MATHEMATICS

GRADE 10

POLYNOMIALS

DEFINITION OF A POLYNOMIAL
 IN THIS UNIT WE WILL
Find out definition of a polynomial, degree of a polynomial, coefficients of a
polynomial,the constant term of a polynomial, constant polynomial, zero
polynomial, zeros of a polynomial, factorisation of polynomials, rational
expressions.

Explore methods to factorise polynomial functions.

Take action by graphing polynomial functions, finding the zeros of the

functions(x-intercepts of the graphs) and generalising a way to find the zeros
of a given function.
 POLYNOMIAL
A polynomial function is a function of the form
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 +…….+𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 1 +𝑎0
where 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … . . 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are constants, 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0

We say that: x is the variable

a0 is the constant term
an is the leading coefficient and is non-zero
ar is the coefficient of xr for r= 0, 1, 2, ….., n
n is the degree of the polynomial, being the highest power of
the variable.
The low degree members of the polynomial family have special names

Polynomial Function Degree Name

ax+b, a≠0 1 Linear
ax2+bx+c, a≠0 2 Quadratic
ax3+bx2+cx+d, a≠0 3 Cubic
ax4+bx3+cx2+dx, a≠0 4 Quartic
Example: Which one of the following is a polynomial?
Write down the degree, the leading term, the coefficients and the constant term
of the polynomial.
degree:
𝑎. 𝑃1 𝑥 = 𝑥6 − 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 −1 +1

b. 𝑃2 𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 +5 leading term:
3
c.𝑃3 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 5
the coefficients:
1
d. 𝑃4 𝑥 = 3𝑥 4 − 𝑥 +7
2 the constant term:
3
e. 𝑃5 𝑥 = 5𝑥 10 − −1 leading coefficient:
𝑥2
 Example: Write down the degree, the leading term, the coefficients of the
cubic and the linear terms, and the constant term of the given polynomial.

3 2 𝑥
P 𝑥 = 2𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 7 + 5𝑥 4 + 𝑥 − +8
2 5
degree of P(x) is deg[P(x)]= 7
the leading term:
the constant term: 8
the coefficient of cubic term:
the coefficient of linear term:
 Example:Which ones of the following are polynomials? Write down the degree, the
leading term, the coefficients and the constant term of the polynomial.
Not a Polynomial Degree Leading Coefficients Constant
Polynomial Term term

a. 𝑃1 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 1

1
b. 𝑃2 𝑥 = 2𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 + x +
2

c. 𝑃3 𝑥 = 10

1 3 𝑥
d. 𝑃4 𝑥 = 𝑥 − −2
3 2

3
e. 𝑃5 𝑥 = 𝑥 6 + +𝑥
𝑥3

f. 𝑃6 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1
 7
Example: 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥6 − 𝑥 𝑚−2 + 𝑥 𝑚−4 + 𝑥 is a polynomial. Find the value of m?
Example: If 𝑃 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 8−𝑛 − 4𝑥 𝑛+2 + 5𝑥 is a polynomial then what can
you conclude for the value of n?
Example: 𝑃 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 + 5 is given. Find P(x-1).
Example: 𝑃 2𝑥 − 3 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5 is given. Find P(1).
 REFERENCES
• Martin, David, et al. Mathematics for the International Student Mathematics HL Core Third Edition. Adelaide: Haese
Mathematics, 2012.

• Aydın, Nesibe, Ahmet Camus and Mutlu Kaya. Ortaöğretim Matematik 10 Ders Kitabı. Ankara: Aydın Yayıncılık,
2018.
 CONSTANT POLYNOMIAL
If P(x) = c where c R and c ≠ 0 then P(x) is called a constant polynomial.

Example : If 𝑃 𝑥 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑥 4 + 𝑏 − 4 𝑥 + 𝑎 + 2𝑏 is a constant polynomial then

find P(50).
Example: If 𝑃 𝑥 = (𝑎 + 2)𝑥 3 −2𝑏𝑥 + 3 is a constant polynomial then find a-b.
 ZERO POLYNOMIAL
If P(x) = 0 then P(x) is called a zero polynomial. There is no degree for this
polynomial.
Example : If 𝑃 𝑥 = (𝑚 − 2)𝑥 2 + 𝑛 + 3 𝑥 + 𝑘 − 4 is a zero polynomial then find
n+m+k.
Example : Find the degrees of the following polynomials.

a.𝑃1 𝑥 = −1 c.𝑃3 𝑥 = 0

b.𝑃2 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑. 𝑃4 𝑥 = 5

Note: The degree of the zero polynomial cannot be determined.

 EQUALITY OF POLYNOMIALS
For

P 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
and

Q 𝑥 = 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑥 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏0

P 𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑛 = 𝑚 and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚 , 𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑏𝑚−1 ,…, , 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 , 𝑎0 = 𝑏0

 3 4
Example : Are the polynomials P 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 + 3 2𝑥 − 1 and
4
3
Q 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 3 2𝑥 2 − 1 equal?
4
Example : The polynomials P 𝑥 = 2𝑎 − 1 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑚 − 5 and

Q 𝑥 = 5𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑝 + 1 𝑥 2 − 1 are given. If P(x)=Q(x) then find a 𝑎 ≠ 1 , m, n, p?

2
Example : The polynomials P 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 2 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 − 𝑏 − 2 and

Q 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑚 − 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑥 − 3 are given. If P(x)=Q(x) then find

𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 − 𝑚 ∙ 𝑛.
 REFERENCES

• Martin, David, et al. Mathematics for the International Student Mathematics HL Core Third Edition. Adelaide: Haese
Mathematics, 2012.

• Aydın, Nesibe, Ahmet Camus and Mutlu Kaya. Ortaöğretim Matematik 10 Ders Kitabı. Ankara: Aydın Yayıncılık,
2018.
 Finding the Constant Term and
the Sum of the Coefficients of Polynomials
P 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
The constant term of the polynomial is
P 0 = 𝑎𝑛 ∙ 0 + 𝑎𝑛−1 ∙ 0 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 ∙ 0 + 𝑎1 ∙ 0 + 𝑎0 ⟹ 𝑝 0 = 0
The sum of the coefficients is

P 1 = 𝑎𝑛 ∙ 1 + 𝑎𝑛−1 ∙ 1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 ∙ 1 + 𝑎1 ∙ 1 + 𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 + 𝑎1 + 𝑎0
Example : P 𝑥 = 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 are given. Find the constant term and the sum
of the coefficients of P(x).
Example : Given the constant term of the polynomial P(x) is 1 and
P 𝑥 + 1 = 3𝑥 6 − 2𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 + 𝑎 then find P(2).
Example : The polynomial P 𝑥 = 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 is given.

a) Find the sum of the coefficients of the terms with even degrees.

𝑃 1 + 𝑃(−1)
2

b) Find the sum of the coefficients of the terms with odd degrees.

𝑃 1 − 𝑃(−1)
2
Example : The polynomial P 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2 3
+ 2 is given.

a. Find the sum of the coefficients of the odd terms of the polynomial.

b. Find the sum of the coefficients of the even terms of the polynomial.
Example : P 𝑥 + 1 = 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 −5x−2 is given. Find the sum of the
coefficients of the polynomial P 𝑥 − 3 .
 REFERENCES

• Aydın, Nesibe, Ahmet Camus and Mutlu Kaya. Ortaöğretim Matematik 10 Ders Kitabı. Ankara: Aydın Yayıncılık,
2018.
MATHEMATICS
GRADE 10

POLYNOMIALS

OPERATIONS ON POLYNOMIALS
OPERATIONS ON POLYNOMIALS
Example : Find P(x) + Q(x) if

a.P 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 2
Q 𝑥 = 3𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3
 2𝑥 2 𝑥
b.P 𝑥 = 3𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 3 + + +4
3 2
2 4 𝑥2
Q 𝑥 = −𝑥 5 + 3
𝑥 +𝑥 + −𝑥 +2
3 3
Example : Find P(x) - Q(x) if

a.P 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 + 5
Q 𝑥 = 4𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 2
b.P 𝑥 = 2 3𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2
4
1 3 2 2
Q 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 3
2 3
Note: If the degree of a polynomial is n then it is shown as deg[P(x)] = n.

Example: Find the degrees of the polynomials P(x) + Q(x) and P(x) - Q(x) if
P 𝑥 = 6𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 and Q 𝑥 = −𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 + 5.
Example: The polynomials P 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 1 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 3 and
Q 𝑥 = 𝑏 + 2 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 1 are given. Find a+b if the degrees of the polynomials
P(x) + Q(x) and P(x) - Q(x) are 2.
Example: P(x) is a polynomial. If P(x+1) + P(x-1)= 4x - 6 then find P(x).
Example: P(x) is a polynomial. If P(x+3) + P(x-2)=2x+3 then find P(x).
Scalar Multiplication:
To multiply a polynomial by a scalar (constant) we multiply each
term by the scalar.

Example: P 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 + 7.
Find

a.3𝑃 𝑥

b. −2P 𝑥
Example: P 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 and Q 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 1.
Find 𝑃 𝑥 ∙ 𝑄(𝑥). What is the degree of the product polynomial.

Note: If deg[P(x)]= m and deg[Q(x)]= n then deg[P(x)·Q(x)]=m + n.

Example: P 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 and Q 𝑥 = −𝑥 4 − 𝑥 + 1.
Find 𝑃 𝑥 ∙ 𝑄(𝑥). What is the degree of the product polynomial.
Example: P 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 + 9 and Q 𝑥 = −2𝑥 6 − 5𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 are
given.
Find the following.
a) deg [P(x) + Q(x)]

b) deg [P(x) - Q(x)]

c) deg [P(x)∙Q(x)]
Polynomial Multiplication:

Example: P 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 4 and Q 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5 are given. Find P(x)∙Q(x)].

Division Of Polynomials:
1) deg [P(x)] ≥ deg [D(x)]

2) for D(x)≠0,deg [R(x)] < deg [D(x)]

P(x) D(x)
- Q(x)
R(x) 3) P(x) = D(x)·Q(x)+R(x)

4) If R(x) = 0 then P(x) is divisible by D(x).

Example: Divide 𝑃 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 by 𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1.
Example: Divide 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 by 𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1.
Example: Divide 𝑃 𝑥 = 6𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 by 𝑇 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 2 and write down
its degree.

Note:

𝑃(𝑥)
𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = n ∙ deg 𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑔 = deg 𝑃 𝑥 − deg[𝑄 𝑥 ]
𝑄(𝑥)
Example: Divide 𝑃 𝑥 = 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 1 by 𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 3 and write down its
degree.
Example: When a polynomial P(x) is divided by 2𝑥 + 2 the quotient is
𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 and the remainder is 1. Find P(x).
Example: For the polynomials P(x) and Q(x) deg 𝑃2 𝑥 ∙ 𝑄 𝑥 = 5 and
𝑃(𝑥)
deg = 1. Find deg 𝑃 𝑥 .
𝑄(𝑥)
 𝑝(𝑥)∙𝑞(𝑥 2 )
Example: Find the degree of the polynomial 𝑟 𝑥 = if deg 𝑝(𝑥) = 4,
𝑝 𝑥 +𝑞(𝑥)
deg 𝑞(𝑥) = 3 .
 𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 −3𝑥−5
Example: Find the quotient and remainder for . Hence write
𝑥−3
𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 5 in the form Q(x)×(x-3)+R .
 𝑥 4 +2𝑥 2 −1
Example: Perform the division . Hence write 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1 in the form
𝑥+3
Q(x)×(x+3)+R .
Example: Perform the following divisions and hence write the division in the form
P(x)=Q(x)D(x) +R .

𝑥 2 −3𝑥+6
a.
𝑥−4

𝑥 2 +4𝑥−11
b.
𝑥+3
 2𝑥 2 −7𝑥+2
c.
𝑥−2

2𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2
d.
2𝑥+1
Example: Carry out the following divisions and also write each in the form
P(x)=Q(x)D(x) +R(x) .

𝑥 2 −𝑥+1
a.
𝑥 2 +𝑥+1

𝑥3
b.
𝑥 2 +2

𝑥 4 +3𝑥 2 +𝑥−1
c.
𝑥 2 −𝑥+1
Example:Suppose 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 + 7. Find the quotient and
remainder when P(x) is divided by 𝑥 − 2.
Example:Suppose f 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5 + 15 − 10𝑥. Find the
quotient and remainder when f(x) is divided by 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2.
 REFERENCES

• Martin, David, et al. Mathematics for the International Student Mathematics HL Core Third Edition. Adelaide: Haese
Mathematics, 2012.

• Aydın, Nesibe, Ahmet Camus and Mutlu Kaya. Ortaöğretim Matematik 10 Ders Kitabı. Ankara: Aydın Yayıncılık, 2018.

• “Graphing Calculator.” Desmos, [Link]/calculator.

 Zeros, Roots and Factors
A zero of a polynomial is a value of the variable which makes the polynomial equal
to zero.
 is a zero of polynomial P(x)  P() = 0.

The roots of a polynomial equation are the solutions to the equation.

 is a root (or solution) of P(x) = 0  P() = 0.

The roots of P() = 0 are the zeros of P(x) and the intercepts of the graph y=P(x).
Consider P(x) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 10
P(2) = 23 + 2(2)2 −3(2) − 10
= 8 +8 – 6 – 10
=0

This tells us P 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 10
• 2 is a zero of 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 10
• 2 is a root of 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 10 = 0
• The graph of y = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 10 has the x-intercept 2.
Example:Find the zeros of

a. 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 12

b. 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 10
Example:Find the roots of

a. 5𝑥 2 = 3𝑥 + 2

b. 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 2 + 3 = 0
If P(x) = 𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2 , then (x+1), (2x-1), and (x+2) are its linear factors.
Likewise P(x) = 𝑥 + 3 2 2𝑥 + 3 has been factorised into 3 linear factors,
one of which is repeated.

𝑥 − 𝛼 is a factor of the polynomial P(x)  there exists a polynomial

Q(x) such that P(x) = (x-) Q(x).
Example:Find the linear factors of

a. 2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 15

b. 𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 16

c. 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
 Polynomials Theorem
The Remainder Theorem:

Consider the cubic polynomial 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 3.

2𝑥 3 +5𝑥 2 −11𝑥+3 9  remainder
If we divide P(x) by 𝑥 − 2 , we find that = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 3 +
𝑥−2 𝑥−2
So, when P(x) is divided by 𝑥 − 2 , the remainder is 9.
Notice that P(2) = 8 + 20 – 22 + 3
= 9, which is the remainder.

By considering other examples like the one above, we formulate the Remainder
Theorem.
When a polynomial P(x) is divided by x-k until a constant remainder R is obtained, then R = P(k)
.

By the division algorithm, P(x) = Q(x) (x-k) + R

Letting x=k, P(k) = Q(k) × 0 + R
P(k) = R

When using the Remainder theorem, it is important to realise that the following statements are
equivalent:

• P(x) = (x-k) Q(x) + R

• P(k) = R
• P(x) divided by x-k leaves a remainder of R.
Example: Use the remainder theorem when 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 4 is divided by x+2. .
Example: Find aR when

a. 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 − 5 is divided by x+1, the remainder is – 8.

b. 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 𝑎 is divided by x-2, the remainder is 7.

Example: When 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is divided by x-1 the remainder is 4, and when
divided by x+2 the remainder is 16. Find constants a and b.
Example: When P(x) is divided by 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7 the quotient is 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 and the
remainder R(x) is unknown.

When P(x) is divided by 𝑥 − 2 the remainder is 29. When P(x) is divided by 𝑥 + 1

the remainder is – 16.

Find R(x) in the form ax+b.

The Factor Theorem:

For any Polynomial P(x), k is a zero of P(x)  (x – k) is a factor of P(x).

k is a zero of P(x) P(k)= 0 {definition of a zero}

 R=0 {Remainder Theorem}
 P(x)= Q(x) (x-k) {division algorithm}
 x-k is a factor of P(x) {definition of a factor}

The factor theorem says that if 2 is a zero of P(x) then (x-2) is a factor of P(x),
and vice versa.
Example: Find the constant k and hence factorise the polynomial if:

a. 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 4 has the factor (x+2).

b. 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑘𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 has the factor (x-3).

Example: Match the given graphs to the corresponding cubic function.

a. y = 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 4 A. D.

b. y = − 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 4

c. y = 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 4 B. E.

d. y = −2 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 4

e. y = − 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 4 F.
C.
f. y = 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑥2 𝑥 + 4
Example: A scientist is trying to design a crash test barrier with the characteristics
shown graphically below. The independent variable t is the time after impact,
measured in miliseconds, such that 0 ≤ t ≤ 700.
The dependent variable is the distance the barrier is depressed during the impact,
measured in milimetres.
a. The equation for this graph has the form
f(t) = kt(t – a) 2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 700.
Use then graph to find a. What does this value
represent?

b. If the ideal crash barrier is depressed by 85 mm

after 100 miliseconds, find the value of k. Hence
find the the equation of the graph given.
Example: Last year, the volume of water in a particular reservoir could be described
by the model 𝑉 𝑡 = −𝑡 3 + 30𝑡 2 − 131𝑡 + 250 ML, where t is the time in months.
The dam authority rules that if the volume falls below 100 ML, irrigation is prohibited.
During which months, if any, was irrigation prohibited in the last twelve months?
Include in your answer a neat sketch of any graphs you may have used.
 REFERENCES

• Martin, David, et al. Mathematics for the International Student Mathematics HL Core Third Edition. Adelaide: Haese
Mathematics, 2012.

• Aydın, Nesibe, Ahmet Camus and Mutlu Kaya. Ortaöğretim Matematik 10 Ders Kitabı. Ankara: Aydın Yayıncılık, 2018.

• “Graphing Calculator.” Desmos, [Link]/calculator.