Lecture 7

Prepositions and Preposition Phrases

I. General Characteristics of Prepositions

Prepositions constitute a smaller group of lexemes compared to the more expansive open categories of verbs,
nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. The existing lexicon comprises approximately a hundred prepositions.
Although traditional grammarians list even fewer, the present treatment diverges from this tradition. While
all traditionally labeled prepositions maintain their classification in this treatment, additional prepositions,
previously designated as adverbs or 'subordinating conjunctions,' are acknowledged.

A table illustrating examples of words falling into the category of prepositions is presented below.

These words share the following properties.

 They require NPs as complements.

Typically, words are traditionally considered prepositions only if they have complements in the form of NPs.
In the provided pairs, traditional grammar classifies the underlined words in [a] as prepositions, while those
in [b] are not accepted:

TRADITIONALLY A PREPOSITION TRADITIONALLY NOT A PREPOSITION

1 a. The sun sank [below the horizon]. b. I went [below].
2 a. I haven't seen her [,since Easter]. b. I haven't seen her [since she left town].
3 a. They set off [despite the rain]. b. We stayed indoors [because of the rain].
4 a. He jumped [out of the window]. b. He jumped [out the window].

In [1b], "below" fails to qualify as a preposition because it lacks any complement. The items in [b] fail because
their complements are not NPs; [2b] has a clause, and [3b/4b] has a prepositional phrase headed by "of." The
use of "without" is divided. In American English (AmE), it can sometimes take an NP complement, as in [4a].
In British English (BrE), however, it requires "of," making it a preposition in AmE but not in BrE.

 Absence of Inflection:
Prepositions, according to traditional grammar, lack inflection. For instance, the preposition "at" remains
unchanged; there are no variations such as *atter, *ats, or similar forms.

 Meaning: Relations in Space or Time:

The meanings associated with traditional prepositions often involve relations in space or time. For example,
"at the post office" identifies a spatial location, "into the garden" indicates a direction of travel, and "after
lunch" locates a time period following lunchtime. While most prepositions possess this spatial or temporal
meaning, not all do (e.g., "despite" in They set off despite the rain.). Therefore, this characteristic cannot be
used as a definitive condition for membership in the prepositional class.

 Function: Head of a Wide Range of Dependents

Prepositions serve as heads for phrases that typically fulfill various functions, particularly as dependents of
either nouns or verbs. This includes, as a special case, functioning as the complement of the verb "be." In the
examples below, single underlining denotes the prepositional phrase (PP), while double underlining
highlights the head on which it depends:
Dependent of Noun Dependent of Verb Complement of "be" Clause
a house at the beach He saw her at school. He is at lunch. That was before he died.
the chair in the corner She fell in the pool. We were in the pool. They arrived after they left.
the woman from Paris She comes from She is from Paris. They knew before we did.
Paris.
a bottle of milk I don't approve of it. That is of interest. It was after I saw her.

PREPOSITIONS VS ADVERBS

Traditionally, words such as "aboard," "above," "beneath," "beyond," "over," "past," "across," "after," "along,"
"by," "down," "in," "behind," "below," "off," "outside," "round," "since," "through," "under," and "up" are
analyzed as prepositions when they are accompanied by an NP (noun phrase) complement and as adverbs
when they lack a complement. The distinction hinges on whether these words are modifying a noun phrase
or acting independently to provide additional information about the action or state described in the sentence:

USED AS A PREPOSITION USED AS AN ADVERB

aboard She went aboard the liner. She went aboard.
above She hung the picture above the fireplace. The plane flew above.
beneath He dug beneath the surface. She hid a small gift beneath.
beyond His actions went beyond expectations. His talent goes beyond.
over The plane flew over the mountains. The meeting is over.
through They walked through the forest. They managed to go through.
under The treasure was hidden under the bed. She peeked from under, with a grin on her face.
up She looked up at the stars. She looked up.
outside He sat outside her bedroom. He sat outside.

GEAMMATICISED USES OF PREPOSITIONS

An important characteristic observed in approximately a dozen of the most common prepositions is their
grammaticised uses, as demonstrated in the following examples:

Structure Explanation
The article was written The preposition "by" marks the NP (a first-year student) in a passive
by a first-year student. clause, indicating the subject of the related active clause ( A first-year
student wrote an article).
The sudden death of the "Of" marks the NP (the president), corresponding to the subject of the
president stunned the related active clause (The president died) or the genitive subject-
nation. determiner in an equivalent NP (the president’s sudden death).
I transferred several "To" marks the complement of the verb "transfer."
hundred dollars to
 them.
Their request for "For" marks the complement of the noun "request."
assistance was ignored.
They all seem quite "On" marks the complement of the adjective "keen."
keen on the idea.

The term "grammaticised" is appropriate because the positioning of these prepositions in sentences is
determined by grammatical rules rather than their inherent meanings. They lack a distinct meaning of their
own and cannot be replaced by other prepositions without altering the grammatical construction.
Noteworthy prepositions with grammaticised uses include "as," "at," "by," "for," "from," "in," "of," "on," "than,"
"to," and "with." While they constitute a small subset of prepositions, their grammaticised uses contribute
significantly to the occurrences of prepositions in texts.

The characteristic of appearing in grammaticised uses aids in distinguishing the entire category from others.
Now, we can formulate a reasonably practical general definition of 'preposition,' serving as a foundation for
consistent use across different languages:

 The term "preposition" applies to a relatively limited group of words, primarily characterized by basic
meanings related to spatial and temporal relations. Within this category, its prototypical members
include grammaticised words that function to mark various grammatical functions.

PREPOSITION STRANDING

In specific non-canonical clause constructions, the complement of a preposition may be moved to the front of
the clause, preceding the preposition, rather than occupying its standard complement position after the
preposition. In the examples below, the preposition is highlighted, and the complement is underlined.

1. Who did they vote for?

2. I can't find the book which she was referring to.

In this context, the preposition is described as stranded, signifying its placement before a location where its
understood complement is missing.

An alternative to the stranding construction presented above is the use of preposition fronting. This involves
placing the preposition at the beginning of the clause, accompanying the NP (noun phrase) understood as its
complement. Examples illustrating preposition fronting alternatives to the sentences illustrated above are
provided below:

1. For whom did they vote?

2. I can't find the book to which she was referring.

The decision between employing stranding and fronting constructions is influenced by various factors, with
specific cases favoring one over the other. Two types of factors come into play: style and particular syntactic
features of the involved clause.

 Style: the fronted construction is more formal compared to the stranded one. This stylistic contrast is
evident in the following pair of interrogative clauses:
Stranded Preposition Fronted Preposition
a. Where did this come from? b. From where did this come?
Version [a] is considered more natural, with [b] sounding stiff and unfamiliar to most speakers. While
interrogatives with preposition fronting are heard in planned and organized speech, such as in a formal
interview, the stranding construction is strongly preferred in everyday conversation.

 Syntactic Factors Disfavoring Stranding:

In spite of the traditional prescriptive caution against preposition stranding, which is widely regarded as
unfounded, there are syntactic circumstances that can make preposition stranding almost or entirely
impossible. Some examples include:

Stranded Preposition
1a ❌ This is the safe [which the key to was stolen].
2a ❌ I have a lecture ending at two [which I'll be free all day after].
3a ❌ What way am I annoying you in?
Fronted Preposition
1b ✓ This is the safe [of which the key was stolen].
2b ✓ I have a lecture ending at two [after which I'll be free all day].
3b ✓ In what way am I annoying you?

In [1a], the stranded preposition occurs within a subject NP (the subject of was stolen), making it fairly clear
that this is ungrammatical. In [2a], the PP (prepositional phrase) is in an adjunct function, specifically an
adjunct of time. While the stranding construction is avoided in many adjuncts, it is less strong for adjuncts of
place. However, certain fixed adjunct expressions, like the manner adjunct in [3b], cannot be split up by
stranding.

 Syntactic Factors Disfavoring Non-Stranding:

It is often overlooked that there are syntactic circumstances that make the non-stranded version, with
preposition fronting, almost or entirely impossible. Examples include:

Stranded Preposition Fronted Preposition

1 a That depends on [who I give it to]. b That depends on [to whom I give it].
2 a What did you hit me for? b For what did you hit me?
3 a Which metals does it consist of? b Of which metals does it consist?

In [1], the clause containing the preposition is a subordinate interrogative clause functioning as a
complement to a preposition, making stranding obligatory. In [2], the idiom "what for," meaning "why," does
not allow fronting. In [3], the verb "consist" prefers the stranding construction with a specified preposition,
and while the [b] version isn't grammatically forbidden, it sounds stiff and formal.

II. The Structure of Preposition Phrases (PPs)

Prepositions serve as the heads of phrases, and in this capacity, they can accommodate various dependents,
encompassing both complements and modifiers.

 Complements:
Prepositions exhibit a diverse range of complement types, akin to verbs. The following table illustrates the
complement types that prepositions can take, according to modern linguistic framework:

Complement Type Example

Object NP I was talking to a friend.
Predicative I regard her as a friend.
PP (Prepositional Phrase) I stayed until after lunch.
ADVP (Adverbial Phrase) It won't last for long.
Clause I left because I was tired.

 Object and Predicative:

When considering prepositions, similar distinctions between objects and predicative complements, as
observed with verbs, are necessary.

Complement Type Example

Object NP I was visiting a friend.
Predicative I consider her a friend. / I consider her as a friend.

"A friend" functions as the object NP in the first example, indicating the direct object of the verb "visiting": it
answers the question "Whom or what was I visiting?" and indicates the target of the action expressed by the
verb. In the second set of examples, it functions as a predicative complement, providing information about
the subject and expressing the result of the action conveyed by the verb "consider", thus, completing its
meaning. In some cases, the preposition "as" is used before the predicative complement, as seen in the second
example. Both structures are grammatically correct, and the choice between them often depends on style or
preference.

The crucial syntactic distinction lies in the fact that a predicative can assume the form of an AdjP (e.g., "I
regard her as very bright," where "as" is the preposition) or a bare role NP (e.g., "They elected her as
treasurer"). While almost all predicatives in PP structure occur with "as," certain verbs, like "take," permit PP
complements consisting of "for" + predicative, as in “I took him for dead.”

 Prepositional Phrases (PPs):

Prepositions have two types of complements within prepositional phrases:

1. PPs Denoting Times or Places:

Examples include staying until after lunch, coming from behind the curtain, and being here since
before lunch, etc.
2. Prepositions with Specified Preposition Complements:

Examples include:

 "to" as in according to, due to, owing to, prior to, pursuant to, etc.
 "of" as in ahead of, because of, instead of, out of, etc.
 "from" as in away from, apart from, aside from, etc.
  Adverbial Phrases (AdvPs):

There are a few fixed PreP + AdvP combinations that could be considered prepositions taking
adverb phrases as complements. Examples include before long, for later, until recently, and very few
others.

 Subordinate Clauses:

Numerous prepositions take various types of subordinate clauses as complements, including those
traditionally labeled as 'subordinating conjunctions.' For instance:

 She stayed behind for a few minutes after the others had left.

 They complained because we didn't finish the job this week.

THE EXCEPTIONAL PREPOSITION “AGO”

The preposition "ago" is unique in that it consistently appears after its complement. This exceptional behavior
is rooted in its historical origin, originating from the past participle of "go." Originally, "two weeks ago"
meant "two weeks gone," indicating a point in time that is now two weeks into the past.

Dictionaries commonly classify "ago" as an adverb, but there is compelling evidence supporting its
classification as a preposition, with its only exception being its position relative to the complement. For
instance: “I recall his behavior two weeks ago”; “That was two weeks ago”, where “two weeks” is a
complement of “ago”, which precedes the preposition. We see that “ago” phrases readily modify nouns or
function as predicative complement to verbs like “be”: these functions are characteristic of PPs, not AdvPs.

III. PP Complements in Clause Structure

PPs serve as complements or modifiers across various elements, including verbs, nouns, adjectives, and more.
In this section, our focus is specifically on their role as complements of verbs.

GOAL, SOURCE AND LOCATION

Complements indicating goal, source, and location are most commonly expressed through PPs. Goal and
source come into play in clauses representing motion or metaphorical motion. The goal refers to the
destination of movement, while the source denotes the origin:

PPs as Complements of Verbs

Verb Example Sentence with PP Complement

Drive We drove from Boston to New York. (source + goal)
Jump He jumped off the table into her arms. (source + goal)
Fall She fell into the pool. (goal)

Complements such as goal and source PPs indisputably function as complements, requiring licensing from
the verb, typically one associated with motion. Examples of PPs serving as location complements can be
observed in sentences like:
  The suitcase is located underneath my bed.
 She remained situated in her bedroom all morning.

THE COMPLEMENTS OF PREPOSITIONAL VERBS

We have observed that several prepositions have grammaticised uses, particularly those where a specific
preposition is determined by the head of a larger construction, such as a verb, noun, or adjective.
A category of verbs known as prepositional verbs features prominently in constructions, as demonstrated
below:
Intransitive Prepositional Verbs: Transitive Prepositional Verbs: Predicative Prepositional Verbs:

She abided by their decision. He accused her of fraud. That counts as satisfactory.
He asked for water. I won't hold it against you. He had passed for dead.
I'm counting on her help. He'll treat me to lunch. I served as secretary.
We came across some errors. She convinced us of her innocence. I regard that as unfair.
The meal consists of fruit and vegetables. They supplied us with weapons. They rated it as a success.
He took me for a fool.

The prepositions initiating the underlined prepositional phrases in these examples are not interchangeable
with other prepositions. The verbs' complement-licensing properties explicitly specify the particular
preposition heading the complement.

FOSSILISATION

Fossilization refers to certain verb + preposition combinations that exhibit fixed positions, allowing no
variation in their relative order. An instance of such fossilization is the combination "come across," meaning
"find by chance," as illustrated in "I came across some letters written by my grandmother." This is contrasted
with the non-fossilized combination "ask for," meaning "request," exemplified in "I asked for some
information."

The distinction between fossilized and non-fossilized combinations is further illustrated in the construction
of relative clauses. In the non-fossilized case, both variants of the relative clause construction are allowed,
where the preposition occurs after the verb, as seen in "the information [which I asked for]," or after the
relative pronoun, as in "the information [for which I asked]." However, with fossilized combinations like
"come across," only the first variant is grammatically permissible, as demonstrated by the ungrammatical
construction "the letters [across which I came]." This restriction arises from the fixed order enforced by
fossilization, preventing any deviation from the established sequence of verb + preposition. The fronted
preposition construction, incompatible with the fossilized expression "come across," is not grammatically
acceptable in this context.

Here is a grouped table for better clarity:

Type Example Grammatical?

Non-fossilized I asked for some information. Yes
the information [which I asked for] Yes
the information [for which I asked] Yes
Fossilized I came across some letters. Yes
the letters [which I came across] Yes
*the letters [across which I came] No
The same kind of fossilisation is found in transitive clauses:

Type Example Relative Clause (Which) Grammatical?

Non-Fossilized He accused her of a the crime [which he accused her of] Yes
crime.
the crime [of which he accused her] Yes
Fossilized I let him off some work. the work [which I let him off] Yes
*the work [off which I let him] No

In transitive clauses, fossilization occurs in verb + preposition combinations. For instance, "accused of" is non-
fossilized, allowing flexible word order, while "let off" is fossilized, rigidly requiring the preposition to follow
the verb.
The stranded preposition construction is allowed in both non-fossilized and fossilized cases, but the fronted
preposition construction is permissible only in non-fossilized instances.

PARTICLE

Particles are unique complements that have the flexibility to appear between the verb and its direct object. A
clear distinction is evident when comparing the particle "down" with the non-particle "downstairs" below:

Type Example Structure

Particle She took the suitcase down. She took down the suitcase.
Non-Particle She took the suitcase downstairs. *She took downstairs the suitcase.

Here, "down" being a particle, can freely occur between the verb and its object, while "downstairs," a non-
particle, cannot maintain this order.
Common particles, which are typically one or two syllable prepositions without their own complement,
include: along, away, off, on, back, by, down, forward, in, out, over, round, under, up.
However, a specific constraint exists regarding the placement of particles before unstressed personal pronoun
objects. The order "particle + object" is considered unacceptable if the object takes the form of an unstressed
personal pronoun (pronounced with less emphasis or stress in a sentence). For example:

a. She took it off. b. *She took off it.

IV. Verbal Idioms

An idiom is a combination of words whose meaning cannot be predicted solely from the meanings of its
individual components. A verbal idiom is an idiom that starts with a verb. For instance, "kick the bucket,"
meaning "to die," serves as a classic example, where the meaning cannot be deducted from the individual
words "kick" or "bucket."

English features a multitude of verbal idioms, many of which incorporate prepositions. Several examples have
been discussed earlier, such as "hold + NP + against + NP" , "come across + NP" and "let + NP + off + NP".
Additional constructions frequently containing such verbal idioms are exemplified below:

Idioms with a Verb and Preposition (Without Complement):

 Example Explanation
He finally backed down. Verb + Preposition without complement.
Her father passed away. Verb + Preposition without complement.
When will you grow up? Verb + Preposition without complement.
Kim and Pat have fallen out. Verb + Preposition without complement.
Do you think the idea will Verb + Preposition without complement.
catch on?

Idioms with a Verb + Preposition (Without Complement) + Preposition (With NP Complement):

Example Explanation
This ties in with your first point.
Verb + Preposition without complement, followed by Preposition with
NP complement.
I'm not going to put up with this Verb + Preposition without complement, followed by Preposition with
any longer. NP complement.
Liz just gets by on her pension. Verb + Preposition without complement, followed by Preposition with
NP complement.
You should stand up to him. Verb + Preposition without complement, followed by Preposition with
NP complement.

The concept of an idiom is primarily lexical. Idioms, with their distinctive forms and specific idiomatic
meanings, need to be cataloged and explained in a language dictionary. However, beyond this aspect, they do
not constitute distinct syntactic units with peculiar structures. In terms of syntactic structure, they generally
align with ordinary structures and often mirror the structure of the same sequence of words when the
meaning is literal and predictable.

V. Prepositional Idioms and Fossilisation

In the previous section, we focused on verbal idioms—idioms that start with a verb. Now, let us explore
prepositional idioms, which start with a preposition. Specifically, we will examine a selection of expressions
in the form of preposition + noun + preposition, known for their idiomatic meanings and significant or
complete fossilization in syntax.

Prepositional Idioms:
Example Meaning
By means of hard work. Through hard work.
By virtue of her age. Because of her age.
On behalf of my son. Representing my son.
In front of the car. Positioned before the car.
With effect from today. Starting from today.
In league with the devil. Allied with the devil.
With knowledge of his goals. Having awareness of his goals.

Fossilisation restricts the independent variation of its components compared to ordinary sequences. An
example of this restriction is evident in the inability to omit the first preposition in examples below, to create
NPs that can be utilized elsewhere:

 Means of hard work enabled her to pass the exam. (Not grammatical)
  Virtue of her age led them to drop the charges. (Not grammatical)

In conclusion, the study of prepositions and prepositional phrases reveals their multifaceted roles in language
structure. Prepositions serve as connectors, establishing relationships between various elements in a sentence.
The syntactic functions of prepositions extend beyond simple spatial or temporal indications, encompassing
complex structures such as prepositional phrases, verbal idioms, and fossilised expressions. Understanding the
intricate ways prepositions operate enhances our grasp of syntax, enabling a more nuanced analysis of
sentence structures. From governing nouns and verbs to participating in idiomatic constructions, prepositions
contribute significantly to the richness and flexibility of language, underscoring their pivotal role in effective
communication.

Further reading and homework:

 Rodney Huddleston & Geoffrey K.Pullum –Introduction to English Grammar, Cambridge University
Press, pp. 127- 147
 Complete the exercises on pp. 147-148

Compiled by Valeria Purtseladze,

[email protected]