Technical Training Programme {BASIC SCIENCE} Basic

Instruments

Basic Instruments

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Technical Training Programme {BASIC SCIENCE} Basic
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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: Process Instrumention and Variables.

CHAPETR 2: Basic Measuring and Indicating Instruments.

CHAPTER 3: Pneumatic Instrumentation.

CHAPTER 4: Electronic Instruments.

CHAPTER 5: Instrument Mechanical and Electrical.

CHAPTER 6: Valves and Actutors.

CHAPTER 7: Alarm and shutdown Systems.

CHAPTER 8: Programmable Logic controllers (PLC’S).

CHAPTER 9: Automatic Control.

CHAPTER 10: Introduction to Scada and DCS System.

CHAPTER 11: Introduction to Intrinsic Safety.

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CHAPTER 1

PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION
AND PROCESS VARIABLES

Sub-Objectives:
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Define the variables used in instrumentation and control.

2. Understand the role of each block in a control system.

3. Locate each element either in plant or in panel sides.

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PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION
AND PROCESS VARIABLES

General Terminology and Glossary:

Figure (1) is a schematic diagram of automatic closed-loop control system.

REFERENCE ERROR SIGNAL

FORWARD PATH CONTROLLED
SIGNAL
VARIABLE

FINAL
Set REFERENCE ERROR Control PLANT
CONTROL
TRANSDUCER DETECTOR Algorithm PROCESS
Point ELEMENT

CONTROLLER MANIPULATED
VARIABLE

THE LOOP
FEEDBACK
SIGNAL
FEEDBACK
TRANSDUCER

FEEDBACK PATH
Figure (1)

Controlled variable: is the process variable bieng controlled. Typically, it is

temperature, flow, pressue, or level variables.

Manipulated variable: is the variable bieng changed or manipulated in order to get

the controlled variable close to the reference set point.

Set point: is the desired value specified by the operator in physical units.

Reference transducer: is the converter of set point from physical units into an
electrical signal in case of electrical controller.

Error Signal: is the difference between the measured and reference variables.

Feedback transducer: is converting a physical controlled variable variation into a

proportional mechanical or/and electrical variations.

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Feedforward path: is the direction to feed input to the controlled process.

Feedback path: is the direction to feed input to the controller

Control algorithm: is the function implemented by the controller. Typically, it is

on/off, P (proportional), PI (proportional-integral), or PID(proportional -integral-
derivative),.

Final control element: It is power actuator that controls the input to the process in
proportion to the output from the controller.

Panel and Process Sides:

Actual Controlled
Energy Actuator Temperature Output
Input (Motor) Process
C

Trasnducer
Process Side (Sensor)
(Thermocouple)
m.v
TT
Panel Side Power Transmitter
Interface
TIC 4-20 mA
4-20 mA
Controller

Function Diagram
Figure (2)

Figure (2) is a control system function diagram. Sometimes, the transmitter is part of
the controller itself. The process, measurement transducer, and the final control are in
the plant location. In the control panel, the controllers, some transmitters and signal
conditioners are mounted.

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CHAPTER 2

BASIC MEASURING AND INDICATING

INSTRUMENTS

Sub-Objectives:

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Understand the different classifications of process instruments.

2. Know different types of pressure transmitters.

3. Differentiate between different flow transmitters.

4. Overview various temperature transducers.

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BASIC MEASURING AND INDICATING INSTRUMENTS

1. Introduction

In process plants, instruments play a very important role in monitoring, controlling

and recording operations parameters and assuring the efficiency and safety of the
plant.

Proper understanding of instruments and control systems function, operation,

calibration and maintenance is a basic requirement throughout the plant life.

Instruments in a process plant can be classified to different ways according to the

physical quantity they measure, to the function they perform or to their location
relative to the plant.

Classification according to physical quantities divide instruments into : -

 Pressure Instruments
 Flow level Instruments
 Temperature Instruments
 Analytical Instruments
 Miscellaneous Instruments

Classification of instruments according to function will divide them into : -

 Transmitters
 Transducers
 Gauges
 Indicators
 Recorders
 Totalizers
 Controllers
 Final Control Elements (Valves)

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Classification of instruments according to design will divide them into : -

 Pneumatic Instruments
 Electronic Instruments (Analogue)
 Electronic Instruments (Digital)

Classification according to location will divide them into : -

 Field Instruments
 Local Panel Instruments
 Central Control Panel Instruments.

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Pressure Measurement

The measurement of pressure is possibly the most important function in automatic

control. This is because pressure measurement is used as a means of indicating and
controlling other variables in the system.

Pressure

Pressure is force divided by the area over which it is applied. At sea level, the
atmosphere exerts a pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch to support a column of
mercury 29.92 inches in height. For pressure measurement, 29.92 inches of mercury
and 14.7 psia are used as standards and are commonly referred to as absolute
pressure.

Gauge pressure makes no allowance for atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure

varies according to elevation the effect of here is included in the measurement, then
absolute pressure (gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure) must be used. Absolute
and gauge pressure are used extensively in instrumentation and control, and it is very
important to be certain which scale is used.

Pressure Standards

One calibration standard that is employed in pressure-measuring instruments Is a

dead weight tester (Figure 1). The principle of a dead weight tester is similar to that
of a balance scale. The force of gravity acts on a known mass, which in turn exerts a
force on a known area. A pressure then exists throughout the fluid contained in the
system and is recorded. The pressure is increased with a crank or pump until the
pressure supports a known weight.

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Another type of dead weight tester is shown in Figure 2. This type is a pneumatic
dead weight tester and is a self-regulating primary pressure standard. An accurate
calibrating pressure is produced by establishing equilibrium between the air pressure
below the ball against weights of known mass on the top. A flow regulator introduces
pressure under the ball to produce lift and establish equilibrium. The ball is
suspended when the vented flow equals the flow from the regulator.

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Direct Pressure Measurement Instruments

Instruments for production facilities and gas plants usually include simple
mechanical pressure gages, pressure recorders and indicators, and pneumatic and
electronic pressure transmitters. A pressure transmitter makes a pressure
measurement and generates either a pneumatic or electrical signal that is proportional
to the pressure being sensed.

Bell Instrument

The bell instrument (Figure 3) measures the pressure difference in the compartment
on each side of the bell-shaped chamber. This instrument may be used in the
following ways:

Desired Pressure Instrument

Reading Configuration

Gauge Lower compartment vented to

atmosphere

Absolute Lower compartment evacuated

Differential Higher pressure applied to top chamber

and lower pressure applied to bottom
chamber

The bell instrument is generally used where very low pressures must be measured
and recorded with reasonable accuracy.

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Slack or Limp-Diaphragm

The slack or limp-diaphragm instrument (Figure 4) is also used when very small
pressures are to be sensed. The range for this instrument is from 0 to 0.5 inches of
water to 0 to 100 inches of water above atmospheric pressure.

To measure pressure, the low-pressure chamber on top is vented to the atmosphere.

The pressure to be measured is applied to the high pressure chamber on the bottom.
This causes the diaphragm to move upward until the force on the diaphragm is equal
to that of the spring.

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Pressure Gauges

Simple pressure gages are scattered throughout production facilities and gas plants to
measure and indicate existing pressures. The most common of all pressure gauges
uses the C-shaped Bourdon tube (Figure 5). The tube is a thin flattened metallic tube
bent in the shape of the letter C. As pressure is applied internally, the tube attempts to
straighten out. This movement can be used to position the pointer on the face of the
geuge through a link, sector and gear, or other mechanical linkages. When the
internal pressure decreases, the tube moves towards its original shape.

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Two other types of Bourdon tubes are the spiral (Figure 6) and helical (Figure 7)
wrapped tubes. The spiral and helical are in effect multi-turn Bourdon tubes. Spirals
are commonly used for pressure ranges of 0 to 200 psi, and helical are designed to
measure pressures from 0-80,000 psi.

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To measure absolute pressure, the reading must make allowances for atmospheric
pressure. This may be accomplished by using a double spiral element (Figure 8). In
this element, two spirals are used. One is evacuated and sealed, and the second spiral
has a measured pressure applied. These two spiral elements are mechanically linked
thus providing an absolute zero reference.

Metallic Bellows

A bellows is an expendable element, similar to an accordion, made of a series of

folds called convolutions (Figure 9). When pressure is applied internally to the
bellows it expands. Due to the sizeable area of the bellows, the applied pressure
develops a considerable force to actuate an indicating or recording mechanism.

Metallic bellows are used from pressure ranges of a few ounces to many pounds per
square inch.

Using a spring with a bellows has several advantages over the spring characteristics
of the bellows alone. The calibration procedure is simplified since adjustments are
made only on the spring.

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When a measurement of absolute pressure is required, two bellows may be used
(Figure 10). One bellows is a measuring bellows, and the other bellows is a
compensating bellows.

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FLOW MEASUREMENT

The oil and gas industry by its very nature deals constantly with flowing fluids, and
measurement of these flows is essential to the operation of the facility and plant.
These measurements are indicated, recorded, totalized, and used for control.

Fluid flow measurement is accomplished by:

A. Displacement
Positive displacement meters
Metering pumps

B. Constriction Type, Differential Head

1. Closed conduit or pipe

a. Orifice plate
b. Venture tube
c. Flow nozzle
d. Piton tube
e. Elbow
f. Target (drag force)
g. Variable area (rotameter)

2. Open channel

a. Weir
b. Flume

C. Velocity Flowmeters

1. Magnetic
2. Turbine
3. Vortex or swirl
4. Ultrasonic
5. Thermal

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Displacement

Positive displacement meters and metering pumps measure discrete quantities of

flowing fluid. Examples are domestic water and gas meters and gasoline pumps.

Constriction Or Differential Head

It is flow rate-quantity per time, such as gallons per minute-

This type of flow measurement uses a primary device or restriction in the flow line to
create a change in fluid velocity that is sensed as a differential pressure across the
restriction. The instrument used to sense this differential pressure is called the
secondary device, and this measurement is proportional to the square root of the flow
rate. The flow-measuring system, often called a flowmeter, consists of properly
connected primary and secondary devices.

For simplicity, the relationship between the flow rate (Q) and the differential pressure
head, (h) experienced across a restriction for liquid flow can be expressed as: Q
= (Constant) x

Primary Devices
The orifice plate is the most popular primary device. Orifice plates (Figure 11) are
applicable to all clean fluids, but are not generally applicable to fluids containing
suspended solids.

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A conventional orifice plate consists of a thin circular plate containing a concentric

hole. The plate is usually made of stainless steel. Another primary device is the
Venturi tube shown in Figure 12. The Venturi tube produces a large differential with
a minimum permanent pressure loss. It has the added advantage of being able to
measure flows containing suspended solids. The most significant disadvantage is its
cost which, when compared with other primary devices, is high.

The flow nozzle (Figure 13) has some similarity to the Venturi tube but does not
have a diffuser cone, and this limits its ability to minimise permanent pressure-less.
The Venturi tube or flow nozzle is chosen to minimise permanent pressure loss or to
handle suspended solids in the flow material.

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Occasionally a pipe elbow (Figure 14) may be used as a primary device. Elbow taps
have an advantage in that most piping configurations contain elbows that can be
used.

The disadvantages are that accuracy will be lacking and dirty flows may tend to plug
the taps.

The variable area (Figure 15) meter is a form of head meter. In this flowmeter, the
area of the flow restriction varies so as to maintain a constant differential pressure.
The variable area meter, which is often called a rotameter, consists of a vertical
tapered tube through which the fluid flow being measured passes in an upward
direction.

As the flow moves up through the tapered tube, it elevated the float until balance
between gravity acting on the float and the upward force created by the flow is
achieved. In achieving this balance of forces, the area through which the fluid passes
has automatically been adjusted to accommodate that flow rate.

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The tapered tube is often made of transparent material so the float position can be
observed and related to a scale calibrated in units of flow rate. The rotameter is often
used to measure low-flow rates. Flow rate measurements in open channels are
fundamental to handling waste water.

The primary devices used in open-channel flow rate measurements are weirs and
flumes.
In weir measurement (Figure 16) the nape, or profile of water over the weir, must be
completely aerated if good accuracy is required.

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Secondary Devices

Secondary instruments measure the differential produced at the primary devices and
convert it into a signal for transmission or into a motion for indication, recording, or
totalization.

Secondary instruments include the mercury manometer, diaphragm (bellows) meter,

and various types of force-balance and motion-balance pneumatic and electronic
transmitters

VELOCITY FLOWMETERS

Velocity flowmeters include three basic types: the magnetic flowmeter, the vortex
flowmeter, and the turbine flowmeter.

Turbine Flowmeter

The turbine meter derives its name from its operating principle. A turbine wheel
(rotor) is set in the path of the flowing fluid. As the fluid enters the open volume
between the blades of the rotor, it is deflected by the angle of the blades and imparts
a force causing the rotor to turn. The speed at which the rotor turns is related, over a
specified range, linearly to flow rate.

Fig 17 Turbine Flowmeter

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Turbine flowmeters have excellent accuracy and good rangeability. They are limited
to clean fluids. They are expensive, but do have desirable features.

Magnetic Flowmeter

The principle of the magnetic flowmeter (Figure 18) is based on Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction which states:

The voltage induced in a conductor length moving through a magnetic field is

proportional to the velocity of the conductor. The voltage is generated in a plane that
is perpendicular to both the velocity of the conductor and the magnetic field.

Its advantages are no obstruction to flow, hence no head loss; it can accommodate
solids in suspension; and it has no pressure connections to plug up. It is relatively
accurate and has a linear flow rate to output relationship. Its disadvantages are that
measured material must be liquid; the liquid must have some electrical conductivity;
and it is expensive.

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Vortex Flowmeter

The vortex flowmeter measures liquid, gas, or steam flow rates using the principle of
vortex shedding. The transmitter produces either an electronic analogue or pulse rate
signal linearly proportional to volumetric flow rate.

The phenomenon of vortex shedding can occur when / ever a non-stream-lined

obstruction is placed in a flowing stream.
The shear layer breaks down after some length of travel into well-defined vortices as
shown in Figure 19.

Fig 19 Vortex Flowmeter.

Differential pressure changes occur as the vortices: formed. This pressure variation is
used to actuate the sealed sensor at a frequency proportional to vortex shedding.

The final output signal is available either in pulse from with each pulse representing a
discrete quantity of fluid for totalizing or, optionally, as a 4 to 20 milliamp DC
analogue signal for flow rate recording or control.

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LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Direct or Local Measurement

Steel tapes having weights like plumb bobs and stored conveniently on a reel, are still
used extensively for measuring liquid level in storage tanks. Figure 20 shows such a
liquid-level gauge used for measuring or, more correctly, gauging the height of oil in
a stock tank. Gages of this type may be 18 feet or more in length.

Another simple level measurement device is the float and cable instrument. This
instrument measures liquid level by a float that rides on the surface of the liquid.

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Float devices have the advantage of simplicity and are insensitive to density changes.
Their major disadvantage is their limitation to reasonably clean liquids.

Another form of simple liquid level measurement is the sight glass. Sight glasses are
of two basic types: low pressure and high pressure. Low pressure or tubular sight
glasses (Figure 21) are used exclusively on stock tanks. High pressure sight glasses
(Figures 22 and 23) are used primarily in higher pressure natural gas operations.

There are two varieties of the high pressure sight glass. Figure 22 shows a reflex
glass. It is constructed of steel and has heavy glass. All liquid, regardless of its actual
colour, appears black creating an easily recognisable interface.

If there is a requirement to detect a liquid-liquid interface (such as oil-water or

glycol-hydrocarbon), the -reflex gage is useless since both liquids appear brick / ln
this case, a transparent sight glass (Figure 23) would be used. The transparent gauge
glass uses clear, see-through glass on both sides so that the colour and the interface
of liquids can be viewed.

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Temperature Measurement

Temperature must be measured in terms of the indirect effects it has on physical

properties of materials or the changes it produces in electrical circuits.

Local Measurement

One of the most common types of temperature measuring devices is the mercury or
alcohol glass-stem thermometer. As heat is applied, the mercury or alcohol expands
and rises in the column. The height to which the expanding material rises can be
calibrated to indicate temperature. These devices are used for local temperature
measurement where continuous remote measurement is not required.

Metal expansion can be used to measure temperature. The dial-type bimetallic

thermometer (Figure 24) is made by joining two strips of dissimilar metals. Metals
are chosen which have a large differential coefficient of expansion. As heat is
applied, one of the metals will stretch or expand much faster than the other metal,
and if they are connected at both ends, there will be a buckling which will result in
the metal with the higher coefficient of expansion 'ling around or pushing the other
metal away. The motion created by this effect of temperature on the bimetallic strip
is measurable and reproducible.

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The dial-type bimetallic thermometer uses a bimetallic helix fixed at one end with a
pointer shaft connected to the free end. A rise in temperature causes the pointer to
rotate around the scale.

MEASUREMENT WITH CONTROL

Instrumentation devices that are commonly used to measure and control a process
temperature are filled thermal systems, thermocouples, resistance thermal detector
(RTDs), and thermistors.

Filled Thermal Systems

Filled thermal systems consist of sensors (bulbs) connected through capillary tubing
to pressure or volume sensitive elements (Figure 25). These systems are simple and
inexpensive and generally have quick dynamic responses.

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Thermocouples

Thermoelectricity was discovered by See beck in 1821. He observed an

electromotive force (emf) generated in a closed circuit of two dissimilar metals when
their junctions were at different temperatures. This electricity, produced by the direct
action of heat, is used today to measure temperatures from subzero to very high
ranges.

A thermocouple consists basically of two dissimilar metals, such as iron and

Constantine wires, joined to produce a thermal electromotive force when the
junctions are at different temperatures (Figure 26). The measuring, or hot, junction is
inserted into the medium where the temperature is to be measured. The reference, or
cold, junction is the open end that is normally connected to the measuring instrument
terminals.

The emf of a thermocouple increases as the difference in junction temperatures

increases. Therefore, a sensitive instrument, capable of measuring emf, can be
calibrated and used to read temperature directly.

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Resistance Temperature Detectors

The Platinum Resistance Thermometer is a temperature-sensing transducer. It

operates on the principle of change in electrical resistance of platinum wire as a
function of temperature.

Of all unable metals, platinum best meets the requirements of thermometry. It can be
highly refined, resists contamination, and is mechanically and electrically stable. The
relationship between temperature and resistance is quite linear.

Platinum resistance thermometers are used for temperature measurements in the

range -220 to-600oC (standard); to 750oC (special order).

Because of its high electrical output, the Platinum Resistance Thermometer furnishes
an accurate input to indicators, recorders, controllers. scanners, data-loggers, and
computers.

TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER

Transmitters for temperature measuring devices are generally self-contained interface

instruments that measure the resistance and produce an analog voltage or current
output signal that is proportional to the measured resistance. Figure 27 shows a
resistance transmitter for an RTD.

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CHAPTER 3

PNEUMATIC INSTRUMENTATION

Sub-Objectives:

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Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

3. Understand the advantage and disadvantage of pneumatic control systems

4. Describe the function of flapper/nozzle system.

5. Know the role of pneumatic relay.

6. Differentiate between force-Blanca and motion-balance basic configurations.

7. Overview pneumatic measurement and control systems.

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PNEUMATIC INSTRUMENTATION

1. Advantages of pneumatic instrumentation

When a gas process gave rise to hazardous environment, the measuring and actuation
systems should be intrinsically safe.

Installation of pneumatic instrumentation does not involve special skills, equipment

or materials.

The reservoir tanks, normally provided to smooth out the pulsation of the air
compressor, also stored a substantial volume of compressed air which, in the event of
failure of the compressor or its motive power, stored sufficient energy to enable the
control system to remain in operation until an orderly shutdown had been
implemented. The provision of comparable features with electronic or other types of
control systems involves a great deal of additional equipment.

2. Disadvantages of pneumatic instrumentation

A pneumatic transmission of 100m results in 1s delay. For large plants, where

measurements signals may have to be transmitted over kilometers, electrical methods
have to be adopted.

Pneumatic systems are more complex when square root, multiplying, or dividing
transmitted signals are needed.

As a compromise, electrical signal to the final control element is converted back to

pneumatic so that the necessary combination of power and speed can be achieved
with pneumatic actuator.

3. Pneumatic measurement and control systems

Pneumatic systems are based on the use of flapper/nozzle in conjunction with a

pneumatic relay to detect a very small relative movement (<0.002mm) and to control
a supply of compressed air so that a considerable force can be generated under
precise control. (See Figure 1)

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How does it work this flapper and nozzle system?

The flapper is positioned so that when moved it covers or uncovers a 0.25mm

diameter hole located centrally in the 3mm diameter flat surface of a truncated 90-
degree cone.

A supply of clean air, typically at 120KPA, is connected via a restrictor and a “T”
junction to the nozzle. A pressure gage connected at this “T” junction would show
that, with the nozzle covered by the flapper, the pressure approaches the supply
pressure, but when the flapper moves away from the nozzle the pressure falls rapidly
to a value determined by the relative values of the discharge characteristics of the
nozzle and the restrictor, as shown in Figure 2.

Pressure changes are amplified by relay. The flapper, nozzle and relay are arranged
together in one assembly as shown in Figure 3.

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Pneumatic Relay Operation

When the nozzle is covered, the pressure in the associated chamber builds up,
causing the conical valve to close the exhaust port and the ball valve to allow air to
flow from the supply to the output port so that the output pressure rises.

When the nozzle is uncovered by movement of the flapper the flexible diaphragm
moves so that the ball valve restricts the flow of air from the supply. At the same
time the conical valve moves off its seat , opening the exhaust so that the output
pressure falls.

With such a system the output pressure is driven from 20 to 100kPa as a result of the
relative movement between the flapper and nozzle of about 0.02mm.

Schemes of Using Flapper and Nozzle

Basic pneumatic motion balance system

Figure 4 shows an example of this arrangement.

 A horizontal displacement which causes A to move to the left is transmitted via B

to C, and as a result the flapper at E moves off the nozzle so that the back pressure
falls.
 This change is amplified by the relay so that the pressure in the bellows falls and
the lever carrying the pivot D moves down until equilibrium is re-established.
 The output pressure is then proportional to the original displacement.
 By changing the inclination of the lever CEF the sensitivity or gain of the system
may be changed.

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Basic pneumatic force balance system

Figure 5 shows an example of this system.

If the measurement signal exceeds the reference signal the resultant force causes the
force bar to rotate clockwise about the adjustable pivot so that the flapper moves
closer to the nozzle, with the result that the pressure in the output bellows increases
until equilibrium is re-established.

The change in output pressure is then proportional to the change in the measurement
signal.

Pneumatic Measurement Systems

All pneumatic measuring systems depend on primary element such as orifice plate,
Bourdon tube, etc. to convert the physical parameter to be measured into either a
force or a displacement which, in turn, can be sensed by some form of flapper/nozzle
system or used directly to operate a mechanism such as an indicator, a recorder pen
or a switch.

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CHAPTER 4

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

Sub-Objectives:
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Understand the needs of electronic signal conditioning.

2. Differentiate between different types of signal conditioners.

3. Describe the function of electronic discontinuous controller.

4. Identify the different blocks comprising an electronic continuous

controller.

5. Recognize different front/back panel features of proportional-

integral-derivative (PID) controller.

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ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
4.1 Analog Signal Conditioning

Signal conditioning refers to operations performed on dynamic physical process

variables to convert them to a form suitable for interface with other elements in the
process-control loop.

4.1.1 Signal level changes

Process control applications result in slowly varying low frequency signals where d-c
or low-frequency response amplifiers can be employed.

4.1.2 Linearization

The process control designer has little choice of the characteristics of a transducer
output versus dynamic variable. Often the dependence that exists between input and
output is nonlinear.
In figure (1), a nonlinear typical transfer characteristic of light intensity transducer is
given. Proper electronic signal conditioning can produce an output voltage which
varies linearly with light intensity. This is given in figure (2).

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4.1.3 Conversions

The following block diagrams are some examples for electronic signal converters:

RTD Wheatstone Bridge Voltage

(Resistance Temperature Signal
Detector)

Current I / V Converter Voltage

(4-20mA) Signal

Voltage V/I Converter Current

Signal (4-
20mA)

Electric Frequency Frequuency / I Converter Current

(∆ pressure transmitter) Signal (4-20mA)

4.1.4 Electronic Mathematical Functions

Operational amplifier (op-amp) circuits can be properly designed in order to perform

addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. These are the main mathematical
operations used in signal conditioning. Op-amp is also used in electronic controllers
to perform proportional, integral and derivative actions.

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4.2 Discontinuous Electronic Controllers

The most elementary controller mode is the ON-OFF or two-position mode. It is the
simplest but also the cheapest and often suffices when its disadvantages are tolerated.
It’s transfer characteristic is given by the following curve:
Controller Output %

100%

0%

-∆ 0.0 ∆ Controller Input (error)

The range 2, which is referred to as the neutral zone or differential gap, is often
designed above a certain minimum quantity to prevent excessive cycling.

4.3 Continuous Electronic Controllers

The most popular electronic controller in oil industry is the proportional-integral-

derivative controller. A schematic diagram of this controller is given below:

Proportional Action
P
Error Signal Integral Action Controller
I Output

Derivative Action
D

The ‘P’ action gives an output signal in proportion to the deviation between the set
point and the controlled measured value. The ‘I’ action prevents any steady-state
error against step change in set point or/and disturbance. The ‘D’ action compensates
the destabilization effect of the integral action.

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4.3.1 Some Practical Features of PID controllers

Controller features intended for the plant operator:

(Front of panel-mounted controllers or in the "menu" of the computer control video

display screens)

 Controlled variable display.

 Set point display.
 Controller output signal display.
 Set point adjustment.
 Manual output adjustment.
 Remote/local set point switch (cascade systems only).
 Auto/manual switch.

Controller features intended for the instrument or control engineer/technician:

(On the side of panel-mounted controllers or in separate computer video screens that
require a password to be accessed)

 P, I, and D adjustment.
 Direct/reverse action switch.

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CHAPTER 5

INSTRUMENT MECHANICAL AND

ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS

Sub-Objectives:

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Know necessary mechanical data for installation of a case study

instrument.

2. Understand different advanced mechanical/electrical features of

continuous / discontinuous modern controllers.

3. Follow technical manual electrical connections diagram.

4. Appreciate the precautions taken when connecting different inputs and

outputs to the instrument.

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INSTRUMENT MECHANICAL
AND ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS

Temperature PID Controller; Case Study

Mechanical Connections:
Figure (1) illustrates the dimensions of a PID temperature controller.

The main catalogue features are:

Dimensions: 1.88”H * 1.88”W * 4.925”D (48 * 48 * 125 mm); 4.54” (115.3 mm)
depth behind panel
Panel Cutout: 1.775” (45mm) square; 1/16 DIN
Weight:: 8 oz (227 g)
Front Panel Ratings: NEMA 2, 3R and 12; dust and splash resistant.
Technical Mechanical/Electrical Specifications:

 Dual 4-digit display

 Auto-Tune PID, PID or On-Off control
 Thermocouple input with 1o or 0.1o resolution
 RTD (resistance temperature detector) input with 1o or 0.1o resolution.
 Scaleable voltage and current inputs

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o
 F or oC or engineering unit display
 Password protection
 Front panel programming
 Auto / Manual operation

Figure (2) shows the controller with a direct connected thermocouple.

Front and Back Panel Electrical Features

Figure (3) shows different front panel control and monitoring options. It also shows
the back side having 12 screw terminals and 2 optional additional terminals.

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Electrical External Wiring / Connections

Figure (4) shows all necessary wiring for the case study.

Electrical Connections Detail:

Line supply voltage is between screw terminals 13 and 14

This controller directly accepts thermocouple, voltage, or milli-ampere inputs
between screw terminals 1 and 2.
3-Wires RTD inputs are connected between screw terminals 1, 2, and 3.
Output A (between 7 and 8) can be chosen either as on/off relay output, 5 VDC logic
output, or continuous 4-20 mADC.
Output B (between 9 and 10) can be chosen either as on/off relay output, or 5 VDC
logic output.
An additional programmable alarm output is equipped between screw terminals 4 and
5.
An optional 0-10VDC auxiliary signals (between 11 and 12) for both the output and
the input. This is just in case of connection to another panel mounted display.

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CHAPTER 6

VALVES AND ACTUATORS

Sub-Objectives :

At the end of this Chapter the Trainee will be able to :

1. List the parts of control valve.

2. Describe different styles of valve body.

3. Describe flow characteristics for valve type selection.

4. Describe types of control valve actuators.

5. Define control valve accessories.

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VALVES AND ACTUATORS

Control Valves

This lesson will discuss the last element of the control loop-the final control element
or control valve. Although there are other types of final control elements, the
majority of the control loops use a pneumatic, diaphragm operated control valve to
regulate pressure, flow, level, or temperature. The control valve is a specialized valve
designed for throttling operations.

Control Valve Parts

The more important parts of valves are the bodies, plugs, guides, and seats. The port
area in the valve body, the position of the plug in the valve, the trim, and other design
details determine the characteristics of a valve.

Valve Body Styles

Most valve bodies used in control applications are globes. Globe valve derives its
name from the global shape of the body. There are other types of bodies for specific
applications.

Double-Ported Globe Body

Double-ported globe valves (Figure 1) are sometimes used for automatic control
applications. The original idea in the development of the double-ported valve was to
provide a unit that would require a relatively small force to position its point between
fully open and fully closed, however, the force required to position the valve is much
less than that required for a signal-ported valve.

Single-Ported Globe Body

Single-ported valves have a single path for the passage of fluid. Single-ported valves
cost less, are easier to maintain, and are more resistant to leakage when fully closed,
than the double-ported valves.

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Angle Body

Angle body valves (Figure 2) are generally single-ported styles and are used where
lines require regular draining. The angle valve Is usually installed so that flow is into
the side port and out the bottom since this minimizes body erosion; however, the
valve tends to slam shut as the plug nears the seat.

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Butterfly Valve Body
Butterfly valves (Figure 3) have cylindrical bodies and are characterized by
their large capacity. In the full open position, there is a straight-through now with
only a small area of the disc obstructing flow.

Although butterfly valves exhibit high capacity and are less expensive than plug-type
globe valves, their use in control functions tend to be less desirable due to leakage
problems and actuation force required to position the valve disc against high
pressures.

CONTROL VALVE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

The flow characteristic of a control valve is the relationship between the flow rate
through the valve and the valve travel as the travel is varied from 0 to 100%.

Figure 4 illustrates typical flow characteristic curves. The quick opening flow
characteristic provides for maximum change in flow rate at low valve travels with a
fairly linear relationship.

The linear flow characteristic curve shows that the flow rate is directly.
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In the equal percentage flow characteristic, equal increments of valve travel produce
equal percentage changes in the existing flow.

The change in flow rate is always proportional to the flow rate just before the change
in valve plug, disc, or ball position is made.

The modified parabolic flow characistic curve falls between the linear and equal
percentage characteristics.

CONTROL VALVE ACTUATORS

The actuator provides the force required to ensure tight shutoff. Actuators are
generally of the diaphragm and spring design, having a 3 to 15 or 6 to 30 psig air
signal piped to one side of the diaphragm providing movement in one direction.
Electric actuators should only be used where cycling will be limited and a pneumatic
supply system is not available. Hydraulic actuators are large, complex and very
expensive.

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Spring-loaded diaphragm actuators may be fail close or fail open. In a direct-acting,
fail open actuator (Figure 5), air pressure is applied to the actuator at the very top of
the diaphragm case, and downward motion of the diaphragm and actuator stem is
opposed by a heavy spring. Figure 6 shows that air pressure is applied to the lower
portion of the diaphragm case and that this application of pressure will cause the
actuator stem to be driven up, thus simultaneously compressing the actuator spring
and closing a reverse-acting valve, resulting in a fail close valve.

Most of the more common globe-type control valves are reverse acting (i.e., a rising
plug opens the valve and a falling plug closes the valve).

CONTROL VALVE ACCESSORIES

Control valves may require many different types of accessory equipment, depending
upon the specific application requirements. Some of the more common accessories
include I / P converters (signal transducers), positioners, and boosters (air signal
relays).

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I / P Converters

For electronic systems, the 4-20 milliamp DC loop, which carries the controller
signal to the control valve, is connected to a current to pressure (I / P) converter that
is mounted next to the valve (Figure 7). The I / P converter changes the 4-20
milliamp DC signal to a proportional 3-15 psig pneumatic signal for stroking the
control valve.

Valve Positioners and Boosters

The valve actuators shown in Figure 5 and 6 are designed to be linear in their
operation. This means that for every percentage increase in pressure applied to the
diaphragm an equal percentage increase occurs in travel. There are times valve size
or actuator friction will responsive or accurate valve travel. Under these conditions, a
valve positioner or booster (amplifier) can be added to the control loop.

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The valve positioner (Figure 8) is a small controller. Its function is moving the valve.
The valve positioner set point is the 3-15 psig pneumatic signal feeding the valve,
and its feedback is a link connected directly to the valve stem to detect movement.
The valve positioner will ensure extremely accurate valve movement.

The booster or amplifier, on the other hand, senses the small volume pneumatic
signal to the valve and sends an identical signal but in large quantity. It can also
increase the actual signal from the standard 3-15 psig range to a 6-30 psig range
where the additional force is required for correct valve operation. The booster does
not detect valve position, only the incoming pneumatic signal.

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CHAPTER 7

ALARM AND SHUTDOWN

SYSTEMS

Sub-Objectives:

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Appreciate the needs of alarm and shutdown systems.

2. Grasp alarm and shutdown terminology.

3. Overview alarm symbols and shutdown actuators.

4. Understand electrical alarm and shutdown circuit.

5. Study bybass shutdown system.

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ALARM AND SHUTDOWN SYSTEMS

7.1 Introduction

The purpose of a production facility alarm/shutdown system is to protect personnel,

the environment and the facility from threats to safety caused by the production
process.
The facility is offshore production platform or onshore production plant to produce
oil or gas from hydrocarbons wells.
There are actually three different systems at work in a process safety system:

1.1 Production Process safety System

1.2 Emergency Support System
1.3 Other Support System

7.2 Production Process Alarm Variables

The production process safety system includes four main process alarm variables
which are:

- Pressure - Temperature
- Liquid level - Flow Rate and Direction

By definition, a variable varies, changes, or fluctuates between two points. For

example, the liquid level within the container can fluctuate from the bottom to the top
of the container.

As liquid flows into a vessel, the liquid level rises. Unless some action is taken to
either stop the inflow or to allow some of the liquid to flow of the vessel, the vessel
will eventually fill up.

Hydrocarbon flow through the process variable occurs in exactly the same way. We
maintain the level of those liquid hydrocarbons by installing level controllers (or
temperature controller or pressure controllers) which respond to fluctuations in the
levels (or temperatures or pressures). As a variable the liquid level will typically rise
until it reaches a point where the level controller will open a valve. At that point, the
level starts to drop and continues to drop until the level control closes the valve and
allows the level to begin rising again as show in Fig.1

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As per Fig. No.1, for example. if we that our vessel is capable of holding 200 barrels
of liquids, its maximum lower limit is zero barrels its maximum upper limit is 200
barrels. However, the actual liquid level will usually be found at some points in
middle, say 90 to 110 barrels of liquid (as the liquid flows through this range where
the variable is usually found is known as its normal operating range.

Each of the four main process variables has just such a normal operating range.
Pressure may fluctuate between 900 and 1000 psi in a production separator;
temperatures on heater treater may range from 220 of to 240° F; flow-rates will be
constant; . . . . etc.
When these variables are operating in their normal ranges, the separation process of
associated gases from oil will be more efficient. But we know that shut-ins do occur
and horns do sound, when the equipment or the conditions that keep the process
variables in their normal ranges fail to work properly, the process variable is allowed
to change beyond its normal operating range and become on ABNORMAL
CONDITION.

ABNORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS can result in injury personnel, pollution

of the environment and/or damage to the facility or its equipment. A careful look at
each item shows that whenever each abnormal condition is most serious, the release
of hydrocarbon is usually involved.

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Almost by definition, serious pollution is equated with the release of hydrocarbon

while pollution of any type is prohibited offshore, pollution inventory hydrocarbons
is considered the most serious.

One solution to the problem of hydrocarbon releases is the installation of various

safety devices, were have been developed for the purpose of protecting production
facilities. As use of these devices increased, efforts were made to establish standards
regarding device names, symbols and installation locations. The standards that have
been developed can be found in section 2 API RP 14C.

Normal operating conditions can into abnormal operating conditions which lead to
the three worst-case consequences, injury, pollution and/or damage Safety devices
(more details will be followed in chapter 3) respond to abnormal conditions to
prevent worst-case consequences from developing. Safety devices accomplish this
task through the sensing of the process variables.

For these devices to work, something must tell them to work. Table 1 of API RP
presents the variables that cause the devices and the symbol that represents those
devices. These four process variables are pressure, liquid levels, temperature and
flow.

Table 1 looks at those variables in conjunction with the safety devices that respond to
the variable and goes beyond the four basic variables to create additional variables.

7.3 Terminology

If you are going to require the installation of specific safety devices, you need some
standardized way of referring to them. API presents two groups of names; common
or field names and the ISA proper names. Without exception., every ISA name
includes the process variables which initiate the abnormal condition as the first part
of the name and the word "safety" as the second part of the name. The third part of
the ISA name refers either to the device performs (high or low). abbreviations, a
Pressure Safety High is abbreviated as PSH, a Pressure Safety Valve as PSV, a
Pressure Safety as PSE, etc.

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7.4 Symbols
Safety sensors and actuators that are used in alarm and shutdown system are given in
Table 1.

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7.5 Emergency Shutdown (ESD)

One of the most common used is the Emergency Shutdown (ESD) System. It is a
manual shut-in system, which results in total plant shutdown. It provides for
automatic shut-in of all equipment of the plant in the event of an emergency.

The ESD system consists of a gas supply line, which contains manual control stations
(Shutdown stations) at various locations throughout the plant. Each shutdown station
has an ESD valve. When the ESD system is activated at a shutdown station, the
system will initiate shutdown of all process stations. This will stop all production
activity of the process area.

The process’s surface safety devices will usually detect abnormal condition and shut
in the process stations. If this does not occur, the Emergency Shutdown (ESD) must
be activated manually. The plant should be shut in first to prevent additional
problems from occurring.

To activate the ESD, simply operate the valve at ESD station. If it is a toggle type,
flip the toggle to the "shut-in" position. If it is a two-or three-way valve, turn the
handle on-quarter or one-half turn to the "Shut-in" position. If the ESD has a knob,
pull or push the knob to cause a shut-in. If the ESD station on the control room has
the breakaway plastic loop, grab the tubing and yank it apart to cause it to shut in.

7.5.1 Principle Of Operation

Once the danger has passed, the valve must be placed back in the "in-service"
position, the system recharged with supply gas pressure.

When the handle or knob is in the "Operate" or "in-service" position, the valve is
closed. Therefore, the supply gas pressure entering the valve is trapped inside the
system and the pressure kept constant. When the handle is turned or the knob
pulled/pushed, the system is opened, and the supply gas pressure will bleed to the
atmosphere. The loss of supply pressure will signal the panel and the panel will
initiate a total shutdown and sound an alarm.

The ESD valve must move back to the closed before the plant can be restored to its
normal operating condition, since this system is "master" to the other sensing and
controlling systems on the process facilities.

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7.6 Electrical Alarm / Shutdown Circuit

Many large onshore facilities and most international offshore facilities use electrical
shutdown systems. The power for the system must be from a constant source,
therefore most systems use DC voltage. Various voltage levels are used, the
commonest being 2 VDC. The power is usually supplied from batteries with an AC-
powered constant charger system to ensure constant DC voltage with a minimum of
AC ripple content, a system usually called an uninterruptible power supply (UPS).
The UPS should not be used to power other equipment that would put a high drain on
the DC power and cause an unwanted shutdown.

Electrical shutdown systems should always be designed to "fail safe," so that on loss
of power or signal for any reason, the contacts move to the shutdown or alarm
position.

There are two types of relays used in shutdown system logic design-the
electromechanical relay and solid-state relay. It is becoming commoner to use
programmable logic controllers (PLC), which employ the solid state relays rather
than electromechanical relays.

7.6.1 Electrical Sensing Devices

Primary-sensing devices can measure most process variables. The majority of these
sensors use an electromechanical switch actuated by a mechanical linkage.

The switch contacts are available in several configurations: single pole single throw
(SPST), single pole double throw (SPDT), and double pole double throw (DPDT).
These terms refer to the switch contact configuration available in the switch.
Shutdown switches are normally specified as DPDT, even if only one set of contacts
is to be used in the shutdown system, so that the contacts can be placed in parallel for
extra reliability.

The switch contacts are designated as common, normally closed, or normally open.
This means that in the shelf position with no actuation, the common and normally
closed contacts are electrically connected. When the switch is activated, the common
and normally open contacts are electrically connected. In a shutdown system the
switch is connected so that and will open for an unsafe condition.

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This process requires use of the common and normally closed contacts if the switch
is transferred by an increasing signal such as high pressure or high level as shown in
Figure 1. Thus, if he switch fails to make contact or if for any other reason there is a
failure of the continuity of electrical circuit, the effect will be identical to what would
occur if the switch has been transferred by the signal. The normally open contacts are
used if the switch is transferred by a falling signal such as low pressure or low level.
( See Figure 2).

The electrical rating or amperage capacity of the switch must be suitable for the
application; too low an amperage rating for the application will result in early failure
of the electrical contacts. The enclosure material and electrical classification selected
must be suitable for the environment and area classification in which the material is
to be installed.

7.6.2 Relays

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A relay is an electromechanical device that when energized magnetically attracts a
mechanical arm, which in turn opens and closes electrical contacts. Relays are
available in a vast array of contact configurations.

Selection should be based on the specific application. Also environmental location,

available space, complexity shutdown logic, and power requirements should be
carefully considered. Figure 3 shows typical relay configurations.

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Relays are available with built-in time-delay actions of two basic types: On delay, in
which the relay contacts will transfer after the relay is energized for a given time; and
off delay, in which the relay contacts will transfer after the relay is de-energized for a
given time.

Time-delay relays are used where a predetermined time is required to allow the
process to attain its operating level; a typical example would be lube oil pressure on a
pump or compressor which on startup is bypassed to allow pressure to build.

7.6.3 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

PLCs are designed as replacements for hard-wired relay control panels. They can be
reprogrammed without hardware changes when requirements are altered, are less
subject to damage from vibration and more reliable, since they depend on electronics
rather than the making and breaking of mechanized contracts.

The main drawback of a PLC for safety systems is that it must be protected from the
environment. Most manufactures have models of PLCs for small (50-150) total
inputs and outputs), medium (150-500 total inputs and outputs), and large (500-3000
inputs and outputs) applications.

The basic elements of a PLC are shown in figure 4. The programmer is connected
temporarily to enter the program that transforms a standard piece of hardware into a
shutdown system. The central processing unit (CPU) is the "brain" behind the PLC.
Here all decisions are made relative to controlling the process. The CPU receives
input data, performs logical decisions based upon the stored program, and derives
outputs. The CPU power supply can be packaged mechanically with the CPU or
connected to it as a separate unit.

The input/output (I/O) structure is one of the major strengths of PLCs. Its purpose is
to condition the various signals received or supply to end devices. The end devices
can be process sensors, push-buttons, limit switches, relay contacts, motor starters,
and so on. The I/O power supply can be one unit or a series of power suppliers,
located within the I/O housing as a separate unit.

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7.6.4 Electrical Annunciators

Operator awareness of any potentially unsafe process condition is most important.

Enunciators provide this indication: the indicating lights that appear upon receipt of
an alarm or shutdown signal are referred to as the "sequence" of the annunciator. A
variety of sequences are available in commercial annunciators, with the first out
sequence being the commonest.

Conventional annunciators are usually the relay type; however, solid-state switching
is becoming more available and is desirable for use in systems where electronic
instrumentation or computer control is employed.

The annunciator should be powered from a source separate from the shutdown
system, with dry contacts employed within the shutdown system for connection to
the annunciator. Auxiliary contacts are available on most annucaitor indicators. They
should never be used as part of the shutdown system interlock; otherwise an
annunciator failure would lead to a shutdown.

The location of alarm or shutdown windows in the annunciator case must be

considered carefully. Related alarms should be adjacent to each other. Color coding
of windows can be employed to differentiate between alarm only, shutdown, or
emergency shutdowns. Typical annunciator configurations are shown in Figure 5.

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7.6.5 Ladder Diagram

A "ladder diagram" is used to define the logic for either electromechanical or PLC-
based systems.

The ladder diagram of Figure 6 shows several PSH, PSL, and LSH end devices that
are wired so that in the operating mode each activates an individual relay, identified
as R1, R2, and so on. If relay R1, R2, and R3 are activated (i. e., PSH-MBD-2000,
PSL-MBD-2000, and LSH-MBD-2000 are satisfied), then SDV-2 is activated. If any
of relays R1 to R3 loses power, it will open and SDV-2 will revert to its fail safe
position.

The PLC ladder diagram (Figure 7) is similar, except that the various sensing devices
are represented by input modules and are identified with a label (i. e., IN-0001), used
to develop the PLC program. The "IN" part of the label identifies the type of element.
Real-world input devices such as switches and push-buttons are connected to input
modules, which convert these real-world signals to signal levels that the central
processing unit (CPU) can use.

Output devices such as solenoids are shown as coils and are identified with a label (e.
g., CR-0004), which is used to develop the PLC program. Output coils control real-
world output devices.

The PLC program is developed by drawing the ladder diagram on the programmer
screen. The equivalent of the relay in a relay logic diagram (Figure 6) is a logic coil.
In Figure 7 CR-0001, CR-0002, and CR-0003 are logic coils and CR-0004 is an
output coil. The program is loaded into the CPU processor through a programmer
device and the CPU then carries out the logic defined by the program until the
program is modified and loaded in the CPU. Thus, more end devices or outputs can
be added or subtracted by plugging in additional input/output (I/O) modules, and the
logic is easily changed by revising the ladder diagram without any need for rewiring
circuits.

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7.6.6 Bypass Shutdown Circuits with Single Circuit Bypasses

Figures 8 and 9 show a bypass shutdown circuit. In Figure 8, if the PSH on MBD-
2000 must be tested, replaced, or repaired, the bypass switch can be placed in the
bypass position, thus keeping relay R1 energized. This can also be done for the PSL
and the LSH. Note that to energize SDV-2, relays R1, R2, and R3 must either be
energize by the protective switches or by the bypass switch. Figure 9 shows the same
sequence of operation in a PLC ladder diagram.

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CHAPTER 8

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLERS (PLC's)

Sub-Objectives :

At the end of this Chapter the Trainee will be able to :

1. Define programmable logic controller (PLC) and compare to equipment relay

systems.

2. Describe the components of PLC system.

3. Describe the programming devices for PLC.

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PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLC's)

INTRODUCTION

A programmable Logic controller, is a digitally operating electronic apparatus that

uses a programmable memory for the internal storage of instructions that implement
specific functions such as logic (interlocks, alarms & sequencing), timing, and
arithmetic, to control machines and processes.

First PLCs were installed in 1969 as an electronic replacement of electro-mechanical

relay controls. It eliminated the need of costly rewiring or relay controls, reduced
downtime, increased flexibility, considerably reduced space requirements, and
presented a more efficient system.

Relays Versus PLC’S

Let us look at the technical characteristics of each of the relay system and PLC and
compare them.

Relays and their associated contacts are "hardwired", point to point, accordance
with the circuitry show on the relevant ladder diagram. It is usually very difficult to
make changes in the field, especially where additional relays are required, or contacts
are to be reversed (from normally open to normally closed).

Programmable controllers are usually considered where speed and reliability are most
important.

Programmable Controller logic is generated using fixed software routines

programmed to conform to the interlock logic required programming may be done
using ladder diagrams. The complete system consists of input buffers, logic modules,
and output buffers.

The input buffers condition the signal from the extemal field contacts (e.g.,
thermocouples) to the logic module. Output buffers condition the signal from the
logic modules to the final controller (e.g. solenoid valves). Logic modules are built
using solid-state components on printed-circuit cards. They generate the logic
functions (OR, AND) which are equivalent to series and parallel control
configurations in a relay matrix.

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The effects of contact-bounce when the external switches are activated must be
minimized. This can be eliminated by ensuring that a pulse must be held for a
minimum time before its status is recognized by the logic circuitry.

Input / Output modules may be either the isolated or nonisolated type. Isolated
modules require a separate extemal power supply, each with its own fuses and circuit
breakers, to drive the input or output components. Non-isolated modules use a
common bus – thus all components are powered from the same source.

Solid-state circuitry will fail safe when denergized, in the same way that relays do.
Solid-state circuits require much less maintenance than that required for relays.

Basic Concepts of The PLC

A programmable controller, as previously defined, is essentially meant, to, replace

relays, timers, and sequences in traditional relay control systems, and is designed for
installation and operation in industrial and process plants.

In this course, the basic function of the PLC, which is "logic control", shall be
considered.

Figure (1) shows the CPU, memory, power supply, input/output section, and
programming device. These main blocks and their functions, which are basically the
same in all available PLCs, are explained in the following sections.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the heart of a PLC, computer, minicomputer, or microcomputer because

it receives instructions from the memory and generates commands to the output
modules. Input commands, device

status, and instructions are converted to logic signals, "I" . These logic signals are
then processed by the CPU. PLCs process logic signals and activate output TRIACS
that can be normally, energized or de-energized.

Available PLCs are based on various microprocessor chips which are pre-
programmed with a main “executive program”. The executive program enables the
CPU to understand input command instructions and status signals, and provides logic
processing capability.

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Memory

Memory in a PLC is where the central program is stored. The CPU utilizes program
instructions stored in memory to tell itself to scan certain input and then to generate
output commands. Memory capacities vary, and generally store 256, 512, 1024 (1 K),
2K or 4K words, depending on word size The memory size furnished in the PLC
varies with the size of the control functions to be performed, and should be carefully
selected only after evaluating present and future needs.

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An important concept to understand in the operation of a PLC is "Memory Scan". A

typical mulfi-node format network used by the Modicon Model 484 is shown in
Figgie 2.

The first network is scanned from the time that power is applied, first from top left to
bottom left, and then continuing to the next vertical column to the right. Within a
network, the logic elements are solved during the scan then the coils are
appropriately energized or de-energized to complete the scan. Thus all inputs and
output are updated to once per scan.

An additional feature is “memory protect". A key interlock is provided to prevent

unauthorized tempering with the stored program.

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Power Supply

The power supply is an integral part of the PLC and is generally mounted in the
mainframe enclosure. Line power specified is converted to the appropriate DC
voltages required by the solid-state circuitry and memory.

For volatile memories that require constant power to retain the stored program, DC
cells are provided to ensure retention of the memory in case of main power failure.
The power supply is designed to operate both the CPU and the basic number of
inputs and outputs.

The power supply generally designed for a coritirolled "power-down" sequence in

case Ime power is lost. In this case, the CPU stops solving logic and retains the status
of all coils, inputs, output, and registers. The output are all turned off. This eliminates
the possibility of failure in an undetermined mode. In the "power-up" sequence, the
stored inputs, outputs, status of coils and registers are checked, and then the memory-
scan sequence is started.

Input / Output Section

One of the main characteristics that has made PLCs extremely attractive is that the
input / output modules are designed to interface directly with industrial equipment.
Input modules are generally available for interface with a wide variety of signal
levels; for example, 120 VAC, 24 VDC, 48 VDC, 4-20 maDC, 5 VDC (TTL). Most
manufacturers offer optically isolated inputs, which permit mixing of from affecting
the internal logic. Input cards (modules) for each type of input signal are of plug-in
construction and can usually be inserted or removed without a system shutdown.

Output modules are also available in the same wide variety of voltage ranges as are
input modules. Each output is optically isolated and fused, and is available with
output status indication. Field devices such as small motor contractors, valves,
solenoids, and Iights can be directly operated from the output modules. In some
models the input / output section is directly connected to the mainframe, while in
other it can be remotely located if the CPU is kept in a central location.

There is a basic difference between a PLC and a standard relay control system with
regard to input / output. A section of a relay ladder diagram is shown in Figure (3).
Its equivalent PLC input / output diagram is shown in Figure (4).

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Note that all field switches are wired to input points identified by the PLC numbers
1001, 1002, etc. A closed-field contact, such as PSH-35 1, essentially energizes an
internal PLC relay 1001, and all internal No contacts referenced to 1001 in the logic
will close (NC contacts of PLC relay 1001 will open). If PSH-351 opens, the PLC
relay 1001 will deenerglze and all references to No contacts in the logic program will
open (NC reference contacts will close). The logic operations during the scan are
done on the internally programmed reference contacts shown in Figure (3). If motor
starting conditions are satisfied, output coil 0001 energizes and seals in. This causes
the output TRIAC labelled 0001 to energize, which in turn energizes the motor
contractor MC and starts pump P-101. The alarm output 00 16 is wired to a 24 VDC
output module as shown in Figure (4).

Programming Devices

The programmer for a PLC is the device (usually, an external unit) that transforms
the control scheme into useful PLC logic. The logic program is then stored in
memory, where it is made available to the CPU for logic operations.

Various kinds of devices are available from PLC manufacturers. These range from a
CRT programming panel, a hand-held calculator-like device, a thumb wheel input
system a cassette tape loader, interface. For simplicity and computability with
existing relay ladder schemes, most programming devices use either standard relay
symbols for NO/NC contacts, timers, counters, etc., or use Boolean terminology
(AND, OR, NOT, etc).

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One typical example of programming panel is shown in Figure (7). Logic is entered
line by line.

The programming panel is a valuable tool to check the functional operation of

programs. It is used to isolate the logic program from field wiring and to test the
output by a simple push-button procedure. Individual field inputs or outputs are
easily checked.

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CHAPTER 9

AUTOMATIC CONTROL

SUB – OBJECTIVES:

Upon completion of chapter 10, you will be able to:

1. Describe and select types of control responses for a given

process.

2. Define process characterisitics and automatic control terms.

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Automatic Control

There are many methods of implementing control from a hardware viewpoint,

including mechanical, pneumatic, electrical, electronic, analog, and digital
techniques. Regardless of the mechanism used, the basic theory remains the
same.

Automatic Controllers

The third element of the loop is the automatic controller. Its job is to control
the measurement. To "control" means to keep the measurement at a constant,
acceptable value. All automatic controllers use the same general responses,
although the internal mechanisms and the definitions given for these
responses may differ slightly from one another.

One basic concept is that for automatic feedback control to exist, the
automatic control loop must be closed. This means that information must be
continuously passed around the loop. The controller must be able to move the
valve, the valve must be able to affect the measurement, and the measurement
signal must be reported~to the controller. If this path is broken at any point,
the loop is said to be open. As soon as the loop is opened-for example, when
the automatic controller is placed on manual- The automatic unit in the
contr9ller is no longer able to move the valve. Thus, signals from the
controller in response to changing measurement conditions do not affect the
valve and automatic control does not exist.

Feedback Control

Several principles associated with feedback control can be observed by

considering a familiar control situation-adjusting the temperature of water in a
bathtub. This is obviously a manually controlled system. One hand feels the
water in the tub while the other manipulates the inflow to reach the desired
temperature. If a thermometer was used to measure the temperature, greater
accuracy would result. Improved measurement generally results in improved
control.

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Process Control

In performing the control function, the automatic controller uses the

difference between the set point and the measurement signals to develop the
output signal to the value. The set point is an input, which sets the desired
value of the controlled variable. If the transmitter does not send an accurate
signal, or if there is a lag in the measurement, the ability of the controller to
manipulate the proccess will be degraded.
The ability of the controller to position the valve accurately is yet another
limitation. If there is excessive friction in the valve, the controller may not be
able to move the valve to a specific stem position to produce a specific flow,
and this will appear as a difference between measurement and set point.

For proper process control, the change in output from the controller must be in such a
direction as to oppose any change in the measurement value. Figure 49 shows a
direct-connected valve to control level in a tank at midscale. As the level in the tank
rises, the float acts to reduce the flow rate coming in. Thus, the higher the liquid
level, the more the flow will be reduced. In the same way, as the level falls, the float
will open the valve to add more liquid to the tank. The response of this system is
shown graphically. As the level moves from o to 100 percent, the valve moves from
fully open to fully closed. The function of an automatic controller is to produce this
kind of opposing response over varying ranges.

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Process Characteristics and Controllability

The automatic controller uses changes in the position of the final actuator to control
the measurement signal, moving the actuator to oppose any change it detects in the
measurement signal.

Figure 2 illustrates the temperature response of a heat exchanger when the

control valve is opened by manually increasing the controller output signal to
allow an increase in steam flow. At first, there is no immediate response at
the temperature indicator. Then the temperature begins to change, steeply at
first, then approaches a final, constant level. The process can be characterized
by the two elements of its response. The first element is the dead time, or the
time before the measurement begins to respond.

The second element, the capacity of a process, is the material or energy that
must enter or leave the process to change the measurements4or example, the
gallons necessary to change level, the Btus necessary to change temperature,
or the standard cubic feet of gas necessary to change pressure.

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Selecting Controller Action

All controllers detects an increasing signal from the transmitter, its output will
increase. For reverse action, increasing measurement signals cause the
controller output to decrease.

Controller Response

The first and most basic characteristic of the controller response has been
shown to be either direct or reverse action. Once this distinction has been
made, several types of responses are used to control a process. These are (1)
onl off, two-position, control, (2) proportional action, (3) integral action
(reset), and (4) derivative (rate) action.

On / Off

On / off control is illustrated in Figure 3 for a reverse-acting controller and an

air-to-close valve. An oni off controller has only two outputs, either full
maximum or full minimum. For this system, it has been determined that,
when the measurement falls below the set point, the valve must be closed to
cause the, measurement to increase.

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On I off control is frequently used for level control in separators where the fill
and dump cycle does not adversely affect the process.

The remaining three control response modes are different from on/off control,
because they are designed to modulate or throttle a control valve to eliminate
the cycling that occurs with on I off control.

Proportional

Proportional response is the basis for the three-mode controller. If the other
two, integral and derivative are present, they are added to the proportional
response. Proportional means that the percent change in the output of the
controller is some multiple of the percent change in the measurement from set
point.

This multiple is called the gain of the controller.

Figure 4. These graph shows how [Link] output will respond as a
measurement deviates from set point. Each line on the graph represents a
particular adjustment of the proportional band.

One consequence of the application of proportional control to the basic

control loop is offset. Offset means that the controller will maintain the
measurement at a value different from the set point. The acceptability of
proportional only control depends on whether this offset can be tolerated.
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lntegral (Reset)

If it is essential that there be no steady state difference between measurement

and set point under all load conditions, an additional function must be added
to the controller. This function is called integral action (an older term is reset).

When any error exists between measurement and set point, the integral action
will cause the output to begin to change and continue to change as long as the
error exists. This function, then, causes the output to change until the proper
output is achieved in order to hold the measurement at the set point at various
loads.

Among the various controllers manufactured, the amount of integral action is

measured in one of two ways-either in minute per repeat, or the number of
repeats per minute.

Derivative (Rate)

The third response found on controllers is the derivative mode. Whereas the
proportional mode responds to the size of the error and the integral mode
responds to the size and time duration of the error, the derivative mode
responds to how quickly the error is changing.

The second response shows the response of the derivative mode to a

measurement that is changing at a constant rate. The derivative output is
proportional to the rate of change of this error. The greater the rate of change,
the greater the output due to the derivative response. The derivative holds this
output as long as the measurement is changing. As soon as the measurement
stops changing, regardless of whether it is at the set point, above or below it,
the response due to derivative action will cease.

Among all brands of controllers, derivative response is commonly measured

in minutes

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CHAPTER 10

INTRODUCTION TO SCADA AND DCS

SYSTEM

Sub-Objectives:

Upon completion of this chapter1 you will be able to:

1. Define SCADA and DCS Systems.

2. Understand the needs for SCADA systems

3. Appreciate the needs of DCS systems.

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4. Take an overview of the different roles of computer in oil industry.

5. Avoid bottlenecks in computer system design.

INTRODUCTION TO SCADA AND DCS SYSTEM

I General Overview

Applications of advanced computer technology for industrial processes are diverse.

They could vary from data acquisition system to a sophisticate~d distributed control
system. They also could serve in building management information system to
evaluate process productivity or as a helping implement in computer- aided
manufacturing. In dealing with process computer control, three activities usually
arise, namely: Data logging, Supervisory Control and Dfrect Digital Control, See
Fig. 1.

Data logging is one of the first applications of computers in process control used for
rapid and efficient collection of data on process variables. A computer can be used to
record these data automatically and then analyses the data using programmed
instructions. This greatly improves the mechanism of tuning the process for
maximum efficiency.

After analysis of computer data by control and process engineers, a decision might be
made to reset many loop set points for more dptimum operation of the overall
process. Under supervisory control the computer itself makes the set point
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adjustments following programmed instruction. To perform supervisory control, it is
only necessary to have the computer output set point information back to the
analogue loop. This approach is known as Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
System SCADA.

Direct Digital Control is the use of computer for the complete control function. In
this case, the process control loop is still in action, but almost replaced by software.

The measurement function and the final control operation remain, for the most part,
analogue in nature. The error detector and controller are now contained entirely
within the software of the computer

One of the most powerful computer techniques in process control is the Distributed
Control System (DCS). This system offers an economical reliable and efficient
solution to the process control engineer, for large as well as small system. DCS
system overview is given in figure (2).

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2 System Evolution; From Single Loop to DCS

Figure (3) is a schematic diagram of temperature control system

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This control system achieves temperature closed-loop control of the downstream by

controlling upper stream steam inflow. The problem, added to the above temperature
control requirement, is to control the required outlet rate. The solution is to add flow
control loop as shown in figure (4)

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The main safety requirement is not to overheat the tank when the level is not high
enough. To resolve this problem, tank level control loop is added in figure (5).

If another liquid "b" is added to this reactor, desired composition (a% + b%) is
required to achieve. This implies concentration measurement and control of the
inflow of "b" since a is taken for level control. This technique is illustrated in figure
(6).

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Then1 interaction problem rises. In order to correct tank level, the inflow in 'a' is
manipulated. However, this changes the overall composition. After the process
reacts, the feedback composition controller changes 'b' to compensate for this
concentration errors. Another practical approach, is to feed forward the inflow rate in
'a' directly into inflow controller of 'b'. This is just to avoid the time taken in the
process to get the composition changed and instantaneously correct 'b' if 'a' changes.
This is shown in figure (7).

All the above system requirements, enhancements and investments aim at the final
product quality. However, this turns the system into a relatively complicated process.
It is difficult for an operator to insert set points according to production requirements.

The interesting solution is the computer digital supervisory control SCADA. It

automatic calculates set points and feed forward signal to the concentration
controller. This is shown in figure (8).

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The big advantage of this SCADA system is the storing and displaying capability of
process history and curves.

However, the disadvantage is using analog electronic controllers that have limited
facilities. The solution is to integrate controllers as software programs in the
computer direct digital control DDC. This is illustrated in figure (9).

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The advantage is the capability of implementation of advanced control algorithms

inside the computer. However, the drastic problem is putting all controllers in a
computer. If the computer breaks down all the process operation will shut down.

To tackle this problem, small microprocessor-based single-loop DDC controllers can

be installed. They receive their set points from a relatively huge computer that plays
its same role in SCADA system. This system is known as Distributed Control System
DCS. This is shown in figure 10.

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Intelligent controllers are distributed on loops and supervised by a computer. These

small controllers can have redundant substitute among them. If one fails the
supervisor computer switches to the stand by controller. Moreover, the supervisor
computer can communicate with Programmable Logic Controllers in addition to
remote communication with another computers.

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CHAPTER 11

INTRODUCTION TO INTRINSIC
SAFETY
Sub-Objectives:

Upon completion of chapter 12, you will be able to:

1. Define ignition triangle, ignition temperature, flash- point

temperature and intrinsic safety terms.

2. List explosive mixture characterisitics.

3. Define classes of hazardous locations.

4. Define classes of surface tempreature.

5. Describe methods of protections to reduce risk of explosion.

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1. INTRODUCTION TO INTRINSIC SAFETY

1.1 Origin of Intrinsic Safety

In England, in 1913, the grisou gas explosion in a coal mine caused the loss of many
lives. The inquiring Commission, in charge of the investigation, debated at length
whether or not the explosion was caused by the low voltage signalling system used to
advise the surface crew that the coal cars were ready to be brought to the surface.
The system, composed of a set of six Lectanche type batteries and a bell, was simply
activated by shorting two bare conductors, with a metallic tool, routed along the
mine's galleries.

The low voltage and current level in the circuit were such to allow the system to be
considered safe (fig 1).

The research that followed revealed that the most important factor in determining the
safety of an electric circuit is the energy stored in the circuit.

The energy stored from the inductance of the bell plus the one from the conductor,
during the circulation of the current, can achieve, if not properly limited, levels able
to generate, in the circuit's open point, an electric arch able to ignite the eventual
dangerous air / gas mixture. The concept of INTRINSIC SAFETY was born.

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The electrical apparatus and their relative circuits had to be designed in a way not to
generate archs or sparks that enable the ingnition of a potentially dangerous
substance, either during normal or fault status of the circuit.

1.2 Ignition Triangle

From a chemical point of view, oxidation, combustion, and explosion are all
exothermic reactions with different reaction speeds.

For such reaction to take place it is essential that these three components, in due
proporties, be present simultaneously:

Fuel: gas, vapors, or powdered form

Oxidizer: generally air or oxygen
Ignition energy: thermal or electrical

These three components are identified in the ignition triangle in fig. 2:

Once the reaction is ignited, depdnding on how the, exothermic energy is liberated,
the results can be a controlled combustion, flame wave, or explosion.

All the protection methodologies are trying to eliminate one or more of the triangle
components to reducd the risk of ignitind an explosion to an acceptable level. To
obtain an acceptable level I of risk at least 2 independent events must be present,
each one of low probability, before a potential explosion can occur.
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1.3 Explosive Mixture Characteristics

The risk of an ignition of an air / gas mixture depends on the probability of the
contemporaneous presence of the following conditions:

 Formation of flammable or explosive gas or vapor or powdered mixture with

atmosphere or accumulation of explosive or flammable material.

 Presence of an energy source, electrical sparks or archs or surface temperature,

such to ignite the dangerous mixture present.

The characteristic curve I S of hydrogen and propane are reported as examples in the
graph. A minimum ignition energy (MIE) exists for every fuel below which ignition
of the mixture is impossible.

For concentrations: lower than the one corresponding to MIE, the quantity of energy
required to ignite the mixture rapidly increases until a concentration [Link] reached
below which the mixture cannot be ignited because of loss of fuel. This value is
called lower explosive limit (LEL). In the same way, when increasing the
concentration the energy required increases and a concentration value is identified
above which ignition cannot occur because of loss of oxidizer. This value is called
upper explosive limit (UEL).

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From a practical point of view, LEL is more important and significant than UEL
because it establishes' percentage wise, the minimum quantity of gas needed to create
an explosive mixture.

This data is important when classifying HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS.

The MIE, minimum energy needed 'to ignite an airlgas mixture in the most favorable
concentration, is the factor on which the INTRINSIC SAFETY technique is based.
With this technique, the energy released by an electric circuit, even in abnormal
functioning condition, is limited to a value lower than MIE.

1.4 Ignition Temperature

The minimum ignition temperature of an airlgas mixture is the temperature at which

the dangerous mixture ignites without electrical energy being supplied. This
parameter is important because it establishes the maximum surface temperature
allowed for devices located in HAZARDOUS LOCATION both in normal
functioning and fault condition. This must always be lower than the ignition
temperature of the gas present.

1.5 Flash-Point Temperature

The flash-point temperature is a characteristic of a volitive liquid and it is defined as

the lowest temperature at which the liquid releases sufficient vapors ignitable by an
energy source. This parameter must be considered when classifying locations,
because a liquid above it's flashpoint constitutes a source of danger.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS AND APPARATUS

2.1 Hazardous Locations Identification

The identification of the HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS in a plant is normally carried

out by experts or highly qualified personnel as processor chemical engineers. They
must establish where there is the possibility of hazardous atmosphere being present,
in which condition, and for how long. The most dangerous areas are I where the
possibility of a leakage of flammable gas is present.

The leakages can occur during normal function, due to a fault, or due to the
deterioration of the components operating in the process. Depending on the type of
leakage, continuous or intermittent and if intermittent with which frequency, the
classification of the HAZARDOUS LOCATION is determined.

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The area surrounding the location identified as HAZARDOUS is extended to such a
distance as to where the flammable substance becomes so diluted with air that
ignition is no longer possible. This distance is related to the nature and quantity of
the gas, degree of ventilation, etc.

2.2 Hazardous Locations Classification In Italy

The HAZARDOUS LOCATION, in relation to the present substance, are devided

into Classes:

Class 0: Hazardous for presence of: explosive material.

Class 1: Hazardous for presence of flammable [Link] gas or vapors
Class 2: Hazardous due to presence of flammable powder
Class 3: Hazardous due to presence of flammable substances at liquid stale, fiber
or, dust state, or solid state.

2.2.1 Hazardous Location of Class 0 (Explosive)

The location where an explosion danger exsits, due to the presence or development
of explosive substances in which ignition can occur without applying electric or
thermic energy, are considered part of CLASS 0.
These HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS will not be considered because they are not part
of the purposes of this publication.

2.2.2 Hazardous Location of Class I (Gas or Vapors)

The locations where an explosion or fire danger exis ts, due to the presence 0
substances that when mixed with air as gas or vapors, can be ignited b electric or
thermal energy, are considered part of CLASS 1

CLASS I locations are subdivided into DIVISIONS 0,1,2 according tothe probability
of explosion or fire presence determined by the dangerous cente based on the
characteristics and ventilation conditions.

In, chemical plants, the areas classifiable as Division 0 are few and very limited size
wise. Generally, they are referred to as the inside part of containers tanks, pumps, or
pipes in which the flammable substance is always present and the air input cannot be
avoided.

Most of the applications in DIVISION 0 measure physical quantity by means of of

thermocouples, temperature detectors, strain gauges, contacts, proximity switches,
magnetic pick-ups, photocells, etc.
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2.2.3 Hazardous Location of Class 2 (Flammable Dust)

The locations in which a fire or explosion danger exists, due to the presence of
flammable dusts that can create a dangerous mixture it suspended in air, are
considered part of CLASS 2. The presence of such substances, during work or while
stocked, always determine the location of CLASS 2; therefore, no other Division
qualification exists.

Dangerous dusts are classified as:

 Flammable dust non-conductive (i.e. wheat)

 Flammable dust conductive but non-metailic,(i.e. coal)
 Flammable dust conductive and metallic (i.e. aluminum)

Since dust can easily penetrate electrical apparatus enclosures located in

HAZARDOUS LOCATION a certain degree tightness is needed.

2.2.4 Hazardous Location Of Class 3

The location in which a fire danger exists due to the presence of flammable
substances at a liquid state, fiber or dust state, or solid state during work or storage,
are considered part of CLASS 3.

Generally these are substances for which the temerature flash point is not cosidered.
The following pertain to this group:

Textile fiber, cotton, wool, wood, wood dust, hay, carbon, lubricating oils and
grease1 and other matenals whose dimensions are much larger than the dusts. For
CLASS 3 locations, there is: no further-division.

2.3 Hazardous Locations Classification in Europe

ZONE 0: An area in which an explosive air / gas mixture is continuously present for
long periods.

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ZONE 1: An area in which an explosive air / gas mixture is likely to occur in normal
operation.

ZONE 2: An area in which an explosive air / gas mixture is unlikely to occur; but1 if
it does1 only for short periods.

2.4 Apparatus Classification in Europe

European standard EN 50.014 requires that the apparatus be subdivided into 2

groups:

Group I: Apparatus to be used in mines where the danger is represented by methane

gas (grisou) and coal dust.

Group II: Apparatus to be used in surface industries where the danger is represented
by gases and vapors subdivided in 3 groups A,B 1 and C. These
subdivisions are based on the maximum experimental safe gap (MESG)
for explosion proof enclosure or the minimum ignition current (M IC) for
intrinsically safe electrical apparatus.

For the location of CLASS 2 (dust) and of CLASS 3 (fiber) European be referred a
standard does not exist; therefore, national standards must to.

2.5 Hazardous Locations Classification in North America

DIVISION 1: Dangers can be present during normal functioning.

DIVISION 2: Dangers can only be present in case of abnormal functioning.

The main difference between the North American and European practice is that a
direct equivalent with ZONE 0 is non-existing.

The hazardous zones can be of:

Class I: Gases or Vapors

Class II: Dusts
Class Ill: Fibers

Class I locations are subdivided into four groups: A, B, C, and D depending on

the type of gas present.

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Class II locations are subdivided into three groups: E, F, and G depending on the
type of dust present.
Class III locations do not have subdivisions.

This subdivision in Class is similar to the one used in the Italian standard.

2.7 Surface Temperature Classification

An apparatus, also classified generated by condition. directly, located in

HAZARDOUS LOCATION for maximum surface temperature that the instrument
either in normal functioning must be can be or fault

The maximum surface temperature must be lower than the minimum ignition
temperature of the gas present.

European standard EN 50.014 requires that the maximum surface temperature be

subdivided into 6 classes from TI to T6 assuming a reference ambient temperature of
400C (1040F). In case' this is different, the reference temperature, considered must be
specified on the instrument.

In the USA and Canada, surface temperature classification is similar to the European
one except Classes T2, T3, and T4 that have some subdivisions as noted in table

3. Methods of Protection.

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Chapter I mentioned that to reduce the risk of an explosion, elimination of one or

more components of the ignition triangle is necessary. Basically there are three
methods of protection:

Explosion containment is the only method that allows the explosion to occur but
confines it in a well defined place and avoids the propogation to the surrounding
atmosphere. The explosion proof, enclosures are part of this method.

Segregation is; the technique that attempts to physically separate or isolate the
electrical parts or hot surfaces from the explosive mixture. This method includes
various techiques as pressurization encapsulization, etc.

Prevention is the, method of which the characteristic is to limit the energy both
thermic and electric to safe levels even in unfavorable circumstances. Intrinsic Safety
is the most representative technique of this method.

The choice of a specific protection method depends on the degree of safety needed
for the type of HAZARDOUS LOCATION considered in a way to have the lowest
probable degree of an eveventual simultaneous presence of an adequate energy
source and a dangerous concentration level of air / gas mixture.

3.1 Explosion Proof Enclosure Ex "d"

This protection method is the only one based on the "Explosion Containment' t
concept. The energy source can come in contact with the dangerous airigas mixture.
Consequently, the explosion is allowed to happen but it must remain confined in an
enclosure built to resist the excess pressure created by an internal explosion
impending the propagation to the surrounding atmosphere. The theory supporting this
method is that the eventual gas jet, coming from the enclosure because of the internal
explosion generated, cools rapidly thru the enclosure material's heat conduction, and
the expansion and dilution of the hot gas in the colder external atmosphere. This is
only possible if the enclosure openings or interstices have sufficiently small
dimensions (Fig. 4). The characteristics required for an explosion proof enclosure
fundamentally are the mechanical construction, that must be sturdy, contact surfaces
between the lid and main structure, and the dimension of any other opening in the
enclosure.

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It is evident. That large opening are not allowed but small ones are inevitable at the
junction points. It is not necessary for the enclosure to be tight. Sealing the junction
is only to increase the degree of protection toward oppressive atmospheric conditions
and not to eliminate the interstices.

The maximum opening allowed for a particular type of joint depends on the nature of
the explosive mixture and width of the adjoining sufraces (joint length)

3.2 Pressurization Ex "p"

Pressurization is a protection method based on the segregation concept. This method

does not allow the dangerous air / gas mixture to penetrate the enclosure, containing
electrical parts that can generate sparks or dangerous temperatures keeping a
protective gas (air or inert gas) inside the encloseure with a pressure slightly greater
than the one of the external atmosphere. (Fig. 5)

The protective gas supply must be able to comensate the enclosure leakage and,
where allowed, the access by personnel (two interlocked doors are the classical
solution) during the functioning because it is important to avoid pressure loss.

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3.3 Encapsulation Ex "m"

This protection method is based on segregation, of those electrical parts that by

means sparks or heating can ignite a dangerous mixture, by means of potting in resin
resistant to the specmic ambient conditions. (Fig. 6)

It is easily understood that encapsulation assures, a good mechanical protection and

is very efficient in not allowing the input of the explosive mixture.

Generally, it is used to protect electrical circuits of modest dimension that do not

contain moving carts unless these are already Inside an enclosure that prevents the
resin from entering (Le: reed relays)

In preventing explosion or fire danger, this technique is used, as a complement to

other protection methods.

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INTRINSIC SAFETY for example, requires, that some electrical parts must have
adequate mechanical protection to avoid eventual accidental short circuit. In this
situation, potting with resin is very simple and efficient. INTRINSIC SAFETY zener
barriers, for example, must always be potted in as required by the standards.

3.4 Oil Immersion Protection Method Ex "0"

According to this protection method, all or part of the electrical apparatus are
immersed in oil in a way that the explosive atmosphere, above the oil level or outside
the enclosure, cannot be ignited. (Fig. 7)

This protection method, allowed in ZONE 1 (only ZONE 2 in Italy), is used for large
electrical apparatus (transformers) or where there are moving parts.

It is evident that it is not suitable for apparatus that requires frequent maintenance or
checks and does not have application in process instrumentation.

3.5 Power Filling Protection Method Ex "q"

Similar to the previous, except the segregation is obtained by filling the enclosure
with power material so an arch generated inside the enclosure will not ignite the
dangerous atmosphere (Fig. 8)

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It is important that the filling is made in a way that prevents empty spaces in the
mass.

This protection method, allowed in XONES 1 & 2 (Also in ZONE 0 in Italy),

presents notable difficulty with maintenance and checks. It is not suitable where there
are moving parts and, as oil immersion it is not applicable in process instrumentation.

3.6 Sealing, Limited Breathing, and Dust Proofing

These techniques, based on the segregation concept, do not have a specific standard
but often are used element to other protection methods.

The principle purpose is to assure that an enclosure, containing, electrical parts or hot
surfaces, is sufficiently tight to limit the entry of gas or flammable vapors so that the
accumulated concentration inside the enclosure does not increase above the lower
explosive level (LEL) of the gas or vapor for a period longer than the one relative to
the presumed presence of the dangerous mixture in the atmosphere.

The enclosure, therefore, must have a certain degree of protection l.P. (Protection
Index against the input of solid material and water) not interior to the one required for
the type of use expected.

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It is important not to confuse a tightened enclosure with an explosion proof one.

Generally, an explosion proof enclosure, due to it's nature, is also tight, but the
opposite is not true: a tightened enclosure, even with a very high l.P. index, is not
explosion proof.

3.7 Increase Safety Protection Method Ex."e"

The protection method, is based on the prevention concept and lies in applying, to the
electrical apparatus, measures such to avoid, with an elevated safety coefficient, the
possibility of having excessive temperature or generation of archs or sparks inside
and outside apparatus that do not generate them in normal functioning (Fig. 9).

Increased safety, suitable for ZONES 1 & 2 (only ZONE 2 in Italy), is suitable for
the protection of terminals, electrical connections, lamp sockets, squirrel gauge
motors, and often used in combination with other methods of protection.

3.8 Intrinsic Safety Protection Method Ex "i"

INTRINSIC SAFETY is the protection method most representative of the prevention

concept and is based on the principle of limitation of the energy stored in the
electrical circuits.

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An Intrinsically Safe circuit is virtually incapable of generating archs or sparks or
thermal effects that are able to ignite an explosion of a dangerous mixture both in
normal functioning and specification
fault conditions (Fig. 10).

INTRINSIC SAFETY is the only method that protects not only the apparatus in
HAZARDOUS LOCATION but also it's relative expecting the breaking, short
circuiting, or accidental grounding of the connecting cable. Installation is so
simplified because metal clad cables, conduits, or special devices are not required.

In the same way, maintenance and, checks procedures can be done by competent
personnel even with the circuit being powered and the plant functioning. INTRINSIC
SAFETY application is intended for process instrumentation where the low power
required is compatible with the energy limitation concept. In general, it is possible to
say that when the HAZARDOUS LOCATION apparatus requires less than 30 V and
100 mA, in fault condition, INTRINSIC SAFETY is the most effective, reliable, and
economical protection method.
For particular applications, in the presence of gas or vapors belonging to groups IIB
and IIA, voltages and current values larger than the value indicated above can be
used.

3.12 Summary of Protection Methods

In the previous paragraphs, the protection methods against fire and explosion danger
were briefly presented introducing the concepts on which they are based and the
general means of construction and application.

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The purpose was not to exhaust the subject but to have a complete view of the
applicaable methodologies to the electrical instrumentation used in that part of the
plant classified as HAZARDOUS.

Table 2 Presents a summary of the protection methods devised for the functioning
principles considering both European and North American practices.

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3.13 Parisons Bemfeen The Most Used Methods

In the process instrumentation field, the most used methods of protection to reduce
fire and/or expiosion dangers are: Intrinsic Safety and Explosion Proof or
Pressurization enclosures. A summary comparison of the considered protection
methods is revealed in table 3

The analysis the probability of ignition of a dangerous mixture could make one
believe that a method has a degree of protection greater or lower than the others. The
[Link], for example, has a much larger risk probability than
INTRINSIC SAFETY (10-17 vs 10-7) but from a statistical point of view, after over
50 years of use, there has been no report of any accident happening due to an
explosion proof enclosure. Therefore, considering a protection method safer than
another is not correct because, if it is properly designed and installed, there is no
practical difference.

Cost of Cost of
Safety Flexability Installation Maintenanc
e
Intrinsic Safety + + - -

Explosion proof = = = =

Pressurization + + + =

Table 3 Comparison of most used protection methods

The safety factor, reported in the table, considers only the human factor as the
principle cause of a dangerous event From this point of view, INTRINSIC SAFETY
presents; a minor dependance on human error.

Pressurization and explosion proof enclosures require more maintenance and

therefore are more subject to eventual incorrect maintenance that could endanger the
safety of the system.

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Flexibility

Pressurization is more more flexible than explosion proof because it is not related to
the type of dangerous atmosphere present and, despite the complexity can be used
where no other application is applicable.

INTRINSIC SAFETY even if related to the type of atmosphere present, is the only
protection method that does not require a particular wiring, therefore allows a
configuration of the system without any big problem, also for extremely dangerous
areas such as ZONE 0.

Installation Cost

The standard relative to INTRINSIC SAFETY allows the installation in a similar way
to the practice used for standard apparatus.

The explosion roof and pressurized enclosures require special devices (metal clad
cables conduits, cable clamps, etc.) and pressurization also needs a pipe line for the
protective gas. These are the principle reasons for the higher installation cost of these
methodologies when compared to INTRINSIC SAFETY.

Maintenance Cost

INTRINSIC SAFETY is the most advantageous because it allows live maintenance

with no need of plant shutdown and also more reliable due to the use of over-rated
components as precribed by the standards.

Explosion proof enclosures require particular attention to warrant, in time, the safety
especially for what concerns the integrity of the coupling joints and cable entrance.
For pressurized enclosures, there is an added cost for the maintenance of the
protective gas supply system and its relative piping.

From the comparison of the 3 most used protection methods. it's evident that
INTRINSIC SAFETY where applicable, is preferred for safety and reliability reasons
and is the most economical for installation and maintenance.

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