Biodiversity: Exploiters and Exploited
Week 1 – The Wolf
• Most widely distributed of all land mammals
• One of the most adaptable
• Inhabits all vegetation types of N hemisphere.
• Preys on all the large mammals living there.
The Chapter on the book emphasizes or addresses the main points of the wolf (Canis lupus) from its
biology, social structure, taxonomy & morphology, historical interactions with humans and its
conservation efforts.
Wolves belong to the Order: Carnivora, Family: Canidae
In relation to its biology and social structure, wolves are considered as generalists, opportunistic
hunters with a diet ranging from large ungulates like the elk and the bison to small animals such as the
rabbits. Their success in hunting is solely based (or largely attributed to) on their pack-based
organisation. Wolf packs are structed/organised around a complex dominance hierarchy composed of
the alpha pair (male and female), they are the dominating mating couple, the only ones allowed to
breed within the pack. The pack size can vary significantly, influenced by habitat and prey
availability, ranging from 4 to 7, to over 40 individuals. The social structure is maintained through
visual gestures, scent marking, sounds (howling), and displays, ensuring minimal intra-pack violence.
Holding on to its biology, reproduction constitutes a great part of it. Wolves breed through the alpha
pair, producing a litter of 4 to 6 cubs after a 2-month gestation period. The cubs are born blind for 12-
13 days, suckled for 4-6 weeks, and may start to leave the nest when 3 or 6 weeks old, and cubs are
weaned for 9 weeks and are heavily dependent on the pack for survival. They begin participating in
hunts around 6 months of age. Young wolves face a choice between remaining in the pack, attempting
to dethrone the alpha pair, or leaving to start their own packs – a risky endeavour due to territorial
conflicts with other packs. In addition, lone wolves wondering in the wild, die from starvation,
disease, or attacks from other wolves and they rarely survive/live for more than 5-6 years.
When in packs, at the time of prey hunting, wolves usually try to single out the weakest animal
(younger, older, or sickened) in the herd, most commonly the ungulates (preferred prey) (elk and
bison: North America, red deer: Europe). Why? Because one of the greatest adaptations of the
ungulates against predation is their antlers. These animals have the potential to injure or even kill
attacking wolves. Even with antlers, a lone ungulate facing a coordinated pack of wolves has a lower
chance of survival.
In terms of evolution, wolves belong to the family Canidae within the order Carnivora, a group that
split into cat and dog branches 50-60 million years ago. The Canidae family is ancient, with fossil
records dating back 35 million years. Wolves evolved from forest ancestors into savannah-dwelling
creatures due to significant climate changes. By the late Miocene, they had spread across the Bering
Strait into Asia and Europe, eventually reaching North America again around 2 million years ago.
Taxonomy and Subspecies
The taxonomy of wolves is a subject of debate, with differing opinions on the number of valid
subspecies. Notable subspecies in North America include:
Canis lupus lycaon: Eastern timber wolf, smaller with longer legs, narrow snout, large ears,
and primarily found in southeastern Canada.
Canis lupus baileyi: Mexican wolf, the smallest American wolf, adapted to hotter climates,
with a shorter coat and more pointed ears.
Canis lupus nubilus: Great Plains wolf, a typical grey wolf found from Alaska southwards.
Canis lupus arctos: Arctic wolf, with a white coat and short, rounded ears, inhabiting
northern and eastern Greenland and parts of Canada.
Canis lupus occidentalis: Northern wolf, large and nomadic, traveling with caribou herds
across western Canada and southwards.
Canis rufus: red wolf, smaller with a long, narrow muzzle, found in the southeastern USA
and often considered a distinct species rather than a subspecies.
Historical Interaction with Humans
Wolves have coexisted with humans for at least 500,000 years. Their relationship has been
marked by both cooperation, leading to domestication, and conflict, driven by fear and
superstition. Wolves were eradicated from much of Europe and North America through
organized hunts and government programs in the 18th and 19th centuries. This historical
extermination was driven by the perception of wolves as threats to livestock and humans.
Mythology and Cultural Perceptions
i) Norse Mythology: Wolves feature prominently, with the Fenris-Wolf being a key figure.
ii) Medieval Symbolism: Wolves symbolized deceit and greed, often portrayed negatively.
iii) Positive Emblems: In some stories, wolves are seen as noble or protective, such as in the
legend of Romulus and Remus.
Domestication and Evolution of Dogs
The domestication of wolves into dogs is a significant aspect of their history. Dogs evolved
from wolves alone, with molecular genetic studies indicating multiple domestication events or
significant backcrossing with wolves. The exact timing of domestication is debated, with
estimates ranging from 15,000 to 135,000 years ago. Early domesticated dogs likely bred
freely with wolves, leading to the wide genetic diversity seen today.
The morphological and behavioural differences between dogs and wolves suggest
paedomorphosis, where dogs retain juvenile characteristics of wolves into adulthood. This
phenomenon is common in domesticated animals and has implications for the classification of
dogs as either a distinct species (Canis familiaris) or a subspecies of wolves (Canis lupus
familiaris).
Conservation Efforts
Historical Hunting: Wolves were hunted for attacks on humans and livestock and for carrying
rabies.
Population Decline: From an estimated 33 million wolves worldwide during the late
Pleistocene, the number has declined to around 300,000 today.
Modern conservation efforts aim to restore wolf populations and manage their interactions
with human activities. Reintroduction programs, such as those in Yellowstone National Park
and Idaho, have been instrumental in increasing wolf numbers and studying their ecological
impact. These efforts faced opposition from livestock industries but have been supported by
compensation programs and managed by indigenous groups like the Nez Perce tribe.
