit: self-oscillating inverters
 Minimize switching losses: resonant inverters
Applications:
 Induction motor supply
 Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
 Grid injection, grid stability
Inverters types

VSI-Voltage fed inverter

Input DC source
CSI-Current fed inverter

Single-phase
Three-phase

Half-bridge
Power topology Full-bridge
NPC, Multi-level

Square-wave, phase-shift
Control scheme
PWM - Pulse width modulation
 Inverters (VSI)

Half-bridge inverter

Full-bridge inverter

Different PWM control

techniques:

Control of the output

magnitude and frequency
Sqare-wave inverter and the need for bidirectional switching: RL load
PWM Switch-mode Inverters

Purpose:
Control of the output
magnitude and
frequency
 Fig. 9.28

The frequency of the triangular waveforms

establishes the switching frequency of the
inverter and the frequency of the control
establishes the frequency of the output
Fig. 9.29
 PWM Switch-mode Inverters

Purpose:
Control of the output
magnitude and
frequency

Independent of
the direction of 𝒊𝒐

Both switches are never off

simultaneously
PWM Switch-mode Inverters

𝑓𝑠
Carrier frequency

𝑓1
Control frequency or modulating frequency
(desired fundamental frequency)
 PWM Switch-mode Inverters

Amplitude Modulation Ratio: Frequency Modulation Ratio:

𝑉෠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑓𝑠
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑓 =
𝑉෠𝑡𝑟𝑖 𝑓1

𝑚𝑎 ≤ 1
 PWM Switch-mode Inverters

Remarks:
 The peak amplitude of the fundamental-frequency component 𝑉෠𝐴𝑜 is 𝑚𝑎
𝑉
times 2𝑑 (see previous spectrum plot and example with 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 = 𝑘 )
 Example: Let us assume now that 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 varies very little during a
switching time period, which implies 𝑚𝑓 being very large (in practise we
are assuming 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 = 𝑘 over one switching period)
 PWM Switch-mode Inverters

Remarks:
 The peak amplitude of the fundamental-frequency component 𝑉෠𝐴𝑜 is 𝑚𝑎
𝑉
times 2𝑑 (see previous spectrum plot and example with 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 = 𝑘 )
 Example: Let us assume now that 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 varies very little during a
switching time period, which implies 𝑚𝑓 being very large (in practise we
are assuming 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 = 𝑘 over one switching period)
Remarks:
 The duration of the pulses is proportional to
the corresponding value of the sinewave at
the corresponding position. There is a
constant ratio between the width and the
height of a given pulse

 The most importante simplifying assumption

here is that if the carrier frequency signal is
very high with respect to the control signal
(𝑚𝑓 ≫ 1), then the value of the control signal
between two consecutive intersections with
the carrier signal is almost constant.
 PWM Switch-mode Inverters

Remarks:
 Assuming 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 = 𝑘 over a switching time period the equation:

shows how the “instantaneous average” values of 𝑣𝐴𝑜 (averaged over one
switching time period 𝑇𝑠 ) varies from one switching time period to the next.
This “instantaneous average” is the same as the fundamental
frequency component of 𝑣𝐴𝑜 .
 This final argument shows why 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 is chosen to be sinusoidal – to
provide a sinusoidal output voltage with fewer harmonics which is also in
phase with 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙

 Therefore in a sinusoidal PWM the amplitude of the fundamental

frequency component of the output voltage varies linearly with 𝑚𝑎
 PWM Switch-mode Inverters

Remarks:
 The harmonics in the inverter output voltage waveform appear as sidebands,
centered around the switching frequency and its multiples (around 𝑚𝑓 ) –
this general pattern is true as long as 0 ≤ 𝑚𝑎 ≤ 1
 For values of 𝑚𝑓 ≤ 9 (normally the case except for high power ratings) the
harmonic amplitudes are almost independent of 𝑚𝑓 , though 𝑚𝑓 defines the
frequencies at which they occur: 𝒇𝒉 = 𝒋𝒎𝒇 ± 𝒌 𝒇𝟏
 The harmonic order ℎ corresponds to the 𝑘𝑡ℎ sideband of 𝑗 times the
frequency modulation ratio 𝑚𝑓 : 𝒉 = 𝒋 𝒎𝒇 ± 𝒌

 For odd values of 𝑗 the

𝑓𝑠
harmonics exist only for 𝑚𝑓 =
even values of 𝑘 𝑓1
 For even values of 𝑗 the
harmonics exist only for
odd values of 𝑘
 𝑚𝑓 should be an odd
integer
PWM Switch-mode Inverters

𝑚𝑓 ≥ 9

Since

Then, the harmonic voltage

components in 𝑣𝐴𝑁 and 𝑣𝐴𝑜
are the same
 PWM Switch-mode Inverters

Small 𝒎𝒇 (𝒎𝒇 ≤ 𝟐𝟏)

 Synchronous PWM. For small values of 𝑚𝑓 the triangular waveform signal
and the control signal should be synchronized to each other. Therefore 𝑚𝑓
should be an integer. The reason for using synchronous PWM is that the
asynchronous PWM results in subharmonics (of the fundamental frequency)
 𝑚𝑓 should be an odd integer (symmetry issues and decreased number of
harmonics: with odd symmetry 𝑓(−𝑡) = −𝑓(𝑡) and half-wave symmetry 𝑇
𝑓(𝑡) = −𝑓(𝑡 + 2) only
odd harmonics are present and the cosine series are zero…)

Large 𝒎𝒇 (𝒎𝒇 ≥ 𝟐𝟏)

 For large values of 𝑚𝑓 and asynchronous PWM the amplitudes of
subharmonics are small. Therefore at large values of 𝑚𝑓 asynchronous PWM
can be used (the frequency of the triangular waveform is kept constant,
whereas the frequency of 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 varies, resulting in noninteger values of
𝑚𝑓 . (Note: If the inverter is supplying a load such as an ac motor, the subharmonics
at zero or close to zero frequency, even though small in amplitude, will result in large
currents that will be highly undesirable)
 PWM Switch-mode Inverters

Overmodulation (𝒎𝒂 > 𝟏. 𝟎)

 If 𝑚𝑎 is smaller than 1 and a sinusoidal PWM is used, the operation is in
the linear range: the amplitude of the fundamental-frequency voltage
varies linearly with 𝑚𝑎

The PWM pushes the harmonics into a high-frequency range around the
switching frequency and its multiples. In spite of this desirable feature
of a sinusoidal PWM in the linear range, one of the drawbacks is that
the maximum available amplitude of the fundamental-frequency
component is not as high as expected

 To increase further the amplitude of the fundamental-frequency

component in the output voltage, 𝑚𝑎 is increased beyond 1, resulting in
overmodulation
 PWM Switch-mode Inverters

Overmodulation (𝒎𝒂 > 𝟏. 𝟎)

 Overmodulation causes the output voltage to contain many more harmonics
in the side-bands as compared with the linear range. The harmonics with
dominant amplitudes in the linear range may not be dominant during
overmodulation
 With overmodulation, the amplitude of the fundamental-frequency
component does not vary linearly with 𝑚𝑎 . In this case, and even at
reasonably larg values of 𝑚𝑓 , the amplitudes of the harmonics depend on 𝑚𝑓

Linear mode
 PWM Switch-mode Inverters

Voltage control by varying 𝒎𝒂

 In the linear region and in the case of an
unregulated dc power supply 𝑚𝑎 can be
adjusted to provide a constant amplitude
output
 With overmodulation it is recommended that
a synchronous PWM operation is used
 For sufficiently large values of 𝑚𝑎 the
inverter voltage waveform degenerates
from a PWM waveform into a square wave
and therefore it can be concluded that in
the overmodulation region, with 𝑚𝑎 >1 :

 Therefore, the output voltage is

independent of 𝑚𝑎 in square-wave region
PWM Switch-mode Inverters
 Inverters (VSI) Half-Bridge – Square-wave Technique

Half-bridge inverter
Square-wave voltage switching scheme
 This is a special case of the sinusoidal PWM switching,
when 𝑚𝑎 becomes so large that the control waveform
intersects with the 𝑣𝑡𝑟𝑖 waveform only at the zero crossing
of 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 .
Therefore the output voltage is independent of 𝑚𝑎
 With this scheme each switch of the inverter leg is ON
for 180° (each switch changes its state only twice per
cycle, which is important at very high power levels where
the existent switches generally have slower turn-on and
turn-off speeds
 No regulation of the output voltage
 In this case ℎ harmonic order has only odd values:
Analysis considerations:
 Ideal switches (no losses)
 Equal voltage at both capacitors
 Resistive load, using a Low Pass Filter
 PWM Switch-mode Inverters

Half-bridge inverter
Square-wave voltage switching scheme
 Disadvantage: since the output voltage is
independent of 𝑚𝑎 the only way to control its value
is to adjust the dc input voltage 𝑉𝑑

Switch
ratings

𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝑑
𝐼𝑇 = 𝑖𝑜,𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘

PWM Technique
 Regardless of the switch states, the current
between the two capacitors devides equally. When
𝑇+ is on, either 𝑇+ or 𝐷+ conducts depending on the
direction of 𝑖𝑜 and 𝑖𝑜 splits equally between the two
capacitors. Similarly, when 𝑇− is on, either 𝑇− or 𝐷−
conducts depending on the direction of 𝑖𝑜 and 𝑖𝑜
splits equally between the two capacitors. Therefore
𝐶+ and 𝐶− are “effectively” connected in parallel in
the path of 𝑖𝑜 .

 Since 𝑖𝑜 must flow through the parallel combination of 𝐶+ and 𝐶− it cannot have a dc
component in steady-state, so these capacitors act as DC-blocking capacitors
 PWM Switch-mode Inverters / Full-bridge

Full-bridge inverter  Used at high power ratings. For the same 𝑉𝑑 the
maximum output voltage of the converter is twice
that of the half-bridge inverter.
For the same output power the current level is one-
half

PWM Technique with Bipolar voltage PWM Technique with Unipolar voltage
switching switching

𝑇𝐴+ and 𝑇𝐵− 𝑇𝐵+ and 𝑇𝐴−

 Inverters (VSI) Full-Bridge – Bipolar Technique

PWM Technique with Bipolar voltage switching

 The diagonally opposite switches (𝑇𝐴+ , 𝑇𝐵− ) and
(𝑇𝐴− , 𝑇𝐵+ ) are switched as pairs
 The output voltage waveform of leg A is identical
to the output of the basic one-leg inverter
 The output voltage waveform of leg B is negative
when compared to leg A

𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑
When 𝑇𝐴+ is on and 𝑉𝐴𝑜 = , 𝑇𝐵− is also on and 𝑉𝐵𝑜 = −
2 2

Therefore 𝑣𝐵𝑜 𝑡 = −𝑣𝐴𝑜 (𝑡) and

𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑣𝐴𝑜 𝑡 − 𝑣𝐵𝑜 𝑡 = 2𝑣𝐴𝑜 (𝑡)

 Linear region 𝒎𝒂 < 𝟏. 𝟎

𝑚𝑓 should be an
odd integer

 Overmodulation 𝒎𝒂 > 𝟏. 𝟎
 Inverters (VSI) Full-Bridge – Bipolar Technique

SA+ & SB-

SA- & SB+

vAB (t)

Harmonic content:
 Inverters (VSI) Full-Bridge – Unipolar Technique

PWM Technique with Unipolar voltage switching

 The switches in both legs are not switched
simultaneously. The legs are controlled
separately by comparing 𝑣𝑡𝑟𝑖 with 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 and
– 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 respectively

 Because of the feedback diodes in antiparallel

with the switches, the previous equations are
independent of the direction of the output
current 𝑖𝑜
 Inverters (VSI) Full-Bridge – Unipolar Technique

State Switches 𝒗𝐴𝑁 𝒗𝑩𝑁 𝒗𝒐

1 (TA+ , TB− ) ON 𝑉𝑑 0 𝑉𝑑

2 (TA− , TB+ ) ON 0 𝑉𝑑 −𝑉𝑑

3 (TA+ , TB+ ) ON 𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑 0

4 (TA− , TB− ) ON 0 0 0
 Inverters (VSI) Full-Bridge – Unipolar Technique

State Switches 𝒗𝐴𝑁 𝒗𝑩𝑁 𝒗𝒐

1 (𝑇𝐴+ , 𝑇𝐵− ) ON 𝑉𝑑 0 𝑉𝑑

2 (𝑇𝐴− , 𝑇𝐵+ ) ON 0 𝑉𝑑 −𝑉𝑑

3 (𝑇𝐴+ , 𝑇𝐵+ ) ON 𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑 0

4 (𝑇𝐴− , 𝑇𝐵− ) ON 0 0 0

 When both upper switches are on, the output voltage is zero. The output current circulates in a loop
through 𝑇𝐴+ , 𝐷𝐵+ or 𝐷𝐴+ , 𝑇𝐵+ depending on the direction of 𝑖𝑜 . A similar condition occurs when both
bottom switches are on. The output current circulates in a loop through 𝑇𝐴− , 𝐷𝐵− or 𝐷𝐴− , 𝑇𝐵−
 Inverters (VSI) Full-Bridge – Unipolar Technique

The voltage jumps in the

output voltage at each
switching are reduced to 𝑉𝑑
as compared to 2𝑉𝑑 in the
𝑚𝑓 should be an bipolar PWM
even integer

 The advantage of “doubling” the switching frequency appears in the harmonic spectrum of the output
voltage waveform, where the lowest harmonics appear as sidebands of twice the switching frequency

 Linear region 𝒎𝒂 < 𝟏. 𝟎 Overmodulation 𝒎𝒂 > 𝟏. 𝟎

 Inverters (VSI) Full-Bridge – Unipolar Technique

vAN (t)

vAB (t)

Harmonic content:
 Inverters (VSI) Full-Bridge – Output Control by Voltage Cancellation

Output Control by Voltage Cancellation Combination of square-wave switching and PWM with a
unipolar voltage switching

 The switches in each leg are

controlled separately (similar
to unipolar) but all switches
have a duty-ratio of 0.5,
similar to a square wave
control
 𝑣𝐴𝑁 and 𝑣𝐵𝑁 have an overlap
angle 𝛼 which can be
controlled
 During the overlap, 𝑣𝑜 is zero
as a consequence of either
both top or bottom switches
are ON
 With 𝛼 = 0, 𝑣𝑜 is a square-
wave, with the maximum
possible fundamental
amplitude
 Inverters (VSI) Full-Bridge – Output Control by Voltage Cancellation

Output Control by Voltage Cancellation

 Inverters (VSI) Modulation Techniques

Square-wave pulse switching/ Voltage cancellation/

Multiple pulse PWM (single-phase, three-phase)

 In these switching schemes the output voltage is essencialy square-wave except

for a few notches to control the fundamental amplitude – these notches are
introduced without any regard to the harmonic content in the output and therefore
some of the schemes are not employed on a regular basis

Advanced Modulation Techniques

 Improved performance techniques (low distortion, higher fundamental output

voltage

 Trapezoidal modulation
 Staircase modulation Find a ieee journal/transactions paper and
 Stepped modulation TASK describe one application where one of this
techniques is used (1 page report)
 Delta modulation [REF]
 Harmonic injection modulation

[REF] Ziogas, P.D., "The Delta Modulation Technique in Static PWM Inverters," Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on , [Link]-17, no.2, pp.199,204, March 1981
 Inverters (VSI) Modulation Techniques

Example: DELTA Modulation

PWM techniques are employed in voltage-source
inverters to produce a variable output voltage
containing the least possible harmonic distortion over
a wide frequency range.
To achieve these objectives, compromises are made in
terms of control circuit complexity, smoothness of
inverter operation, and overall system reliability. The
delta modulation (DM) technique fulfills the
aforementioned performance requirements with a
minimum of circuit complexity, smooth inverter
operation and with improved system reliability not
employed on a regular basis [REF]

The DELTA Modulation method utilizes a sine reference waveform VR and a delta shaped carrier
waveform VF. VF is allowed to oscillate within a defined window extending equally above and below the
reference wave. The minimum window width and the maximum carrier slope determines the maximum
switching frequency of the switches. Therefore when setting values for these parameters care should be
taken to allow sufficient time for switches to turn-on and turn-off. The following figure shows the PWM
signal Vs of the switches. The PWM is defined by the change in slope of the carrier wave. If the slope is
high Vs is high and vice versa.

Contribution: Affan Ahsan

[REF] Ziogas, P.D., "The Delta Modulation Technique in Static PWM Inverters," Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on , [Link]-17, no.2, pp.199,204, March 1981
 Inverters (VSI) Modulation Techniques

Harmonic elimination trough pulse control

Programmed harmonic elimination switching

𝑉
 Notches of one inverter leg, normalized plot of 𝑣𝐴𝑜 (by 𝑑 )
2
 6 notches are introduced in order to control the magnitude
of the fundamental component and eliminate fifth and seventh
harmonics
 Inverters (VSI) 3 phase inverters

Three-phase inverter

 One leg for each phase and the output of each leg 𝑣𝐴𝑁 depends only on 𝑉𝑑 and the
switch status
 The purpose of using PWM switching scheme is to shape and control the three-phase
output voltages in magnitude and frequency with an essentially constant input voltage 𝑉𝑑
 Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters

PWM To obtain a balanced three-

switching phase output voltage the
same triangular waveform
scheme for is compared with three
three-phase sinusoidal control voltages
inverter that are 120° out of phase
The normalized carrier frequency mf
𝑚𝑓 = 15 should be an odd multiple of 3
It should be noted that an
identical amount of All phase voltages (𝑣𝐴𝑁 ,
average dc component is 𝑣𝐵𝑁 , and 𝑣𝐶𝑁 ) are
present in the output identical,
voltages 𝑣𝐴𝑁 and 𝑣𝐵𝑁 but 120◦ out-of-phase
which are measured with without even harmonics;
respect to the negative dc
bus. These dc components
are canceled out un the
line-to-line voltages

The harmonics in 𝑣𝐴𝑁 are

identical to 𝑣𝐴𝑜 where only
odd harmonics exist as
sidebands centered around
𝑚𝑓 and its multiples,
provided that 𝑚𝑓 is odd
 Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Sinusoidal PWM

All phase voltages (𝑣𝑎𝑁 , 𝑣𝑏𝑁 , and

𝑣𝑐𝑁 ) are identical, but 120◦ out-of-
phase: only considering the harmonics
at 𝑚𝑓 (the same applies to its odd
multiples), the phase difference
between the 𝑚𝑓 harmonic in 𝑣𝐴𝑁 and
𝑣𝐵𝑁 is 120𝑚𝑓 °

This phase difference will be

equivalent to zero (a multiple of 360 °)
if 𝑚𝑓 is odd and a multiple of 3

As a consequence the harmonic at 𝑚𝑓

is suppressed in the line-to-line
voltage 𝑣𝑎𝑏

The same argument applies in the

suppression of harmonics at the odd
multiples of 𝑚𝑓 if 𝑚𝑓 is chosen to be
an odd multiple of 3

Thus, some of the dominant

harmonics in the one-leg inverter can
be eliminated from the line-to-line
voltage of a three-phase inverter
 Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Sinusoidal PWM

All phase voltages (𝑣𝑎𝑁 , 𝑣𝑏𝑁 , and 𝑣𝑐𝑁 )

are identical, but 120◦ out-of-phase
without even harmonics; moreover,
harmonics at frequencies a multiple of 3,
are identical in amplitude and phase in
all phases. For instance, if the ninth
harmonic in phase aN is:

The ninth harmonic in phase bN will be:

Thus, the ac output line voltage 𝑣𝑎𝑏 =

𝑣𝑎𝑁 − 𝑣𝑏𝑁 will not contain the ninth
harmonic.
Therefore, for odd multiple of 3 values of
the normalized carrier frequency 𝑚𝑓 , the
harmonics in the ac output voltage
appear at normalized frequencies 𝑓ℎ
centered around mf and its multiples,
specifically, at:

where 𝑙 = 1, 3, 5, . . . for 𝑘 =
2, 4, 6, . . . and 𝑙 = 2, 4, . . . for 𝑘 =
1, 5, 7, . . . such that ℎ is not
a multiple of 3
 Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Sinusoidal PWM

All phase voltages (𝑣𝑎𝑁 , 𝑣𝑏𝑁 , and 𝑣𝑐𝑁 )

are identical, but 120◦ out-of-phase
without even harmonics; moreover,
harmonics at frequencies a multiple of 3,
are identical in amplitude and phase in
all phases. For instance, if the ninth
harmonic in phase aN is:

The ninth harmonic in phase bN will be:

Thus, the ac output line voltage 𝑣𝑎𝑏 =

𝑣𝑎𝑁 − 𝑣𝑏𝑁 will not contain the ninth
harmonic.
Therefore, for odd multiple of 3 values of
the normalized carrier frequency 𝑚𝑓 , the
harmonics in the ac output voltage
appear at normalized frequencies 𝑓ℎ
centered around mf and its multiples,
specifically, at:

where 𝑙 = 1, 3, 5, . . . for 𝑘 =
2, 4, 6, . . . and 𝑙 = 2, 4, . . . for 𝑘 =
1, 5, 7, . . . such that ℎ is not
a multiple of 3
Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Sinusoidal PWM

 Linear region 𝒎𝒂 < 𝟏. 𝟎

Peak amplitude of the fundamental

component of one inverter leg

Line-to-line rms voltage rms at the

fundamental frequency

 Overmodulation 𝒎𝒂 > 𝟏. 𝟎
Similar to a single-phase PWM for sufficiently large values of 𝒎𝒂
the PWM degenerates into a square-wave inverter waveform
Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Load-phase voltages
 Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Square-wave operation 180
1
2 3

 Each switch conducts for 180°: three switches remain

on at any instant of time. When Q1 is on, terminal a is
connected to the positive terminal of the dc input
voltage. When Q4 is on, terminal a is brought to the
negative terminal of the dc source.
 There are six modes of operation in one cycle with a
60° duration (123,234,345,456,561,612). The gate signals
are also shifted from each other by 60° to obtain a
balanced three-phase system.
Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Square-wave operation 180
1
2 3
Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Square-wave operation 180
1
2 3
Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Square-wave operation 180
1
2 3
Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Square-wave operation 180
1
2 3
Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Square-wave operation 180
1
2 3

With resistive loads, the diodes across the transistors have no

functions. If the load is inductive, the current in each arm of
the inverter would be delayed to its voltage
Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Square-wave operation 180
 Inverters (VSI) 3-phase inverters – Square-wave operation 120
1
2 3

 Each switch conducts for 120°: only two switches

remain on at any instant of time. Conduction
sequence (61,12,23,34,45,56,61). There are also three
modes of operation: