ICSE - (Class-VIII)

Transformation of Substances

“Senior Scientist here

concluded that every
transformation of substances
whether physical or chemical
obeys two fundamental laws
3.1 Introduction ; The law of conservation of
mass and the law of
Transformation of substances involves change, which can either be a physical
conservation of energy.”
change or a chemical change.
(1) Physical change
A change in which physical properties of a substance changes but the
chemical composition do not change.
Examples
Freezing, melting, boiling, condensation etc.
Characteristic features of physical change
(1) The identity of the substance is maintained.
Fig.1 Formation of fruit salad is
(2) The change is temporary. another example of physical change.
(3) Heat change may or may not take place.
(4) Only the physical state or some of the physical properties of the
substances are changed.
Some important physical changes
(i) Solid to liquid change-melting
Ice is a solid. In solids, the particles are tightly packed together. When we
heat a solid, its particles become more energetic and kinetic energy of the
particles increases. Due to the increase in kinetic energy, the particles start
vibrating more strongly with greater speed. The energy supplied by heat
overcomes the intermolecular forces of attraction between the particles.
As a result, the particles leave their mean position and break away from
each other. After this solid melts and a liquid is formed.
"The temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the Fig.2 Cutting of trees is irreversible
atmospheric pressure is called its melting point". The melting point of ice process but no new susbtance is
formed during cutting of trees.
is 0°C. It may also be written as 273.16 K or 273 K. Therefore we call it a physical change.
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ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 3.1
Aim
To show that temperature remains constant during the change of state.
Method
(a) Take a piece of about 100–150g of ice in a beaker.
THE

(b) Hang a thermometer in it so that its bulb is in contact with ice.
SPOT (c) Start heating the beaker slowly on a low flame.
LIGHT (d) Note down the temperature when ice starts changing to water & ice
Temperatureremainsconstantduring has been converted to water.
meltingorduringconversion of solid
into liquid and liquid into vapours. (e) Record all observations for the conversion of solid ice into liquid water.
(f) Now, place a glass rod in the beaker and slowly heat the beaker with
constant stirring with help of a glass rod.
(g) Note the temperature when water starts changing into water vapour.
(h) Record all observations for the conversion of water in the liquid state
to vapour state.
Observation
It is observed that as temperature increases, the ice starts changing into
THE
SPOT  water. This change is called "Melting". The temperature remains same
till all the ice changes into water. The thermometer shows 0°C until all the
LIGHT ice has melted.
In Kelvin temperature, the symbol (°) On further heating, the temperature starts rising. At 373 K (or 100°C),
is not used. Temperature on Celsius
water starts boiling. As the water continue boiling the temperature remains
scalefromtemperatureinFahrenheit
can be calculated by the following almost constant.
formula.
9/5 (°C) = °F – 32° Thermometer Thermometer
Thermometer shows 0°C shows 100°C

Glass Glass Glass

rod rod rod

Water Water
Ice
vapour
cubes

Burner

THE
SPOT  Fig.3 Conversion of ice to water and water to water vapour.
(ii) Liquid to gas change-boiling
LIGHT In a liquid most of the particles are close together. When we supply heat
Melting point & boiling point are energy to the liquid, the particles of water start vibrating even faster. Some
measures of strength of forces of
of the particles become so energetic that they can overcome the attractive
attraction between constituent
particles. Higher the melting point, forces of the particles around them. Therefore, they become free to move
stronger is the forces of attraction. and escape from the liquid. Thus, the liquid evaporates i.e., starts changing
into gas.
"The temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas or vapour at the
atmospheric pressure is called its boiling point".
Example : For water, the boiling point is 100°C or 373 K.

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ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 3.2

Aim Spoon Thermometer

Salt
To determine the effect of impurity on boiling point of water.

Materials required Beaker

filled with
A beaker, distilled water, salt, burner, stand, a thermometer. distilled
water
Procedure

Half fill a beaker with distilled water and heat the water until it boils. Measure
the temperature of the boiling water. Heat

Boiling point of distilled water =__________°C. Fig. 4 Active Chemistry 3.2

Add some salt to the water and measure the boiling point again.

Boiling point of salt water =_________°C.

Observation

This experiment shows that dissolved solids cause the raising of the boiling
point of water. Tap water may well contain dissolved solids so that its boiling
THE

point could be higher than the normal boiling point of water. This means
that tap water may boil at a higher temperature than 100°C at sea level. SPOT
(iii) Change of state from liquid to solid - freezing LIGHT
Condensingisoppositetoevaporat-
When the temperature of a solid is raised, it melts to form a liquid. ing and freezing is opposite to melt-
Conversely, if the temperature of a liquid is lowered the reverse process ing.
takes place. The kinetic energy of the particles decreases and the particles
start moving slowly. As the temperature is further lowered, the attractive
forces pull the particles close together and the substance freezes, i.e., the
liquid changes into solid. Thus,

The temperature at which a liquid freezes to become a solid at atmospheric

pressure is called the freezing point.

BUILDING CONCEPTS 3.1

THE
Why does tap water have a freezing point below 0°C ?

Explanation
SPOT 
LIGHT
The fixed point of 0°C is the freezing point of pure water. The presence Roads in hilly regions become cov-
of dissolved solids in the tap water lowers the freezing point. ered with ice as temperature drops.
Salt is, therefore, scattered on the
(iv) Change of gaseous to liquid state - condensation roadstoensurethaticedoesnotform.

When a gas or vapour is cooled by lowering its temperature, the kinetic

energy of their constituent particles decreases. Due to a decrease in the
kinetic energy, the particles start moving slowly. As the temperature is
further lowered, the attractive forces pull the particles close together and
the gas or vapour condenses, i.e., gas or vapour changes into liquid. Thus,

the process of changing a gas (or vapour) to a liquid by cooling is called

c o nd e n s a ti o n .
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(v) Sublimation
The process of conversion of a solid into gas or viceversa without undergoing
into liquid state is known as sublimation. Sometimes the sublimation of
gaseous state into solid state is known as deposition or desublimation.
Cotton plug
Example : Ammonium chloride, camphor, iodine, naphthalene, solid carbon
dioxide (dry Ice), anthracene undergoes sublimation.
Inverted
funnel Sublimation can be represented as
Solidified heating
camphor Solid Gas
cooling
Vapours of
camphor Sublime : A gaseous form, directly formed from a solid on heating, is known
China dish as sublime.
Camphor
Sublimate : A solid state of matter formed directly from its gaseous state
on cooling, is called sublimate.
Burner
Process of sublimation can be illustrated by following activity

Fig.5 Sublimation process. ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 3.3

Aim
To demonstrate the process of sublimation.
Method
(a) Take some camphor or ammonium chloride.
(b) Powder it and put in a china dish.
(c) Place an inverted funnel over the china dish.
(d) Put a cotton plug on the stem of the funnel.
(e) Heat the china dish slowly.
Observation
We observe that solid camphor or ammonium chloride on heating gets
converted into vapour which gets condensed on the funnel.
Solid state is directly converted into gaseous state. This experiment shows
sublimation process.

THE CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 3.1

SPOT  1. Fill in the blanks
LIGHT
(i) The change of state from solid to liquid occurs at the ..........(melting
The process of melting is also called
Fusion. point/boiling point) of the solid.
The process of freezingisalsocalled
solidification. (ii) The presence of dissolved solids...........(lower/raise) the boiling point of
Boiling is also called vaporization. water.
Condensation is also known as
liquefaction. (iii) The melting point of a solid.......... the freesing point of the corresponding
liquid. (the same as/different from).
2. Choose the correct option
The melting point of ice, mixed with common salt, is
(i) below 0°C (ii) 0°C (iii) slightly above 0°C (iv) much above 0°C
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(2) Chemical change
A change in which one or more substances changes into new substances
with a different chemical composition.
Examples
Burning of a candle, rusting of iron, combustion of fuel, etc.
Characteristic features of chemical changes
(1) The identity of original substance is completely lost.
(2) The change is permanent.
(3) The change is generally accompanied by energy change.
(4) The change cannot be reversed.
Chemical reaction
The process in which a substance or substances undergo a chemical change
to produce new substances, with entirely new properties are known as
chemical reaction. But, how to conclude whether a chemical reaction has
taken place ?
Lets discuss some of the activities to answer these questions.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 3.4

Aim
To study the reaction between magnesium and oxygen to form magnesium Fig.6 Eggs, flour, sugar and baking
oxide. powder are mixed and baked to yield
Caution a cake. This is a chemical change.
Perform this activity in the presence of a teacher. It would be better to wear
eye protection (as used by welders).
Method
(i) Clean a magnesium ribbon about 2 cm long, by rubbing it with sand paper.
(ii) Hold it with a pair of tongs. Burn it using a spirit lamp or burner and
collect the ash so formed in a watch glass. Burn the magnesium ribbon
keeping it as far as possible from your eyes.

Tong

Magnesium ribbon

Burner Watch glass Fig.8 Magnesium burns in air

Magnesium oxide to give a bright white flame.

Fig.7 Burning of a magnesium ribbon in air and

collection of magnesium oxide in a watch glass.
Now answer
What do you observe ?
THE
Discussion
It is observed that magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling white light and SPOT 
changes into a white powder. This powder is magnesium oxide. LIGHT
Conclusion Reactants:-Thesubstance/substances,
Magnesium burns in air to combine with oxygen to form magnesium oxide. which takes part in a chemical
reaction.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO (s)
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide
(from air) (White powder)

Reactants Product
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CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 3.1
1. (i) melting (ii) raise (iii) the same
2. (i) below 0°C

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 3.2

THE
SPOT  1. From the given examples, identify the chemical changes.
(a) Fermentation of grapes.
LIGHT (b) Burning of a candle.
Symbols were first used by swedish (c) Evaporation of alcohol.
chemist Berzelius.
(d) Freezing of water.
(e) Turning brown of a freshly cut apple in the air.
(f) Growth of a plant.
(g) Dissolution of sugar in water.
(h) Fading of coloured clothes in the sun.
3.2 Chemical equation
A chemical equation is a short-hand method that describes a chemical
reaction in terms of symbols and formulae of different reactants and
products.
Example
Chemical equation can be written as,
THE Mg + O 2  MgO
SPOT  Basic knowledge for writing the chemical equations
LIGHT A chemical equation is written in the form of symbols. Symbols are the
Products : The new substance / sub- abbreviated names of elements. They are derived either from the beginning
stancesformedasaresultofachemi- letters of their name or from their Latin names.
cal reaction are called products. When these symbols get associated with the positive or negative valency
they form radicals. Thus, radical is a positive or negatively charged
component consisting of single atom or groups of atom.
We represent the atoms with the help of symbols. In the same way, the
molecules can also be represented by the symbols of the constituent atoms.
This is known as the chemical formula of the molecule, or in other words
we can say, chemical formula of a molecular compound represents the
actual number & kind of atoms of different elements present in one
molecule of the compound, e.g. H 2O.
Chemical formula of an ionic compound simply represents the ratio of the
cations & anions present in the structure of the compound, eg. : NaCl.
However, in both cases, the writing of chemical formula is based on the
concept of "Valenc y".
Valenc y of an element is defi ned as the combi ni ng capacit y of
THE
SPOT  the element.

LIGHT BUILDING CONCEPTS 3.2

The arrow () is read as What is the difference between symbol of an element & formula of an
"to yield" or "to form". element ?
Explanation
Symbol of an element represents the name of the element. It also
represents atoms of the element. A formula of an element represents the
number of atoms in the molecule of the compound. One molecule of
hydrogen element contains two atoms of hydrogen, therefore the formula
of hydrogen is H 2. 2H represents 2 separate atoms of hydrogen.

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Writing the formula of compound
Steps
(1) First, write the symbols of the ions from which the ionic compound is
made. As a convention, the cation is written on the left side while the anion
is written on the right side.
THE
(2) Then, the valencies of the respective cation and anion are written below
their symbols. SPOT 
(3) The valencies of the cation and anion are exchanged. The number of LIGHT
cation and anions in the formula of the compound are adjusted in such a We can determine the valency from
way that total positive charge of cation become equal to the total negative the group number in the periodic
charge of the anion making the ionic compound electrically neutral. table.

(4) The final formula of the ionic compound is then written but the charges
present on the cation and the anion are not shown.
Examples
( a ) Molecular compounds
Ammonia Methane Carbon dioxide
N H C H C O

3 1 4 1 4 2
NH3 CH4 C2O4 or CO2

( b ) Ionic compounds
THE
Sodium chloride Sodium phosphate SPOT 
Na Cl Na (PO4) LIGHT
+1 –1 +1 –3 In the formula of the compound, the
valency '1' is normally omitted.
NaCl Na3PO4
E.g. NH3 & not as N1H3.
List of Some Common Ions /Radicals with Positive Valency
P o s it iv e V a l en c y S y m b o l P o s it iv e V a l en c y S ym b ol
R a d ic a l s R a d ic a l s

1. Ammonium NH 4+ 9. Mercuric Hg 2+
[Mercury (II)]

2. Sodium Na + 10. Ferrous Fe 2+

[Iron (II)]

3. Cuprous Cu + 11. Aluminium Al 3+

[Copper (I)]

4. Argentous Ag + 12. Chromium Cr 3+ THE

[Silver (I)] SPOT 
5. Mercurous Hg + 13. Ferric Fe 3+ LIGHT
[Mercury (I)] [Iron (III)] Incasethereissomecommonfactor
in the formula, it has to be taken out.
6. Calcium Ca 2+ 14. Auric Au 3+
e.g. CO2 in place of C2O4 is used.
[Gold (III)]

7. Zinc Zn2+ 15. Stannic Sn 4+

[Tin (IV)]

8. Cupric Cu 2+ 16. Plumbic Pb 4+

[Copper (II)] (Lead (IV)]

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
List of Some Common Ions /Radicals with NegativeValency
Neg a t iv e V a l en c y S ym b ol Neg a t iv e V a l en c y S ym b ol
THE

R a d ic a l s R a d ic a l s
SPOT 1 Halogen X– 13 Sulphate SO 4–2
LIGHT 2 Hypochlorite ClO – 14 Sulphite SO 3–2
Points to remember for writing 3 Chlorate ClO 3– 15 Sulphide S –2
chemical formula : 4 Bicarbonate or 16 Oxide
HCO 3– O 2–
When the subscript is 1, it is ignored. hydrogen carbonate
The radical is written in parenthesis 5 Bisulphite or 17 Peroxide
HSO 3– O 22–
when the subscript is 2 or greater.
hydrogen sulphite
Whenever possible, subscripts are
simplifiedby dividing bythe highest
6 Bisulphate or HSO 4– 18 Dichromate Cr 2O 72–
common factor (HCF). hydrogen sulphate
7 Hydroxide OH – 19 Carbonate CO 32–
8 Permanganate MnO 4– 20 Oxalate [COO]22–
9 Cyanite CN – 21 Nitride N 3–
10 Nitrite NO 2– 22 Phosphite PO 33–
11 Nitrate NO 3 – 23 Phosphate PO 43–
12 Acetate CH 3COO – 24 Carbide C 4–

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 3.2

1. Chemical changes are a, b, e, f and h.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 3.3

1. Match the following chemical formulas with their chemical names :
1 . Iron (II) carbonate (i) Mg 3 N 2
2 . Potassium permanganate (ii) Fe 2(SO 4) 3
3 . Magnesium nitride (iii) FeCO 3
4 . Manganese (IV) oxide (iv) KMnO 4
5 . Ferric sulphate (v) (NH 4) 3PO 4
6 . Chromium oxide (vi) AuCl 3
7 . Ammonium phosphate (vii) Cr 2O 3
THE
SPOT  2.
8 . Auric chloride (viii) MnO 2
What is the molecular formula of potassium nitrate ?
LIGHT Rules for writing a chemical equation
Ineverychemicalreaction,theamount
ofeachelementisalwaysconserved. (i) The symbols and formulae of the reactants are written on the left hand
This is in accordance to Dalton's side (LHS) with plus (+) sign between them.
atomic theory. Moreover in every (ii) The symbols and formulae of the products are written on the right
chemicalreactionthetotalamountof
electricalchargeisalwaysconserved. hand side with plus (+) sign between them.
(iii) An arrow () sign is put between the reactants and the products,
pointing from reactants towards products.
Example,
Na + H 2 O  NaOH + H 2
A chemical equation is expressed in symbols and formulae, such that the
number of atoms of different elements towards the side of the reactants
is not equal to the number of atoms of the product is called skeletal
eq uation or unbalance d equ ation.
To make this equation meaningful, this equation is balanced, then it is called
as balanced ch emical equ ation.

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BUILDING CONCEPTS 3.3
Why is it necessary to balance the chemical equation ?
Explanation
THE

In order to make law of conservation of mass, applicable on the given
chemical equation, it is necessary to make number of atoms of all elements SPOT
equal on L.H.S. & R.H.S. Thus balancing of equation is required. LIGHT
Balanced Chemical Equation The methodof balancingthe equa-
tionbyusingsmallestnaturalnumber
According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of products coefficients is called as hit and trial
must be equal to the total mass of the reactants (as mass can neither be method.
created nor destroyed). This is possible only if the number of atoms of each
element is equal on the two sides of the equation.
Balancing of a chemical equation means making the number of atoms of
each element equal on both sides of the equation.
To understand this, let us consider the following word equation for Active
chemistry 1.3.
Zinc + Sulphuric acid  Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
Chemical equation for the above word equation will be,
THE
Zn + H 2SO 4  ZnSO 4 + H 2
Let us examine the number of atoms of different elements on both the
SPOT 
sides of the arrow. LIGHT
In a skeletal equation, law of
E l em en t N u m b e r o f a t o m s in Nu m b er o f a t o m s in
conversationofmassisnotfollowed.
r ea c t a n t s (L.H .S .) pr o d u c t s (R .H .S .)
Zn 1 1
H 2 2
S 1 1
O 4 4
As the number of atoms of each element is same on both sides of the arrow
the equation can be said, a balanced chemical equation,
Now consider another chemical equation
Fe + H 2O  Fe 3 O 4 + H 2
On counting number of different atoms on both the sides of the arrow, we
will find that, this equation is not balanced.
Let us learn about balancing a chemical equation step by step.
Step -I : Write the word equation for the given chemical reaction.
Step- II : Convert the formed word equation in the chemical equation
(Skeletal chemical equation).
Step-III : Formula of each reactant and product has to be enclosed in
boxes, so that during balancing formula of reagents cannot be
Fig.9 Mass of reactants = Mass of
changed. the products Balanced chemical
Step -IV : Listing of number of reactants and products is done. equation makes calculations easy.
S te p - V : Balancing should be started with compound which have biggest
formula.
Step -V I : Then, balancing of different elements is done one by one.
Step -VII : Finally the equation is checked.
3Fe + 4H 2 O  Fe 3 O 4 + 4H 2
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Some important characteristics of chemical reactions are
( i ) Change in state : The physical state of the substances normally
changes. e.g.

THE (a) Formation of solid MgO from solid Mg and gaseous O 2.

SPOT  (b) Formation of solid PbI2 (ppt) from liquid solutions of Pb(NO3) 2
LIGHT and KI.
Inabalancedchemicalequation,an (c) Formation of H 2 gas from the reaction of solid Zn with liquid
integerprecedestheformulaofeach H 2 SO 4 .
substance. This number is known as
stoichiometriccoefficient. ( i i ) Change in colour : In some of the chemical reactions change in colour
If no number is there, stoichiometric can be observed. e.g.
coefficient is taken as 1.
(a) Formation of brown rust on black iron nails.
(b) Formation of yellow ppt. of lead iodide from colourless solution of
Pb(NO 3) 2 and KI.
(i ii ) Evolution of a gas : In some cases, a gas may be evolved. e.g.
(a) Evolution of H 2 gas, in the reaction between Zn and dil HCl.
(b) Evolution of CO 2 gas, during burning of any fuel, which contains
carbon.
( i v ) Change in temperature : Most of the reactions are accompanied by
Cork temperature change. i.e. increase or decrease in temperature. e.g.
(a) In the reaction between Zn and H 2SO4, flask was found to be warm.
Glass tube
Thus, rise in temperature has taken place (Exothermic)
H2
gas (b) If a reaction between barium hydroxide, Ba(OH) 2 and ammonium
Conical flask chloride, NH 4Cl is carried out in a test tube, it is observed that the
bottom of the test tube becomes cooler (Endothermic).
Dilute sulphuric acid
Zinc granules CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 3.3
Fig.10 Formation of hydrogen gas by
the action of dilute sulphuric acid on 1. 1-(iii), 2-(iv), 3-(i), 4-(viii), 5-(ii), 6-(vii), 7-(v), 8-(vi)
zinc. 2. KNO 3
(v) Catalyst : The addition of a catalyst can, however, enhance the rate
of reaction. To some hydrogen peroxide in a test tube, add a pinch of
manganese (IV) oxide. There is an immediate effervescence. A glowing
splint placed at the mouth of the test tube will re-light showing that oxygen
is being evolved. In this reaction, mangance (IV) oxide is acting as a catalyst.
( v i ) Enzymes : There is a remarkable class of naturally occurring catalysts
known as enzymes. These compounds are proteins which act as catalysts
in bio-chemical reactions, i.e., in the reactions of life.
Unlike a catalyst which can be used to catalyze different reactions, enzymes
THE
SPOT  are specific. These are like keys which will only work on the locks for which
they are intended. In our own bodies, enzymes are at work all the time,
LIGHT making sure that the otherwise very slow reactions take place at a rate
A precipitate is an insoluble solid
that matches the pace of living. Speeding up the rate of digestion is an
that forms out of a liquid solution. i.e.
does not dissolve in the solution. example of this. The carbohydrates, fats, and proteins present in our food
have to be broken down into simpler substances for absorption into the
bloodstream. Each type of food has its specific enzymes involved in the
digestion processes.

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CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 3.4
1. Write chemical equations for the following word equations.
(a) Potassium chlorate  Potassium chloride + Oxygen
(b) Methane + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water
THE
(c) Nitrogen + Hydrogen  Ammonia
(d) Calcium carbonate  Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide SPOT 
(e) Graphite + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide LIGHT
(f) Quicklime + Water  Calcium hydroxide The term 'reagent' refers to any
2. Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions substance participating in a
reaction. A reagent may be a
(a) Phosphorus burns in oxygen to form phosphorus pentaoxide. reactant or a product.
(b) Marble (calcium carbonate) dissolves in hydrochloric acid to give
calcium chloride, water and carbon dioxide.
3.3 Classification of chemical reactions
There is a large variety of chemical reactions. Although all chemical reactions
are similar in certain aspects (like formation of new substances) they are
different in many ways.
For example in some reactons heat is evolved while in other heat is absorbed.
Some reactions may proceed in the forward direction whereas others may
proceed in the reverse direction as well.
Thus, we consider various factors while classifying chemical reactions.
Four most common factors on which the chemical reactions are classified THE
are listed here : SPOT 
(1) Physical state of the reactants and the products. LIGHT
(2) Direction (forward or backward) in which the reaction proceeds. When a catalyst accelerates the
(3) Whether there is absorption or evolution of heat during the course of speedof reactionit is called positive
the chemical reaction. catalyst. If the catalytic substance
tretarded the chemical reaction it is
(4) Nature of chemical reaction.
callednegative catalyst.
(1) Physical state of the reactants and the products : Solid liquid and
gases are three physical states of matters. Based on the physical state of
the reactants and the products, chemical reactions can be dassified into two
categories.
(a) Homogeneous reactions and
(b) Heterogeneous reactions.
(a) Homogeneous reaction : If all the reaction and products involved in
a chemical reaction are in the same physical state and are miscible with
each other, then such a reaction is called a homogeneous reaction. For
example.
N 2 (g) + O 2 (g)   2 NO (g) THE

electric spark

H 2 (g) + Cl 2 (g) 

SPOT
electric spark
 2HCl(g)
2CO(g) + O 2 (g)  2CO 2 (g)
LIGHT
Our body itself is a chemical labora-
Fe(s) + S(s)  FeS(s) tory where different chemical reac-
(b) Heterogeneous reaction : In many chemical reaction the reactants tions take place.
and products are in different physical states. In such a reaction there is more
than one physical state. Such a reaction is called a heterogeneous reaction.
For example,
CaO(s) + H2O()  Ca(OH) 2 (aq)
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl 2(aq) + H 2(g)
2 AgCl(s) + 
light
 2Ag(s)  Cl2 (g)
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(2) Direction (forward or backward) in which the reaction proceeds :
Some chemical reactions have the tendency either to completely convert
its reactants into products or the products may get converted back into the
reactants
On the basis of whether or not a reaction goes to completion of chemical
THE reactions can be classified into two categories
SPOT  (a) Irreversible reactions
LIGHT (b) Reversible reactions
Certain chemicalreactions proceed (a) Irreversible reaction : A reaction in which the reactants are completely
only – absorption of sound energy. converted into products is called an irreversible reaction.
Sound energy speeds up the react-
ingmolecules,atoms orions causing
An irreversible reaction proceeds only in forward direction that is towards
– a reaction to occur. the direction of formation of products. For example,
Sound CuSO 4 (aq) + Fe(s)  FeSO 4(aq) + Cu(s)
C2H2 
energy
 2C + H2
4Fe + 3O 2  2Fe 2 O 3
–acetylene–
2Mg(s) + O 2 (g)  2MgO
2Na + 2H 2 O  2NaOH + H 2
(b) Reversible reaction : A reaction which proceeds in both forward and
reverse direction is known as reversible reaction :
At certain stage of reaction the products starts converting back into
reactants. The reversibility of the reaction is represented by a pair of half
head arrows pointing in opposite direction, placed between the reactants
and the products. For example,


N2( g) + 3H 2(g)  2NH 3(g)



NH 4Cl  NH 3(g) + HCl



CuSO4. 5H2O(s)  CuSO4 + 5H2O(g)



CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)

(3) Absorption or evolution of heat : Based on whether heat energy is

absorbed or evolved during the course of a chemical reaction chemical
THE reaction can be classified into two categories.
SPOT  (a) Exothermic reactions
LIGHT (b) Endothermic reactions
Somechemicalreactionstakeplace (a) Exothermic reaction : Chemical reactions in which heat is evolved
onlywhenreactantsaresubjectedto are called exothermic reactions. Combustion and respiration reactions are
a higher pressure than the atmos- example of exothermic reactions.
pheric pressure.
Example : Nitrogen and hydrogen C + O2  CO 2 + Heat
gases react in the presence of cata- C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2  6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + Heat
lyst when subjected to a pressure
between200atmto900atm. CaO + H 2 O  Ca(OH) 2 + Heat
N 2(g) + 3H 2(g) (b) Endothermic reactions : Chemical reaction in which heat energy is
Mo+Fe at 450 o C

 
 2NH3(g)
absorbed are called endothermic reactions.
200-900 atm
Photosynthesis is such a reaction which cannot take place in the absence of
sunlight. Some more examples are,

N 2(g) + O 2(g) 

Electric spark
(heat)
 2 NO(g)

2 Ca + O2 
(heat)
 2CaO

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(4) Nature of chemical change :

Chemical Reactions

Combination Decomposition Displacement Double Neutralisation Oxidation

Reaction Reaction Reaction Displacement reaction and THE
Reaction Reduction
Reaction SPOT 
(1) Combination Reaction
LIGHT
Exampplesofsynthesisreaction
The reactions in which two or more substances combine to form a single (i) FeCl2 + Cl2  2FeCl3
(ii) S + O2  SO2
new substance are called combination reaction.
(iii) H2 + O2  2H2O
(iv) CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 3.5 (v) SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
Aim
To study combination reaction between calcium oxide, i.e., quick lime and
water.
Method
(i) Take a small amount of calcium oxide or quick lime in a beaker.
(ii) Slowly add water to this.
(iii) Touch the beaker.

Beaker

Water
THE

Quick lime
Slaked lime
SPOT
Fig.11 Formation of slaked lime by the
reaction of calcium oxide with water. LIGHT
Now answer Combination reactions are usually
exothermic innature.
Do you feel any change in temperature ?
Discussion
A vigorous reaction is found to occur and the beaker is found to become
very hot.
Conclusion
Calcium oxide combines with water to form calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)
and this reaction is highly exothermic.
CaO(s) + H2O()  Ca(OH)2(aq) + Heat
Calcium oxide Water Calcium hydroxide
(Quick lime) (Slaked lime)
THE
Examples
(i) Burning of Coal SPOT 
C(s) + O 2 (g)  CO 2 (g) LIGHT
Carbon Oxygen Carbon dioxide Combination reaction is also known
(ii) Formation of Calcium Carbonate as addition reaction or synthesis.
CaO(s) + CO 2 (g)  CaCO 3 (s)
Calcium oxide Carbon Calcium
(Quick lime) dioxide carbonate
(iii) Reaction of carbon monoxide with oxygen
2CO(g) + O 2(g)  2CO 2(g)
This is also an exothermic reaction.
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BUILDING CONCEPTS 3.4
How the process of respiration help us to stay alive ?
Explanation
The food we eat provides us the energy to stay alive. During digestion,
food is broken down into simpler substances. For example, rice, potatoes
+ and bread contain carbohydrates. These carbohydrates are broken down
to form glucose. This glucose combines with oxygen in the cells of our body
and provides energy. The special name of this reaction is respiration.
C 6 H 12 O 6 (aq) + 6O2(g)  6CO2(g) + 6H 2 O() + energy
Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water
Since energy is liberated, we can say that respiration is an exothermic reaction.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 3.4

+ 1. (a) 2KClO 3  2KCl + 3O 2
(b) CH 4 + 2O 2  CO 2 + 2H 2 O
(c) N 2 + 3H 2  2NH 3
(d) CaCO 3  CaO + CO 2
=C =O =H (e) C + O 2  CO 2
(f) CaO + H 2 O  Ca(OH) 2
Fig.12 The reaction between 2. (a) 4P + 5O 2  P 2O5
methane and oxygen. (b) CaCO 3 + 2HCl  CaCl 2 + CO 2 + H 2 O
(2) Decomposition Reaction
The reaction in which a single compound breaks up into two or more simpler
substances is known as decomposition reaction. The decomposition
reaction generally takes place when energy in some form such as heat,
electricity or light is supplied to the reactants.
THE
SPOT  ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 3.6
Aim
LIGHT To study the decomposition of ferrous sulphate on heating.
Examplesofdecompositionreaction. Method

(i) CuCO3   CuO + CO2 (i) Take about 2g ferrous sulphate crystals in a dry boiling tube.

(ii) Note the colour of ferrous sulphate crystals.
(ii) PbCO3   PbO + CO2 (iii) Heat the boiling tube over the flame of a burner or spirit lamp.

(iii) Pb3O4   6PbO + O2 (iv) Observe the colour of the crystals after heating.

(iv) 2PbO2   2PbO + O2 Wafting gas gently
towards nose

Do not point
the mouth of
boiling tube
at your
THE

neighbours
or yourself Boiling tube
SPOT
Ferrous sulphate
LIGHT crystals

Thedecompositionofvegetablemat-
ter into compost is also an example Burner
of anexothermicreaction.

Fig.13 Correct way of heating the boiling tube containing

crystals of ferrous sulphate and of smelling the odour.
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Discussion
It is observed that green coloured ferrous sulphate crystals (FeSO4.7H2O)
on heating first changes colour by losing water to form FeSO 4 which on
further heating decomposes to leave behind a reddish brown residue along
with evolution of sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide gases.
THE
Conclusion
The reddish brown residue is of ferric oxide. Hence, the following
SPOT 
decomposition reaction takes place : LIGHT
Decomposition reaction is just
FeSO 4 . 7H 2O(s) 
Heat
 FeSO 4(s) + 7H 2 O(l) oppositeofthecombinationreaction.
Ferrous sulphate Anhydrous
crystals ferrous sulphate
(Muddy green) (White)
2FeSO 4 (s) 
Heat
 Fe 2O 3(s) + SO 2 (g) + SO 3(g)
Anhyd. ferrous Ferric oxide Sulphur Sulphur
sulphate (Reddish dioxide trioxide
Brown)
Some more examples of thermal decomposition reactions.
(i) Decomposition of lime stone on heating
CaCO 3 
Heat
 CaO + CO 2(g) Test tube holder
Boiling tube
Limestone Quick lime Carbon dioxide
Lead nitrate
(Calcium carbonate) (Calcium oxide)
Burner
(ii) 2Pb(NO 3 ) 2 
Heat
 2PbO(s) + 4NO 2 (g) + O 2 (g)

Lead nitrate Lead (II) oxide Nitrogen dioxide Oxygen

(white) (Yellow) (Brown fumes)
Fig.14 Heating of lead nitrate
(iii) Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride. and emission of nitrogen dioxide.
2NaCl 
Electric
 2Na + Cl2
Current

Sodium chloride Sodium metal Chlorine

(molten)
(iv) Photolysis of silver bromide

2AgBr(s) 
Sunlight
 2Ag(s) + Br 2(g)
(Yellow) (Grey) (Reddish brown)
(v) Photolytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
THE
2H 2 O 2 
Light
 2H 2 O + O2 SPOT 
Hydrogen peroxide Water Oxygen LIGHT
(3) Displacement Reaction In electrolysis, 'electro' refer to elec-
tricity and 'lysis' refers to break
A reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element down.
from its compounds is called displacement reaction.
The elements involved may be metals or non-metals.
Relative reactivity of metals
Different metals possess different reactivities the arrangement of metals
in a vertical column in order of their decreasing reactivity from top to bottom
is called reactivity series or activity series of metals.
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ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 3.7
Aim
To study displacement of copper from copper sulphate solution by iron.
Method
(i) Take two iron nails and clean them by rubbing with sand paper.
Most Reactive (ii) Take two test tube marked as (A) and (B). In each test tube, take about
Potassium K
Barium Ba 10 mL copper sulphate solution.
DECREASING REACTIVITY

Calcium Ca (iii) Tie one iron nail with a thread and immerse it carefully in the copper
Sodium Na
Magnesium Mg
sulphate solution in test tube B for about 20 minutes. Keep one iron
Aluminium Al nail aside for comparison.
Zinc Zn (iv) After 20 minutes, take out the iron nail from copper sulphate solution.
Iron Fe
Nickel Ni (v) Compare the intensity of the blue colour of copper sulphate solutions
Tin Sn in test tubes (A) and (B).
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H (vi) Also compare the colour of the iron nails dipped in copper sulphate
Copper Cu solution with the one kept aside.
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Platinum Pt Test tube
Gold Au
Thread
Least Reactive CuSO4
Acitvity series of some metals. Solution

Iron nail

Fig.15 (a) Iron nails dipped in copper sulphate solution

Copper sulphate solution

THE

(test tube A)
SPOT Iron nail Iron nail taken out
Test tube

LIGHT from copper sulphate

solution
Test tube stand

Reaction mixture
Allmetals,whichcomeabovehydro- (test tube B)
gen in reactivity series can displace
it from acids and water. Fig. 15 (b) Iron nails and copper sulphate
solutions compared before and after the experiment.
Discussion
It is observed that iron nail becomes brownish in colour and the blue colour
of copper sulphate solution fades and changes to light green colour.
Conclusion
Iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution forming Iron (II) Sulphate
in the solution, which has a light green colour. Hence, blue colour of copper
sulphate solution fades. The displaced copper is deposited on the iron nail,
giving it a brownish colour.
THE
SPOT  Fe(s) + CuSO 4 (aq) 
Iron Copper sulphate
FeSO 4 (aq)
Ferrous sulphate
+ Cu(s)
Copper
LIGHT (Blue solution) (Light green solution) (Brown)
Examplesofdisplacementreaction. Some more examples of displacement reactions.
(i) Fe + H2SO4  FeSO4 + H2 (i) Zn(s) + CuSO 4 (aq)  ZnSO 4 (aq) + Cu(s)
(ii) Zn + HCl  ZnCl2 + H2 Zinc Copper sulphate Zinc sulphate Copper
(iii) CuCl2 + Pb  PbCl2 + Cu (Bluish-Silver) (Blue) (Colourless) (Reddish Brown)
(iv) 2Na + H2O  NaOH + H2
(ii) Cu(s) + 2AgNO 3 (aq)  Cu(NO 3 ) 2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
Copper Silver nitrate Copper nitrate Silver
(Dark blue)
(4) Double displacement Reaction or double decomposition Reaction
Those reactions in which two different atoms or groups of atoms are
exchanged are called double displace ment reactions.
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ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 3.8
Aim
To study double decomposit ion reaction between barium chloride
solution and sodium sulphate solution.
Method +  +
(i) Take about 3 mL of sodium sulphate solution in a test tube.
(ii) In another test tube, take about 3 mL of Barium Chloride solution. Fig.16 Exchange of hats in the
diagram illustrates the way in which
(iii) Mix the two solutions.
radicals are exchanged in double
Now answer displacement reaction.

What do you observe ?

Discussion
It is observed that a white solid insoluble in water is formed. This white
insoluble solid is called as precipitate.
Conclusion
Barium chloride solution reacts with sodium sulphate solution to form a white
precipitate of barium sulphate along with sodium chloride in the solution.
THE
BaCl 2 (aq) + Na 2 SO 4 (aq)  BaSO 4 (s)
Barium chloride Sodium Barium
+ 2NaCl(aq)
Sodium chloride
SPOT 
sulphate sulphate (in solution)
LIGHT
Doubledisplacementreactionsgen-
(White ppt.) (Colourless) erallytakesplace betweentwoionic
compoundsinthe solution.
The above reaction is a double displacement reaction as well as
precipitation reaction.
In the above reaction, an insoluble compound i.e. BaSO4 is formed because
of double displacement reaction. This type of double displacement reaction
where precipitate formation takes places, is called as precipitation reaction.
Some more examples of double displacement reaction
(i) AgNO 3 (aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl(s)  + NaNO 3 (aq)
Silver nitrate Sodium chloride Silver chloride Sodium nitrate
(White ppt)
(ii) CuSO 4 (aq) + 2NH 4 OH(aq)  Cu(OH)2  + (NH 4 ) 2SO 4(aq)
THE
Copper Ammonium Copper Ammonium SPOT 
sulphate hydroxide hydroxide sulphate LIGHT
(Bluish white ppt) Examplesof precipitationreactions
(i) CuSO4(aq)+H2S(q) 
(5) Neutralization Reaction Cus(s) + H2SO4(aq)
Blackppt
In these reactions, an acid reacts with a base and vice-versa to give salt (ii)Pb(NO 3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) 
and water. Hydrogen ions (H+) (or more accurately hydronium ions –H3O+) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
are the common feature of acids. Oxide ions and hydroxide ions are found Yellow ppt

in bases which are either metal oxides or hydroxides. The general reaction
for neutralization can be written as:
Base + Acid  Salt + Water
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Some particular examples are given below:
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
Sodium chloride dil. hydrochloric Silver W ater
ac i d chloride
CuO + H 2 SO 4  CuSO 4 + H2O
THE
SPOT  Copper oxide dil. sulphuric
acid
Copper
sulphate
Water

LIGHT PbO + 2HNO 3  Pb(NO 3) 2 + H2O

Another type of reaction in which an Lead oxide dil. nitric acid Lead nitrate + W ater
acid reacts with a base to form salt
and water is called neutralization Fe 2 O 3 + 6HCl  2FeCl 3 + 3H 2 O
reaction. Example : Iron(II) oxide dil. hydrochloric Iron(III) + W ater
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O ac i d chloride
The product other than water is a salt, which is a compound formed by
the replacement of the hydrogen of an acid with a metal.

BUILDING CONCEPTS 3.5

Doctors generally prescribe “milk of magnesia” an antacid, to patients
suffering from acidity. Why ?
Explanation
As we know our stomach produces gastric juice which contains large amount
of hydrochloric acid. The acid so produced does not harm the stomach
THE
SPOT  walls, but kills germs and bacteria and helps in digestion. Sometimes excess
of acid is produced in the stomach due to overeating or eating spicy foods.
LIGHT This stage is called acidity. To get relief from this pain, we take tablets
Silversaltshaveantisepticproperties. known as antacids. These are weak bases which neutralise the excess of acids.
Silver nitrate solution is sometimes
put into the eyes of newborn babies Example : Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia), Mg(OH) 2
to prevent certain infections and (6) Oxidation and reduction Reaction
blindness.
The reaction which involves addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen
from a substance is called oxidation reaction.
The reaction which involves addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen
from a substance is called reduction reaction.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 3.9

Aim
To study oxidation of copper to copper (II) oxide.
Method
Heat a china dish containing about 1 g copper powder.
China dish containing
copper powder Now answer
What do you observe ?
Wire gauze
Discussion
Tripod stand
It is observed that the brown copper powder gets coated with black copper
(II) oxide.
Burner
Conclusion
Copper (brown in colour) on heating combines with oxygen to form black
copper (II) oxide.
Fig.17 Oxidation of copper to copper
oxide. (Acitive chemistry 3.9)
2Cu(s) + O 2 (g)  2CuO(s)
Copper Oxygen Copper (II) oxide
(Brown) (Black)
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Here, we can say that copper is being oxidised, as it is gaining oxygen.
In the above activity, if hydrogen gas is passed over the product (CuO) then
black coating on the surface becomes brown because reverse reaction takes
place.
THE
CuO(s) + H 2(g)   Cu(s) + H 2O()

Heat

Here, we can say that copper oxide is being reduced, as it is loosing oxygen
SPOT
and hydrogen is being oxidised. LIGHT
or According to electronic concept,
Oxidation Is Loss of electrons.
One reactant (H2) gets oxidised and other (CuO) gets reduced during this Reduction Is Gain ofelectrons
reaction. OIL RIG
Oxidation

Heat
CuO + H2 Cu + H2O

Reduction
Such reactions where both oxidation and reduction reactions takes place
are called oxidation reduction reactions or redox reactions.
Some other examples of redox reactions are :
Oxidation
THE

ZnO : Oxidizing agent
(i) ZnO + C Heat
Zn + CO C : Reducing agent SPOT
LIGHT
Reduction Thetermoxidationmeansthelossof
electronsbyanatomoramolecule
Oxidation [Link] means
MnO2 : Oxidizing agent the gain of electrons by an atom or
(ii) Heat HCl : Reducing agent a molecule or an ion.
MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

Reduction
Oxidation reduction reactions
Oxidation can be defined as :
1 . Addition of oxygen
3Mg + O 2  2MgO
Magnesium gets oxidized to magnesium oxide by adding oxygen to it.
2 . Removal of hydrogen
H 2 S + Cl 2  2HCl + S
THE
Hydrogen sulphide gets oxidized to sulphur when chlorine removes
hydrogen from it. SPOT 
3. Addition of an electronegative element radical LIGHT
Examples ofredox reactions
2 Fe + 3 Cl 2  2 FeCl 3 (i) 2H2S +  H2O + 2S 
(ii) 2FeCl3+H2S 2FeCl2 + 2HCl +S
Iron gets oxidized to iron chloride when electronegative chlorine adds (iii) Cl2+H2S 2HCl + S
to it. (iv) H2SO4 + H2S  2H2O+SO2+S

4 . Removal of an electropositive element radical

2KI + 4HNO 3  2KNO 3 + 2H 2 O + 2NO 2 + I 2
Potassium iodide gets oxidized to iodine when electropositive potassium
is removed from it by nitric acid.
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Reduction is exactly opposite of oxidation.
1 . Removal of oxygen.
SO 2 + 2 H 2 S  2 H 2 O + 3S
Sulphur dioxide gets reduced to sulphur by the removal of oxygen it
by hydrogen sulphide.
2 . Addition of hydrogen
H2 + Cl 2  2 HCl
Chlorine gets reduced to hydrogen chloride when hydrogen gets added
THE
SPOT  to it.
3 . Removal of on electronegative element radical
LIGHT 2 FeCl3 + H 2  2 FeCl 2 + 2 HCl
Substance which gives oxygen or Ferric chloride gets reduced to ferrous chloride when electronegative
gainshydrogenis calledanoxidising chlorine is removed from it by hydrogen.
agent whereas substance which 4 . Addition of an electropositive element radical.
gives hydrogen or gains oxygen is
CuCl 2 + Cu  Cu 2Cl2
called a reducing agent.
Copper(II) Chloride gets reduced to copper(I) chloride when
electropositive copper gets added to it.
A very important characteristic of oxidation and reduction reaction is
that there is always presence of either a reducing agent or an oxidizing
agent.
Common oxidizing agents : Oxygen, chlorine, manganese dioxide,
potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, concentrated sulphuric
acid, concentrated nitric acid, hydrogen peroxide etc.
Common reducing agents : Hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia,
carbon, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide etc.
Memory map

Reduction
reaction
Oxidation Combination
reaction reaction

Chemical
reactions

Double displacement Displacement

reaction Decomposition reaction

e– Oxidation reaction
A e–
Compound A
loses electrons
A
Reducing Oxidized CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 3.5
agent
1. Match the column

Column-A Column-B
Reduction
B Compound B e–
B Types of chemical Chemical equation
gains electrons
e– reaction
Oxidizing agent Reduced

4 ZnSO4 +H2
Fig.18 Oxidation and reduction in (A) Combination (i) Zn+HSO
2

terms of electronic concept.

(B) Oxidation & reduction Electricity
(ii) 2H2O  2H2+O2
reaction
(C) Decomposition (iii) CaO+CO2CaCO3
reaction
(D) Displacement reaction (iv) H2 + Cl2 2HCl
(E) Double displacement (v) BaCl2 + Na2SO4 BaSO4 +2NaCl
reaction

2. When steam is passed over red-hot coke, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide is formed. Schematically show that it is a redox reaction.
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3.4 Chemical effects of electric current
When an electric current passes through a pure metallic conductor, whether
solid or liquid (e.g. Mercury), there is no chemical effect. That is, no change
THE
in the chemical composition of the conductor takes place. There is only
the heating effect or magnetic effect of current passing through them. But, SPOT 
there is a chemical change when electric current passes through ionic
solutions.
LIGHT
The chemical changes that take place when an electric current passes Sir Humphry Davy was a Coornish
through ionic solutions is called 'chemical effect of electric current'. chemistandphysicist. Davyisolated
(1) Electrolysis the elements magnesium, calcium,
The production of a chemical reaction by passing an electric current through strontium, and barium through the
an electrolyte is called ‘electrolysis’. process of electrolysis.
The process by which free elements are liberated or deposited at electrodes
in an electrolytic solution when an electric current is passed through it is
called ‘electrolysis’.
Process : Electrolysis is carried out in an electrolytic cell (or voltameter).
An electrolytic cell consists of a tank or vessel called ‘electrolytic bath’, two
THE

electrodes (conducting pieces) are immersed in a solution of an electrolyte.
These electrodes are connected to the external circuit consisting of a battery. SPOT
The positively charged electrode is called ‘anode’ and negative ions migrate
to anode. The negatively charged electrode is called ‘cathode’ and positive
LIGHT
ions migrate to cathode. The electric conductionwhich takes
At cathode, reduction of positive ion (cation) takes place and at anode placeinthe solutionsof electrolytes
oxidation of negative ion (anion) takes place. Thus in this way, a chemical duetothemovementofnegativeions
andpositive ionsofthe electrolytes
change takes place by passing electric current through the electrolytic cell.
towards the oppositely charged
Battery electrodes is called electrolytic
conduction.

Anode Cathode

THE
Electrolytic
SPOT 
solution LIGHT
Negative ion Positive ion Metals usuallyformpositive ions by
Fig.19 An electrolytic cell losing electrons. Examples : Na+, K+,
Differences between the conductivities through conductors and Li+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cu2+, Ag+, Zn2+ ions.
electrolytes
Cond uctor s E l ec t r o l y t es
1. Flow of electricity take s place Flow of electricity takes place in
in the solid state. the molten or dissolved states.
2. Flow of electricity is due to the Flow of electricity is due to the
movement of e lectrons movement of ions.
3. There is no chemical There is a chemical
decomposition. decomposition of the substance.
4. It involves a physical change. It involves a chemical change.
THE
5. The electrical conductivity
decreases with increases in
The electrical conductivity
increases with the increase in
SPOT 
temperature . temperature . LIGHT
6. It is in case of metallic It is in case of e lectrolytes. Non-metals usually form negative
substances such as coppe r, ions by gaining electrons.
Examples : F–, Cl–, Br–, I– ,O2–, N3–.
silve r, gold e tc.
7. There is no flow of matter. There is a flow of matter.

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ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 3.10
1. Take out carbon rods carefully from two discarded cells. Clean their metal
Metal Metal caps with sand paper. Wrap copper wires around the metal caps of the
cap Battery cap
carbon rods and join them to a battery (see fig.25). We call these two rods
electrodes. (Instead of carbon rods, you may take two iron nails about 6 cm
long). Pour a cupful of water in a glass/plastic bowl. Add a teaspoonful of
common salt (NaCl) to water to make it more conducting.
2. Now immerse the electrodes in this solution. Make sure that the metal
caps of the carbon rods are outside the water. Wait for 3-4 minutes. Observe
the electrodes carefully. You will notice that gas bubbles are liberated near
both the two electrodes. The change taking place in the solution is a chemical
change. Following reaction takes place in case of sodium chloride solution :
2NaCl(aq.)   2NaOH(aq.) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
Sodium chloride Sodium hydroxide Chlorine gas Hydrogen gas
The process involved in this activity in which electricity produces chemical
Carbon Carbon change is called 'electrolysis'.
rod rod
Common salt solution BUILDING CONCEPTS 3.6
Fig.20 Active chemistry 3.10
Solid soldium chloride do not conduct electricity whereas molten sodium
chloride as well as aqueous sodium chloride conducts electricity. Explain.
Explanation
Conduction of electricity is due to the presence of ions. If ions are present
conduction of electricity takes place and if ions are not present, conduction
of electricity do not take place.
(i) In solid sodium chloride, the ions are held by strong electrostatic forces
of attraction. No free ions are present and hence it does not conduct.
(ii) In molten sodium chloride ; heat required to melt the compound weakens
the force of attraction between the existing ions and dissociate them. The
ions become free to move and starts conducting.
Electrolysis of water
This process is carried out in an electrolytic cell which consists of two platinum
electrodes, these being chosen because platinum does not dissolve into
electrolyte and does not react with products of electrolysis (see fig.10). The
electrodes are immersed in water (electrolyte). A small amount of H2SO 4
acid is added to increase the conductivity by increasing the number of free
THE

ions in the solution. The evolved gases are collected in inverted tubes
SPOT surrounding the electrodes.
LIGHT The chemical reaction involved in electrolysis of water is given by,
Some compounds, which in their Electrolysis
2H 2 O  2H 2  O 2
molten or aqueous state, allow an
electriccurrenttopassthroughthem? Here, hydrogen is liberated at cahode while oxygen is liberated at anode
Such compouunds are called Effects that can be observed during electrolysis
[Link] in
theirmoltenoraqueousstate,donot The passage of an electric current through a conducting solution causes
allow an electric current to pass chemical reactions. Some of the observable chemical effects of the electric
through them are called non-elec- current are :
trolytes.
(1) Bubbles of a gas may be formed on the electrodes.
(2) Deposits of metal may be seen on electrodes.
(3) Changes of colour of solutions may occur.
The reaction would depend on what solution and electrodes are used.
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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
BUILDING CONCEPTS 3.7
Why do non-electrolytes not conduct electricity, either in their fused or
aqueous state ?
Explanation
The solution of a non-electrolyte like alcohol, kerosene carbon disulphide THE
and all organic compounds (almost) contains only molecules and not ions.
Therefore, non-electrolytes do not conduct electricity. SPOT 
Difference between strong and weak electrolytes LIGHT
Ionisation : It is the formation of
S t r o n g el ec t r o l y t es W ea k el ec t r o l y t es positivelyornegativelychargedions
(i) Electrolyte s which allow a large Electrolyte s which allow small frommoleculeswhicharenotinitially
in the ionic state.
amount of electricity to flow amounts of electricity to flow
Example : Polar covalent com-
through them. through them. pounds, HCl
(ii) These are good conductors of These are poor conductors of HCl  H+ + Cl–
electricity. electricity Dissociation : It is the separation
of ions which are already present in
(iii) These are almost, completely These are partially anioniccompound.
dissociated in fused or aqueous dissociated in fused or Example :Electrovalentcompounds,
solutions state. aqueous solution state. NaCl
NaCl Na+ + Cl–
(iv) These solutions contain (almost) These solution contain ions as
only free mobile ions. well as molecules.
(v) Strong e lectrolyte allows a bulb Weak electrolyte allows a
to glow brightly bulb to glow dimly.
Exam ples Exam ples
A c id s – Hydrogen chloride, A c id s – Carbonic acid, ace tic
Sulphuric acid, N itric acid, etc. acid, oxalic acid, etc.
B a s es – N aOH, KOH B a s es – Calcium hydroxide,
(aqueous or molten state) ammonium hydroxide.
S a l t s – NaCl (molten or (aqueous or molten state)
aqueous PbBr 2 (molten), CuCl2 S a l t s – Ammonium
(aq.) CuSO 4 (aq.) carbonate and lead acetate

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 3.5

1. (A) (iii), (iv) ; (B) (ii). (iv) ; (C)  (ii) ; (D) (i) ; (E) (v)
Oxidation (gain of oxygen)

2. C + H2O CO + H2
Reducing Oxidising
agent agent

THE
(2) Electroplating
Reduction (loss of oxygen)
SPOT 
It is the most common application of electrolysis for coating of thin layer LIGHT
of metals like nickel, silver, gold , zinc, etc., on the surface of other metal The process of depositingalayerof
or alloy. any desired metal on another
material by means of electricity is
The process of depositing a thin and uniform layer of a metal on any
called electroplating. It is one of the
conducting surface is called ‘electroplating’. most common applications of
(i) In this process, the conducting material to be electroplated is made chemicaleffectsofelectric current.
‘cathode’ and the metal whose coating is required on the cathode
material is used as anode.
(ii) A soluble salt which contains ions of anode material is taken as electrolyte
when the current is passed through the circuit, following reactions take
place.

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(iii) At anode, oxidation of metal atom to be coated on cathode material
takes place.

M  M n   n e 
Battery
+ – The M p+ ions moves towards the negatively charged cathode through
the electrolyte.
(iv) At cathode, reduction of these ions takes place and their atoms get
deposited on cathode.

M n   n e   M
Thus, anode material decreases gradually and this material gets
__ _ ___ deposited on the cathode material.
__ _ ___
__ _ ___
__ _ __ _
ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 3.11
_ _ _ __ _ __ __
1. Take copper sulphate salt and two copper plate s of size around
_ __ __ ___ _ __
10 cm × 4 cm. Take 250 mL of distilled water in a clean and dry beaker.
Copper Copper Dissolve two teaspoons full of copper sulphate in it. Add a few drops of
plate plate dilute sulphuric acid to copper sulphate solution to make it more conducting.
Copper sulphate solution 2. Clean copper plates with sand paper. Now rinse them with water and dry
Fig.21 Active chemistry 3.11 them. Connect the copper plates to the terminals of a battery and immerse
them in copper sulphate solution (see fig.27)
3. Allow the current to pass for about 15 minutes. Now remove the electrodes
from the solution and look at them carefully. You will find a coating of
copper on the plate (cathode) which is joined with the negative terminal of
the battery. You will also observe that size of copper plate (anode) which is
joined with the positive terminal of the battery is reduced.
Conclusion : The material from the anode get transferred to the cathode
and deposited over it. The reactions that take place in this process are :
At anode : Cu  Cu 2   2e  (Oxidation of Cu)
The copper (Cu2+) ions get into the solution. Since the cathode is negatively
charged, the positively charged Cu2+ ions move towards it.
Switch At cathode : Cu 2   2e   Cu (Reduction of Cu)
Battery The Cu atoms so produced get deposited on the cathode.
Electroplating is a very useful process. It is widely used in industry for
coating metal objects with a thin layer of a different metal. The layer of
metal deposited has some desired property, which the metal of the object
lacks.
Applications of electroplating
(1) Chromium plating is done on many objects such as car parts, bath
taps, kitchen gas burners, bicycle handlebars, wheel rims and many
others. This is because chromium has a shiny appearance and it does
not corrode. Also, it resists scratches.
Anode Cathode
(material to (a spoon) (2) Jewellery makers electroplate silver and gold on less expensive metals.
be plated) These ornaments have the appearance of silver or gold and are
Electrolyte that contains less expensive.
ions of anode material (3) Tin cans, used for storing food, are made by electroplating tin onto
Fig.22 An electroplating process iron. Tin is less reactive than iron. Thus, food does not come into contact
with iron and is protected from getting spoilt.
(4) Iron is used in bridges and automobiles to provide strength. However,
iron tends to corrode and rust. So, a coating of zinc is deposited on
iron to protect it from corrosion and formation of rust.

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CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 3.6
1. Tr u e / f al s e
(i) There are three types of electrodes.
(ii) Lead bromide is electrolysed in solid state.
(iii) Compounds that allow small amount of current to pass through it are
known as non-electrolytes.
Reactant Product
(iv) Passage of electric currrent through an electrolyte represents a chemical
change.
(v) Pure water is a bad conductor of electricity.
Equal
2. Fill in the blanks
Fig.23 Law of conservation of mass
(i) Article to be electroplated should be made .................
(ii) Apparatus in which electrolysis takes place is called ....................
(iii) Electrode connected to positive terminal of battery is called .................
3.5 Calculations from chemical equations
A balanced equation has the relative proportion of atomic masses of the
reactants and products which remain constant. For examples:
Fe + S  FeS
56 amu 32 amu (56 + 32) amu
By knowing the relative proportions of masses of the reactants and products,
we can calculate the mass of the reactants required or the products formed.
Thus, the main points to be kept in mind before solving the numericals are:
(i) What so ever has to be calculated should be kept on the right hand side.
(ii) The general atomic mass which has to be compared initially has to be in
amu.
For example:
2Mg + O2  2MgO
Weight of magnesium will be = 24
Since two molecules are taken, therefore, it will be : 2 × 24 = 48
Weight of oxygen = 16
Since oxygen contains two atoms, so its weight will be : 2 × 16 = 32
(iii) Mass on left hand side will always be equal to mass on the right hand
side.
THE

Brain Twisting Problems
1. Calculate the amount of magnesium oxide formed when 1.2 g of magnesium SPOT
burns completely in oxygen. [Mg = 24, O = 16]. LIGHT
S o l . Magnesium oxide is formed by the following combustion reaction : Molecular mass of a substance
2Mg + O2  2MgO expressed ingrams is also known as
its molar mass or gram molecular
2 × 24 2 × 16 2 × (24 + 16) mass.
48 amu (g) 32 amu (g) 80 amu (g)
When magnesium is 48 amu(g), then amount of magnesium oxide formed
= 80 amu (g).
80
When Mg is 1 then MgO is =
48
80
When Mg is 1.2g then MgO is =  1.2 = 2.0 g
48

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2. How much water must be added to convert 200 kg of calcium oxide (lime)
it all to calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) ? What mass of slaked lime will be
formed ?
S o l . CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
56 18 74 (molecular masses)
56 units CaO react with 18 kg H2O  74 units Ca(OH)2
56 kg CaO react with 18 kg H2O  74 kg Ca(OH2)
(Note : Mass of reactants = mass of products)

18 74
1 kg CaO reacts with kg H2O  kg Ca(OH)2
56 56
THE
SPOT  200 kg CaO react with
18
× 200 kg H2O 
18
× 200 kg Ca(OH)2
LIGHT 56 56

The mole is to the amount of = 64.3 kg water = 264.3 kg calcium hydroxide

substance (or chemical amount) as
the gram is to mass. 3. What will be the increase in mass if 120 g of magnesium is heated in
oxygen ?
S o l . The balanced chemical equation for the reaction is
2Mg + O2  2MgO
2 × 24 2 × 16 2(24 + 16)
= 48 = 32 = 80
From the equation, it is evident that, on reaction with oxygen, 48g of Mg
will form 80 g of MgO.
Thus, the increase in mass for 48 g of Mg is 80g – 48g = 32g.

 32 
 the increase in mass for 120 g of Mg is   120  g  80g
 48 
So, the increase in mass = 80 g.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 3.6

1. (i) False (ii) False (iii) False (iv) True (v) True
2. (i) cathode (ii) voltameter (iii) anode

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