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Communication System

Signal and Communication I

Introduction of terms
Introduction to communication

1 2

transmitter Communication Channel Communication Channel

• is a collection of electronic components and circuits
designed to convert the electrical signal to a signal suitable • The communication channel is the
for transmission over a given communication medium. medium by which the electronic signal is
• Transmitters are made up of sent from one place to another.
– oscillators,
– amplifiers, • Many different types of media are used in
– tuned circuits
– filters, communication systems, including wire
– modulators, conductors, fiber-optic cable, and free
– frequency mixers,
– frequency synthesizers,
space
– and other circuits.

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Receivers Transceivers Attenuation

• A receiver is a collection of electronic components and • Most electronic communication is two-way, and so • Signal attenuation is the degradation/weakening of signal
circuits that accepts the transmitted message from the both parties must have both a transmitter and a as it travels the medium of transmission.
channel and converts it back to a form understandable by • Attenuation is proportional to the square of the distance
humans. receiver.
between the transmitter and receiver
• Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned • As a result, most communication equipment • Media are also frequency-selective, in that a given medium
circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector that incorporates circuits that both send and receive. will act as a low-pass filter to a transmitted signal,
recovers the original intelligence signal from the modulated distorting digital pulses in addition to greatly reducing
carrier. • These units are commonly referred to as transceivers.
signal amplitude over long distances.
• The output is the original signal, which is then read out or • All the transmitter and receiver circuits are packaged • Thus considerable signal amplification, in both the
displayed. It may be a voice signal sent to a speaker, a video within a single housing and usually share some transmitter and the receiver, is required for successful
signal that is fed to an LCD screen for display, or binary data common circuits such as the power supply. transmission.
that is received by a computer and then printed out or • Any medium also slows signal propagation to a speed
displayed on a video monitor. • Telephones, handheld radios, cellular telephones, and
computer modems are examples of transceivers slower than the speed of light.

Comparison of communication system

Classification based on Direction of Baseband Communication
Communication
• Putting the original voice, video, or digital signals
Depending on direction used for communication, directly into the medium is referred to as
the communication system is classified as: baseband transmission.
• For example, in many telephone and intercom
systems, it is the voice itself that is placed on the
wires and transmitted over some distance to the
receiver.
• In most computer networks, the digital signals
are applied directly to coaxial or twisted-pair
cables for transmission to another computer

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Baseband Communication Multiplexing

Multiplexing
• In many instances, baseband signals are • The process of allowing more than one signals • Multiplexing is the process of combining
incompatible with the medium. Although it is to share the same medium or channel multiple signals into one signal, over a shared
theoretically possible to transmit voice signals
directly by radio, realistically it is impractical. • A multiplexer converts the individual medium.
• As a result, the baseband information signal, be it baseband signals to a composite signal that is • If the analog signals are multiplexed, then it is
audio, video, or data, is normally used to used to modulate a carrier in the transmitter. called as analog multiplexing.
modulate a high-frequency signal called a carrier. • At the receiver, the composite signal is • Similarly, if the digital signals are multiplexed,
• The higher- frequency carriers radiate into space recovered at the demodulator, then sent to a then it is called as digital multiplexing.
more efficiently than the baseband signals
de-multiplexer where the individual baseband
themselves.
signals are regenerated

• The process of multiplexing divides a

communication channel into several number of
Types of Multiplexers
logical channels, allotting each one for a different
message signal or a data stream to be transferred.
• The device that does multiplexing can be called
as Multiplexer or MUX.
• The reverse process, i.e., extracting the number of
channels from one, which is done at the receiver is
called as de-multiplexing.
• The device that does de-multiplexing can be called
as de-multiplexer or DEMUX.

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Analog Multiplexing Wavelength Division Multiplexing Wavelength-division multiplexing

• The signals used in analog multiplexing techniques • Wavelength Division multiplexing (WDM) is an analog
are analog in nature. technique, in which many data streams of different • In optical networking, wavelength division
• The analog signals are multiplexed according to wavelengths are transmitted in the light spectrum. multiplexing (WDM) is equivalent to
their frequency (FDM) or wavelength (WDM). frequency-division multiplexing for optical
• If the wavelength increases, the frequency of the signal
Frequency Division Multiplexing signal.
decreases.
• In analog multiplexing, the most used technique is
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). • A prism, which can turn different wavelengths into a single
• This technique uses various frequencies to line, can be used at the output of MUX and input of
combine streams of data, for sending them on a DEMUX.
communication medium, as a single signal.

Synchronous TDM Asynchronous TDM

• In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is

Digital Multiplexing • In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a
• The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. frame. If there are ‘n’ number of connections, then different for each of the signals and a common
Hence, the available data is in the form of frames or clock is not required.
packets, which are discrete. the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is
Time Division Multiplexing allocated for each input line. • If the allotted device for a time slot transmits
• In Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), the time frame is
divided into slots. This technique is used to transmit a • In this technique, the sampling rate is common for nothing and sits idle, then that slot can be allotted
signal over a single communication channel, by allotting to another device,
one slot for each message. all signals and hence the same clock input is given.
• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) can be classified into The MUX allocates the same slot to each device at • Unlike synchronous This type of TDM is used in
Synchronous TDM and Asynchronous TDM.
all times. Asynchronous transfer mode networks.

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De-Multiplexer Duplexing
• De-multiplexers are used to connect a single • De-multiplexers are used as serial to parallel converters.
• For voice or data communications, must
source to multiple destinations. • The serial data is given as input to DEMUX at regular assure two way communication (duplexing, it
• This process is the reverse process of multiplexing. interval and a counter is attached to it to control the is possible to talk and listen simultaneously).
• As mentioned previously, it is used mostly at the output of the de-multiplexer. Duplexing may be done using frequency or
receivers. • Both the multiplexers and de-multiplexers play an
time domain techniques.
– Forward (downlink) band provides traffic from the
• DEMUX has many applications. It is used in:- important role in communication systems, both at the
BS to the mobile
 receivers in the communication systems. It is used in transmitter and the receiver sections.
 arithmetic and logical unit in computers to supply power and to
– Reverse (uplink) band provides traffic from the
pass on communication, etc. mobile to the BS.

Frequency Division Multiple Access Forward and Reverse channels in

(FDMA) Basic Structure of FDMA
FDMA and Guard Band
Orthogonality conditions of two signals in FDMA: f1’ f2’ fn’ f1 f2 fn
1 i j f1’
F si ( f , t ) s j ( f , t )df 0 i  j , i, j  1, 2,..., k MS #1
f1 … …

f2’
f2 Protecting
MS #2 bandwidth
User n Reverse channels Forward channels
Frequency

…
…

… Guard Band Sub Band

…

User 2 fn’ Wg Wc
fn
User 1 MS #n …
Time 1 2 3 4 N
Reverse channels Forward channels BS Frequency
• Single channel per carrier (Uplink) (Downlink) Total Bandwidth W = NWc
• All first generation systems use FDMA
34 35 36

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Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) The Concept of TDMA TDMA: Channel Structure
Orthogonality conditions of two signals in TDMA: f
Frequency f ’ Slot Frequency f Frame Frame Frame
1 i j
 s ( f , t ) s ( f , t )dt   0 , i, j  1,2,..., k … … … … … …

#1

#1
i j

#1
i j … … …

#n

#n

#n
#1
#2

#1
#2
#1
#2
#1
t
T MS #1 t t
… … … … … …

#2
#2

#2
#2
MS #2 t t (a) Forward channel
Frequency

f’
User n
User 1

User 2

…
… … … … … …
…

#n
Frame Frame Frame

#n
#n

#n
MS #n t t
… … …

#n

#n

#n
#2
#1
#2

#1
#1
#2
Frame Frame t
Time Frame Frame BS
(b) Reverse channel
• Multiple channels per carrier Reverse channels Forward channels
(Uplink) (Downlink) Channels in TDMA/FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing )
• Most of second generation systems use TDMA
37 38 39

Forward and Reverse Channels Code Division Multiple Access

Frame Structure of TDMA (CDMA)
in TDMA
Orthogonality conditions of two signals in CDMA:
Frequency Frame Frame 1 i j
f=f’ Frame Frame Frame
 s (t ) s (t )dt   , i, j  1,2,..., k
Frequency

0 i j
i j
C

… … …
#1

#1
#n

#n

#n
#1
#2

#2
#2

… … … … Time
Frequency
#n
#n

#n

#n
#2

#1
#1

#2

#2
#1
#2

#1

User 1
User 2
User n
Reverse Forward Time .. .
Forward Reverse
channel channel Time
channel channel
Head Data
Guard
time Code
Channels in TDMA/TDD
• Users share bandwidth by using code sequences that are orthogonal to each other
• Some second generation systems use CDMA
40 41 •42Most of third generation systems use CDMA

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CDMA Encode/Decode CDMA: Two-Sender Interference Structure of a CDMA System

Channel output Zi,m Frequency f ’ Frequency f
Zi,m= di.cm
d0 = 1
Data 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 MS #1 C1’ C1
d1 = -1
bits -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
slot 1 slot 0 MS #2 C2’ C2
Code Channel Channel

…
…
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
output output

…
Sender Slot 1 Slot 0

Cn’ Cn
MS #n

BS
di = Zi,m.cm Reverse channels Forward channels
Received 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
d0 = 1 (Uplink) (Downlink)
input -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
d1 = -1

Slot 1 Slot 0
Receiver Code 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
channel channel Ci’ x Cj’ = 0, i.e., Ci’ and Cj’ are orthogonal codes,
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
output output Ci x Cj = 0, i.e., Ci and Cj are orthogonal codes
Slot 1 Slot 0 44 45
43

Time Division Multiplexing TDM Code-division multiplexing The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• In code-division multiplexing, the signals to be • The electromagnetic waves vary sinusoidally.
transmitted are converted to digital data that is Their frequency is measured in cycles per
then uniquely coded with a faster binary code. second (cps) or hertz (Hz).
• The signals modulate a carrier on the same • The range of electromagnetic signals
frequency. encompassing all frequencies is referred to as
• All use the same communications channel the electromagnetic spectrum
simultaneously.
• These oscillations may occur at a very low
• The unique coding is used at the receiver to frequency or at an extremely high frequency
select the desired signal

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Electromagnetic Spectrum The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Concept of Transmission Bandwidth
The frequency of EM signal ranges from few Hertz to
104 102 100 10-2 10-4 10-6 10-8 10-10 10-12 10-14 10-16 several GHz. This entire range of frequencies of EM waves is
Transmission bandwidth is that portion of the
called Electro-magnetic spectrum.
electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal.
Radio Micro Cosmic
Spectrum wave
IR UV X-Rays
Rays Transmission bandwidth is also the frequency
range over which an information signal is
104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 1024 transmitted or over which a receiver or other
1MHz ==100m
electronic circuit operates.
100MHz ==1m
10GHz ==1cm
Visible light < 30 KHz VLF
30-300KHz LF
300KHz – 3MHz MF
3 MHz – 30MHz HF
30MHz – 300MHz VHF
300 MHz – 3GHz UHF
3-30GHz SHF
> 30 GHz EHF

51

B/W Continued….
Negative Frequency
• Operational meaning of “negative frequency”
in spectrum
– If time-domain signal is real-valued, the negative
frequency spectrum is simply a mirror of the
positive frequency spectrum.
– We may then define a one-sided spectrum as
Sone -sided ( f )  2 S ( f ) for f  0.
– Hence, if only real-valued signal is considered, it is
unnecessary to introduce “negative frequency.”

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Negative Frequency Negative Frequency Negative Frequency

– So the introduction of negative frequency part is – As a result, the following two spectrums contain • Summary
due to the need of imaginary signal part. the same frequency components but different – Complex-valued baseband signal consists of
– Signal phase information is embedded in phases (90 degree shift in complex plane). information of amplitude and phase; while real-
imaginary signal part of the signal.  ( f  fc )  ( f - fc ) valued baseband signal only contains amplitude
2 cos( 2f c t ) information.
mQ(t)
- fc fc – One-sided spectrum only bears amplitude
phase
information, while two-sided spectrum (with
mI(t)  ( f - fc )
-  ( f  fc )
negative frequency part) carries also phase
2 j sin( 2f c t )
information.
- fc fc

A sampling signal is a periodic train of

Sampling pulses, having unit amplitude, sampled
at equal intervals of time Ts, which is
called as sampling time. This data is
• The process of converting continuous time signals into equivalent transmitted at the time instants Ts
discrete time signals, can be termed as Sampling. and the carrier signal is transmitted at
the remaining time.
Sampling • A certain instant of data is continually sampled in the sampling
process.
• The following figure shows a continuous-time signal x(t) and the
Sampling Rate
corresponding sampled signal xs(t). To discretize the signals, the gap
between the samples should be fixed.
• When x(t) is multiplied by a periodic impulse train, the sampled That gap can be termed as the
signal xs(t) is obtained. sampling period Ts.
Reciprocal of the sampling period is
known as sampling frequency or
sampling rate fs

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Sampling Theorem • If the sampling rate is equal to twice the maximum

• The sampling rate should be such that the data in the frequency of the given signal W, then it is called as Nyquist
message signal should neither be lost nor it should get over- rate.
lapped.
• The sampling theorem states that, “a signal can be exactly • The sampling theorem, which is also called as Nyquist
reproduced if it is sampled at the rate fs which is greater than theorem, delivers the theory of sufficient sample rate in
or equal to twice the maximum frequency of the given signal
W.” terms of bandwidth for the class of functions that are
bandlimited.

• If the signal is sampled above Nyquist rate, then the

original signal can be recovered.

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• We can observe from the above pattern that there is over-

If the sampling rate is equal to twice Signal Sampling
lapping of information, which leads to mixing up and loss of
the highest frequency of the given
information.
signal W, then the sampled signal • Sampling is converting a continuous time
• This unwanted phenomenon of over-lapping is called would look like the following figure. signal into a discrete time signal
as Aliasing. • Categories:
• Aliasing can be referred to as “the phenomenon of a high- – Impulse (ideal) sampling
frequency component in the spectrum of a signal, taking on – Natural Sampling
the identity of a low-frequency component in the spectrum – Sample and Hold operation
of its sampled version.”

• Hence, the sampling rate of the signal is chosen to be as

Nyquist rate.

Impulse Sampling Impulse Sampling The Aliasing Effect

• Impulse train spaced at Ts multiplies the signal
fs > 2fm
x(t) in time domain, creating
– discrete time,
– continuous amplitude signal xs(t)

• Impulse train spaced at fs convolutes the signal

X(f) in frequency domain, creating fs < 2fm
– Repeating spectrum Xs(f)
Aliasing happens
– spaced at fs

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Aliasing Ideal Sampling and Aliasing Natural Sampling

Under sampling will result in

• Sampled signal is discrete in time domain with
aliasing that will create spectral overlap spacing Ts
• Spectrum will repeat for every fs Hz
• Aliasing (spectral overlapping) if fs is too small
(fs < 2fm)
• Nyquist sampling rate fs = 2fm
• Generally oversampling is done  fs > 2fm

Natural Sampling Different Sampling Models SAMPLING x(t)

• Sampling pulse train has a finite width τ • SAMPLING PROCESS
• Convert x(t) to numbers x[n]
• Sampled spectrum will repeat itself with a • “n” is an integer; x[n] is a sequence of values
‘Sinc’ envelope • Think of “n” as the storage address in memory
• UNIFORM SAMPLING at t = nTs
• More realistic modeling • IDEAL: x[n] = x(nTs)

x(t) x[n]
• Distortion after recovery depends on τ/Ts C-to-D

80

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f  100Hz

SAMPLING RATE, fs Reconstruction? Which One?

• SAMPLING RATE (fs) Given the samples, draw a sinusoid through the values
fs =1/Ts
f s  2 kHz
• NUMBER of SAMPLES PER SECOND
Ts = 125 microsec  fs = 8000 samples/sec
– UNITS ARE HERTZ: 8000 Hz
• UNIFORM SAMPLING at t = nTs = n/fs
IDEAL: x[n] = x(nTs)=x(n/fs)
f s  500Hz
x(t)
C-to-D
x[n]=x(nTs) x[n ]  cos(0.4 n ) When n is an integer
cos(0.4 n)  cos(2.4 n)
81 82 83

DISCRETE-TIME SINUSOID DIGITAL FREQUENCY ̂ SPECTRUM (DIGITAL)

• Change x(t) into x[n] DERIVATION • ̂

VARIES from 0 to 2, as f varies from 0 to f 1 * 1

the sampling frequency ˆ  2 2 X 2 X

x(t )  A cos( t   ) fs
• UNITS are radians, not rad/sec
x[n]  x(nTs )  A cos( nTs   ) – DIGITAL FREQUENCY is NORMALIZED f s  1 kHz –0.2 2(0.1) 
ˆ
x[n ]  A cos(2 (100)(n / 1000)   )
x[n ]  A cos((Ts )n   )
2f
x[n ]  A cos(ˆ n   ) ˆ  Ts 
fs
ˆ   Ts  f DEFINE DIGITAL FREQUENCY
s
84 85 86

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SPECTRUM (DIGITAL) Aliasing ALIASING DERIVATION


ˆ  2
f 1
2 X
*
? 1
2 X • Spectrum of x[n] has more than one line for • Other Frequencies give the same 
ˆ
fs each complex exponential
x1 (t )  cos(400 t ) sampled at f s  1000Hz
– Called ALIASING
f s  100Hz –2 2(1) 
ˆ x1[n]  cos(400 1000
n
)  cos(0.4 n)
– MANY SPECTRAL LINES
x[n ]  A cos(2 (100)(n / 100)   ) x2 (t )  cos(2400 t ) sampled at f s  1000Hz
• SPECTRUM is PERIODIC with period = 2 x2 [n]  cos(2400 1000
n
)  cos(2.4 n)
– Because
x2 [n]  cos(2.4 n)  cos(0.4 n  2 n)  cos(0.4 n)
A cos(
ˆ n   )  A cos((
ˆ  2 )n   )  x2 [n]  x1[n] 2400 - 400  2 (1000)
87 88 89
x[n] is zero frequency???

ALIASING DERIVATION ALIASING CONCLUSIONS NORMALIZED FREQUENCY

• Other Frequencies give the same 

ˆ • ADDING fs or 2fs or –fs to the FREQ of x(t) gives • DIGITAL FREQUENCY
exactly the same x[n]
If x(t)  A cos(2( f  f s )t   ) t
n
– The samples, x[n] = x(n/ fs ) are EXACTLY THE
2f
fs
SAME VALUES
and we want : x[n]  Acos(
ˆ n  ) ˆ  Ts   2
2 ( f  f s ) 2 f 2 f s fs
• GIVEN x[n], WE CAN’T DISTINGUISH fo FROM
then : ˆ   
fs fs fs (fo + fs ) or (fo + 2fs )

2 f
ˆ  Ts   2 
90 fs 91 92

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SPECTRUM for x[n] SPECTRUM (MORE LINES) SPECTRUM (ALIASING CASE)

*
• PLOT versus NORMALIZED FREQUENCY f 1
X 1
X
* 1
X 1
X
* 1
X 1
X 1
X
* 1
X 1
X
* 1
X
ˆ  2 2 2 2 2
ˆ  2
f 2 2 2 2 2 2

fs fs
• INCLUDE ALL SPECTRUM LINES
– ALIASES –1.8 –0.2

ˆ
–2.5 –1.5 –0.5

ˆ
f s  1 kHz 2(0.1) 1.8
f s  80 kHz
0.5 1.5 2.5
• ADD MULTIPLES of 2 x[n ]  A cos(2 (100)(n / 80)   )
x[n ]  A cos(2 (100)(n / 1000)   )
• SUBTRACT MULTIPLES of 2
– FOLDED ALIASES
• ALIASES of NEGATIVE FREQS

93 94 95

SAMPLING GUI (con2dis) SPECTRUM (FOLDING CASE) FOLDING DERIVATION


ˆ  2
f 1
2 X
* 1
2 X 1
X
* 1
2 X • Negative Freqs can give the same 
ˆ
x(t)  Acos(2(- f  f s )t -  )
2

fs

–1.6 –0.4

ˆ
x[n]  x(nTs )  A cos(2(- f  f s )nTs -  )
f s  125Hz 0.4 1.6
x[n ]  A cos(2 (100)(n / 125)   ) x[n]  A cos((-2 fTs )n  (2 f sTs )n -  )
x[n]  A cos((2 f Ts )n - 2 n   )
x[n]  A cos(
ˆ n  )
SAME DIGITAL SIGNAL

96 97 98

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FOLDING (a type of ALIASING)

DIGITAL FREQ 
ˆ AGAIN
• MANY x(t) give IDENTICAL x[n]
• CAN’T TELL fo FROM (fs-fo)
– Or, (2fs-fo ) or, (3fs-fo ) 2 f Pulse Modulation
• EXAMPLE: 
ˆ  Ts  2 ALIASING

– y(t) has 1000 Hz component fs

– SAMPLING FREQ = 1500 Hz
2 f
– WHAT is the “FOLDED” ALIAS ? 
ˆ   Ts  -  2 FOLDED ALIAS
fs
-1000 1500 500
99 100

The following figures explain the Pulse Amplitude Modulation.

Pulse Modulation

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The following figures explain the Pulse Position Modulation.

• Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) is an analog modulation
scheme in which, the amplitude and the width of the
pulses are kept constant, while the position of each pulse,
with reference to the position of a reference pulse varies
according to the instantaneous sampled value of the
message signal.
• The transmitter has to send synchronizing pulses (or simply
sync pulses) to keep the transmitter and the receiver in
sync. These sync pulses help to maintain the position of the
pulses.

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Comparison between PAM, PWM, and PPM

The following table presents the comparison between three modulation techniques.

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