Salahaddin University – Erbil

College of Languages
Department of English

PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

(From week one to week six/Students’ seminars + Dr Speech + additions)

MA program

Lecturer in charge: Prof. Abbas Fadhil Lutfi, PhD

Re-arranged by: Sagvan Sofi Bapir (MA student)

Re-arranged by Sagvan Sofi (MA student) – Salahaddin University/College of Languages

WEEK 1: Introduction: The Emergence of Phonetics and Phonology DR. SPEECH
Key Figures and Concepts in Phonology Evolution:
History says phonetics emerged before phonology. The study of phonetics dates back to as early as 500 BC.
Panini was an ancient scholar who first discussed the Indic Alphabet around 500 B.C. Panini's Treatise is a
book where he discussed the place and manner of articulation. In the 4th century BC, Panini authored a book
titled "Ashtadhyayi," which is a Sanskrit text consisting of eight chapters. One of the chapters within the
Ashtadhyayi is called Shiva Sutras. In the Shiva Sutras chapter, Panini provides aphoristic rules regarding
phonetics and grammar.
The Phoenicians from Phoenix devised the “first writing system” based on sounds, pioneering the first
“sound notation system” in which each symbol represented a distinct sound. Before that, there was a symbol
for each idea.
Steele, 1779 an American linguist renowned for his expertise in phonetics and phonology. He is acclaimed as
the author of "Prosodia Rationalis." Also known as "rational prosody," is pivotal in the study of phonology
and phonetics, representing the melody and rhythm of speech through symbols.
Steele and Bell's notable contribution to the study of phonetics and phonology lies in their development of a
precise “notation system” for sounds.
Visual speech, comprising visible articulatory movements during speech production. Bell's 1867 work on
"Visible Speech" significantly advanced phonetics and phonology by introducing a systematic method for
visually representing and analyzing speech sounds.
Jan Baudouin de Courtenay
In 1876, the Polish scholar Courtenay, along with his student Kruszewski, introduced the concept of the
"phoneme." The term could be ascribed to both. Their proposal suggested that languages are comprised of a
finite set of distinct phonemes used to convey meaning. This seminal work marked the birth of the phoneme,
though it was later elaborated upon by Scerba.
Courtenay laid the foundation for modern phonological and morphophonological analysis by pioneering the
theory of “phonetic alternation.” Also known as "allophoneme or morphophonology". Later it was given a
different name (morphophonemic), different realizations of phonemes. His work examines how sounds can
change within a linguistic context.
Morphophonology is a branch of linguistics that studies the interaction between morphology and phonology.
It focuses on how morphological processes, such as affixation and compounding, affect the pronunciation of
words. For example, in English, the plural marker "-s" can have different pronunciations depending on the
preceding sounds, as in "cats" (/kæts/) and "dogs" (/dɔɡz/).

Trubetzkoy
In Trubetzkoy's 1939 book, "The Principles of Phonology", he provided technical definitions for both
phonetics and phonology, establishing them as distinct fields within linguistics.
Phonetics as “the study of sounds pertaining to the act of speech.” Sounds are studied as a physical act.
Phonology as “the study of sounds pertaining to the system of language.” Sounds as linguistic phenomenon.
Trubetzkoy introduced the term "archiphoneme" to describe instances where phonemes lose their distinctive
features, commonly found in languages like Spanish. For instance, in Spanish, the distinction between (t) and
(d) in terms of voicing, is lost, resulting in an archiphoneme—neither fully voiced nor voiceless. This
phenomenon is known as “phonetic feature neutralization.”
Government Theory was introduced in 1998, focusing on the relationships between segments and their
governing elements in phonological processes.
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Jakobson, Fant, Halle:
In 1952, Jacobson and Halle introduced an approach to speech analysis in their work, "Preliminaries to
Speech Analysis: The Distinctive Features and Their Correlatives." Their method aimed to explain phonetic
differences through the use of binary features, denoted as plus and minus (+ -) features. For example, in /t/
and /d/, their distinction feature is voicing.
Chomsky and Halle
Chomsky and Halle's 1968 publication, "The Sound Pattern of English" (SPE), revolutionized linguistics by
introducing generative phonology. They shifted focus from phonemes to phonological features, laying the
foundation for feature-based phonological analysis. Their work emphasized representing lexical contrasts,
syllable formation constraints, and explaining phonological alternations. Chomsky proposed that language
resides as tacit knowledge in the mind of the speaker. They introduced 24 binary features for contrasting
sounds, advancing the understanding of language structure and cognition.
Comparison between Jacobson et al., 1952, and Chomsky et al., 1968.
1. Focus and Scope:
- Jacobson et al. (1952): Aimed to account for lexical contrasts across languages, considering both universality
and non-universality in linguistic phenomena.
- Chomsky and Halle (1968): Primarily focused on explaining the patterns of sounds within a language with
an emphasis on universality.
2. Approach to Phonological Classification:
- Jacobson et al. (1952): Aimed to create a minimal classificatory system, a system which classifies sounds
the fewest possible number of features.
- Chomsky and Halle (1968): Focused on how the speaker feels two sounds are different.
3. Consideration of Features:
- Jacobson et al. (1952): Primarily concerned with acoustic features.
- Chomsky and Halle (1968): Emphasized both articulatory and acoustic features.

Stampe
In 1969, Stampe introduced “Natural Phonology,” suggesting that phonological patterns arise from cognitive
processes and physical constraints. He argued languages share universal phonological features, akin to
Principles and Parameters theory. It means certain features are active in one language and some are not.

Stevens
Stevens (1972) proposed “Quantal Theory,” suggesting certain sounds have specific lengths or quantities,
exemplified by "live" and "life." Despite sharing the same vowel sound, the distinction lies in fortis and lenis
characteristics. Fortis consonants preceding vowel sounds tend to shorten them slightly, but lenis consonants
preceding vowel sounds tend to lengthen them.

Goldsmith
Goldsmith introduced “autosegmental theory” in 1976, which can be divided into two broad branches:
1. Segmental phonology which only deals with phonemes.
2. Suprasegmental which deals with units of language beyond phonemes, such as stress, pitch and rhythm.
Prince and Smolensky
In 1993, Prince and Smolensky introduced ‘Optimality Theory’, which involves comparing universal input
features against specific output features in languages. Through a process of comparison and contrast, one
feature emerges as the winner, determining the language's specific feature set. For example, certain languages
highlight certain features and some of them reject certain features.

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Phonetics and Phonology: DR. SPEECH
Phonetics: involves physical (how they are produced), physiological (how the speech organs are involved), and
perceptive (how they are perceived by listeners) related to sounds. It studies sounds pertaining to the act of speech.
Phonology: Focuses on the function (how sounds are used to convey meaning), behavior (how they interact with each
other), and organization (how they are structured) of speech sounds as linguistic items within a language system.
Phonetics is stable but Phonology changes?
Phonetics deals with the physical properties of speech sounds, which remain stable over time.
Phonology, however, involves the abstract patterns and rules governing those sounds, which can change as new
linguistic theories and approaches emerge, leading to shifts in understanding and analysis.
None of the three branches of phonetics is related to linguistics. So, phonetics is actually a non-linguistic discipline
but it helps understanding the nature of language. Thus linguistics and phonetics together were referred to as linguistic
sciences. In Aitchison’s circle of linguistics branches in which phonetics is at the core, is not accurate, it should be
phonology instead because phonetics is not a level of linguistics.
Experimental Phonetics involves using scientific methods and techniques to study the physical properties and
production of speech sounds. This can include experiments using instruments like spectrograms to analyze speech
articulation, acoustics, and perception. Researchers in this field aim to understand the mechanics of speech production
and how speech sounds are perceived by listeners.
Morphophonemic is a linguistic approach that considers both the morphological and phonemic aspects of language. It
examines how morphemes change their form when combined with other morphemes, and how these changes affect the
overall phonological structure of words.
Articulators: Organs of speech involved in the production of speech sounds.
The term "organs of speech" is metaphorical because these parts of the body serve primary functions other than
speech production. Each of them fulfills a fundamental purpose distinct from speaking.
Sound is setting air in motion from a physical perspective. It means that sound waves are causing the air particles to
move, propagating the sound to our ears.
Acoustic and Auditory
Acoustic refers to the physical properties of sound, which is the study of how sounds travel through the air. And as
defined by Peter Ladefoged, focuses on the sounds produced between the mouth of the speaker and the ears of the
listener. Auditory relates to the perception and reception of sound by the ears, which pertains to the human hearing
system and encompasses how we receive and perceive sound.
Phonation: refers to the process of producing speech sounds, occurring at the larynx where vocal folds vibrate to
produce sound.
Sign is something concrete that represents something abstract. Words are symbolic entities because the relationship
between a word and what it stands for is arbitrary, based on nature. Words can be spoken (auditory sign) and written
(visual sign). Thus language is a system of audiovisual symbolic signs.
Types of Signs:
1. Symbolic Signs: Have arbitrary associations with their referents, such as words in language, such as flag.
Example: The concept of ‘love’ doesn't inherently resemble to the feeling of love. Its meaning is arbitrary.
2. Iconic Signs: Bear resemblance to their referents, like certain visual symbols.
Example: A ‘restroom’ sign depicting a human figure with a skirt or trousers.
3. Indexic Signs: Indicate a direct connection with their referents, such as smoke indicating fire.
Example: ‘Footprints’ in the sand indicating someone has walked along the beach.
Linguistics begins with phonology, the study of speech sounds within a language. It focuses on understanding how
these sounds are produced, perceived, and organized, serving for analyzing language structure and function.
The vocal folds can move both vertically and horizontally: When producing sound, vocal folds can adjust vertically
(opening and closing) to control airflow and horizontally (tension and position) to affect pitch and quality. Vertical
movement regulates airflow through the larynx, causing vibration when brought together. Horizontal movement alters
tension and position, enabling a variety of pitches and vocal qualities for speech, singing, and other vocalizations.
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WEEK 2: Forerunners of Phonological Theory and Trends in Phonological Theory
Terminological Remarks
The word PHONOLOGY is used in a relatively broad sense, referring to all types of theories and descriptions
of the linguistic function of speech sounds. Whether phonology is regarded as an autonomous discipline or as
an integral part of grammar. Until recently such theories have gone under the name of PHONEMICS, or
PHONEME THEORY, but as the phoneme is gradually becoming less important, "phonology" is perhaps
more suitable.
The word phonology has been used in a number of senses:
1. Sound Physiology (Saussure): Phonology as the study of speech sounds' physiological production
mechanisms.
2. General Phonetics (Grammont): Encompasses the broader field of phonetics, including production,
transmission, and reception of speech sounds.
3. Historical Sound Development (British Tradition): Focuses on tracing sound changes in languages over time
4. Phonemics and Phonetics (Former American Terminology): Previously used interchangeably with
phonetics and phonemics in American linguistics.
5. Functional Phonetics (Martinet): Phonology studying functional aspects of speech sounds within a
language system, including their role in meaning, distribution, and interaction with other linguistic elements.
The Historical Perspective:
It is clear that a more elaborated theory of the phoneme was first developed in Russia by Scerba and he
influenced the Prague School and Daniel Jones.
It is possible to arrange the most important theories chronologically according to the period in which they
were most active and flourishing:
1. Prague School (1930s): Emphasized structuralism and functionalism, focused on phonology, morphology,
and syntax, developed phoneme concept.
2. Bloomfield School (1940s): Emphasized language as arbitrary signs, contributed to structural linguistics,
laid groundwork for behaviorist approaches.
3. Jakobson's distinctive features (1950s): Phonemes described by distinctive features like voicing, place
and manner of articulation.
4. Generative Phonology (1960s): Within Chomsky's generative grammar, explains underlying structures
and processes of phonological systems using formal rules and representations.
Phonetics and Phonology
Older phonetic studies become outdated as newer methods provide more accurate and detailed insights.
On the other hand, phonology focuses on the abstract, cognitive aspects of sounds, like their organization in
language systems. Phonological theories are not outdated because they are deeply tied to broader
philosophical and theoretical frameworks.
FORERUNNERS OF PHONOLOGICAL THEORY
Patanjali (c. 150 B.C.) was an Indian grammarian established the term “Varna Sphota". This is similar to
the modern concept of a phoneme, which is an abstract mental representation of a speech sound that can
distinguish meaning in a language. Patanjali said that it is meaningless but contribute to meaning change.
1. The constant invariable entity (sphota) the element. 2. The actual form realizes that element (dhvani)
Greek grammarians developed a similar concept, the STOICHEION. Stoicheia are the ultimate components
of speech, capable of forming larger units. They represent the smallest units of sound that contribute to the
formation of words and sentences. “Stoicheia" can be translated as "elements" or "fundamental components."
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The First Grammatical Treatise
The "First Grammatical Treatise," written in Iceland in the middle of the 12th century by an anonymous author.
It represents an early attempt to reform the orthography of the Icelandic language. The author aimed to adapt
the writing system to better suit the phonological characteristics of Icelandic. The author suggests expanding
the number of vowel letters from five to nine. In addition to the traditional Roman vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u),
the author proposes the addition of four new vowel letters: ę, ǫ, ø, and y.
ę and ǫ are used to designate open e and o sounds, and y and ø indicate rounded front vowels.
Moreover, he proposes the use of diacritical marks to distinguish nasal vowels from oral ones and long
vowels from short ones.

Concerning the consonants:

Replacement of ‘cs' for ‘x’. Replacement of 'c' for 'k’: Substitution of 'g' for 'ng':
Distinguishing Long and Short Consonants:
The author proposes distinguishing between long and short consonants but suggests using capitalization (e.g.,
L, M, N) for long consonants instead of writing them twice.
In this book, there is also the concept of ‘commutation test’, which is the early version of minimal pair.

FORERUNNERS WITHIN CLASSICAL PHONETICS

WINTELER (1876): He made a distinction between ‘essential’ and ‘accessary’ features. which corresponds
to the one made between relevant and irrelevant features in the Prague School, and he also applies the
commutation test, involving substituting one phoneme for another in a word to determine if the change alters
the meaning.

HENRY SWEET: In his “Handbook of Phonetics” (1877) notes that in phonetic transcription separate
symbols are needed only for the distinctive differences in each language. According to his idea, every writing
system should consist of exactly the same number of the phonemes of that language. Another contribution is
tense and lax. He says that the distinction between tense and lax vowels is essential in languages like English.

P. Passy, who was influenced by Sweet, gives very similar formulations, e.g. “There should be a separate
letter for each distinctive sound; that is for each sound which being used instead of another can change the
meaning of a word”.

Otto Jespersen (1897-99): his contribution is quantity, exploring how various languages employ it in speech
sounds. He highlights the distinction between voiced and unvoiced consonants, which can differentiate
between words, as in "sip" and "zip." Jespersen also differentiates between external factors, like stress or
emphasis, and internal factors, such as vowel quality or consonant length, in language sound changes.
External factors influence pronunciation based on linguistic context, while internal factors relate to inherent
sound properties within a language.
For example, in the word (contact n.) first syllable is stressed, so the quantity in the first syllable is more than
the quantity in the second syllable. An external factor (like stress) increased the quantity in that syllable, but a
vowel like /o:/ is internally long, the quantity is more not because of external factors but because of internal
factors.

Adolph Noreen's work "Vart Sprak" in 1903-23 is significant for its use of the term "sprakljud" ("speech
sound") to refer to a group of sounds that are phonetically similar. They represent variants of the same sound
type that do not carry semantic differences. Like free variation which do not affect meaning. So Noreen was
the first to figure out differences in sounds that do not contribute to meaning change.

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Jan Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929): identified three separate tasks for phonetics:
1. Physiological Description of Sounds: how speech sounds are physically made by our vocal organs.
2. Role of Sounds in Language Mechanism: how sounds shape words and meaning.
3. Description of Sound Change: how speech sounds change over time.

In 1881, Courtenay coined the term ‘anthropo-phonetics’ (physiological + physical aspects of sounds),
physiological means articulatory phonetics while physical means acoustic phonetics.

Courtenay proposed phonologically conditioned variation and morphologically conditioned variation. e.g.
plural ‘s’ can be pronounced as /s/ /z/ /əz/ depending on the preceding sound, this phonologically conditioned.
But changing the plural ‘s’ into ‘en’ in a word like ‘oxen’ this is morphologically conditioned.

Courtenay collaborated closely with Kruszewski, a Polish linguist, during the late 19th century. Courtenay
distinguished between those ALTERNATIONS that are purely phonetically conditioned (like s and z in the
English plural endings), and those that are morphologically conditioned (e.g. the alternation between f and v
in English [wajf-wajvz].

What are phonological theories?

There are various phonological theories, such as generative phonology, lexical phonology, and optimality
theory, each offering different perspectives on how speech sounds are structured and organized. These
theories often involve concepts like phonemes, allophones, phonological rules, and constraints, all of which
contribute to understanding how sounds function to create meaning in language.
Ferdinand de Saussure
Ferdinand de Saussure was the pioneer and founder of European structuralism. Based on the conception of
language as a structure.

Saussure’s General Ideas and Background

At 21, he revolutionized Indo-European linguistics with "Memoirs on the Original System of Vowels in
Indo-European languages" (1878) he says long vowels in these languages are combinations of short vowels
and some consonants in these languages have vowel-like qualities and technically they are consonants. After
his death, his lectures were compiled by his students into "Cours de linguistique générale" (1916). This book
is known for its dichotomies, differentiating between two aspects of language.
Dichotomies which Saussure established between different aspects of language:
1. langue/parole 2. signifié/significant 3. form/substance 4. syntagmatic/paradigmatic 5. synchrony/diachrony

1. Langue and Parole

Langue refers to the underlying system or structure of a language, including its grammar, vocabulary, and
rules. It represents the abstract, collective knowledge shared by members of a linguistic community.
Parole refers to the individual language use, including actual utterances or written texts produced by speakers
or writers. It involves the application of the rules and structures of langue.
Two weak points of this distinction:
1. The fact that the individual must also possess the system somewhat blurs the double distinction between
the two aspects.

2. The use of the term ‘parole’ which refers both to concrete speech performance and to its product – the text.

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2. Signifier and Signified
According to Saussure, language is a system of signs, where signs are composed of two parts:
Signifier is the physical form of the sign, such as a spoken word, a written word, or a gesture. It is the sound
pattern or the sequence of letters that we perceive when encountering a sign.
Signified is the concept or meaning that the signifier represents. It is the mental image, idea, or concept that is
associated with the signifier.
Saussure made distinction between signs inside language and sign outside language.
1. Signs inside language (linguistic sign); semiology means the study of signs inside language.
2. Signs outside language (non-linguistic sign); semiotics deals with non-linguistic sign.
Q/ How is signifier related to signified?
Saussure emphasized that the relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary, meaning there is no
inherent connection between the two. The connection between a signifier and its associated signified is established
through social convention or linguistic convention rather than any inherent connection between the two. For example,
there's nothing inherently "tree-like" about the word "tree"; the connection between the word and the concept of a tree
is arbitrary and is agreed upon by members of a linguistic community.
3. Form and Substance
SUBSTANCE refers to the written symbols, sounds and images which are meaningless by themselves. It is
the raw material. When the written symbols and sounds are put together in a specific sequence, the constitute
a FORM which has meaning.
Phonetics deals with the substance, the raw material, such as the written symbols, sounds and images
Phonology deals with how this raw material is shaped in each language to give a form.
4. Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic
Syntagmatic refers to the linear arrangement of linguistic elements in a sentence or discourse. It involves the
way words combine sequentially to form meaningful units like phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Example: In the sentence "The cat chased the mouse," the syntagmatic relations involve the linear
arrangement of words, such as "The cat" and "chased the mouse."
Paradigmatic refers to the associative or substitutional relations between linguistic elements. It involves the
choices or alternatives available within a given structural slot in a sentence or discourse.
Example: In the sentence "The cat chased the mouse," if we consider the word "cat," the paradigmatic relations
involve other words that could substitute for "cat" in the same syntactic slot, such as "dog," or "rabbit,"
5. Synchrony and Diachrony
Synchrony refers to the study of language at a specific point in time, focusing on the structure and
organization of language elements within a given system. In synchronic linguistics, the emphasis is on
analyzing the language as it exists at a particular moment.
Diachrony involves the study of language evolution over time, focusing on the historical development and
changes that occur within a language system. It examines how languages evolve over periods of time.
According to Saussure, these two phenomena should be kept apart. For him, only the present state is important to be studied. But
cognitive linguists came after him, and they said that both the present and the history of language should be studied to understand
a language fully. Before Saussure, linguistics was restricted to historical studies, comparing a group of languages to find out
whether they have things in common. That’s why linguistics was called philology or comparative linguistics.
EDWARD SAPIR an influential American linguist and anthropologist from the late 19th to early 20th century, made substantial
contributions to phonological theory, distinct from other linguistic schools, through his focus on studying Amerindian, Indo-
European, and Semitic languages under Franz Boas's mentorship. He introduced concepts such as "phonetic value" and
"psychological value," emphasizing language's psychological aspect, while highlighting patterns and the function of phonemes
within them. Sapir saw sound change as a psychological process influenced by factors like phonetic drift, readjustment to
maintain language patterns, and the preservation of morphological structure, shaping both linguistics and anthropology
significantly.
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WEEK 3: The Role of Sound in Communication
Language is all about communication
1. Means of conveying messages vary widely, including visual and audible methods.
2. Spoken word remains the most frequent medium of communication.
3. The message itself, not the means of transmission, is central to communication
Creative Function of Communication
The brain’s creative function forms and conceives the message. Stored knowledge about language rules,
vocabulary, dialects, etc., aids in message formation.
The speech chain
Speaker’s brain (phonology)
Speaker’s mouth (articulatory phonetics)
Transmission of sound through air (acoustic phonetics)
Listener’s ear (auditory phonetics)
Listener’s brain (phonology)
There are three phases of the creative function:
1. The need to communicate arises: the speaker has something important to say, a question to ask, or he
wants to share something interesting.
2. Medium selection: choosing the best way to get your message across; speech, writing or sign language.
3. Message form decision: This includes determining how the information will be organized, what language
or tone will be used, and how the content will be presented visually.
Forwarding Function of Communication
1. The brain sends patterned instructions to muscles for speech sounds.
2. Muscles coordinate to produce the 'right' sounds in the 'right' order.
3. Vocal organs control airflow, resulting in sound waves emitted from the mouth.
Hearing Function
1. Ear receives sound waves, causing the eardrum to move.
2. Brain interprets sound sequences, matching them with stored knowledge.
3. Matching process crucial for understanding the message.
Role of Sound in Communication
1. Sound gives shape to spoken communication.
2. Sound shapes distinguish meanings, vital for clear communication.
3. Differences in pronunciation and stress aid in conveying meaning.
Phonetics in Linguistic Studies
1. Phonetics places sounds in the context of language study.
2. Sounds may function differently in various languages.
3. Phonetician's role includes describing, classifying, and assessing speech sounds.
Types of Sound Differences
1. Variety in pronunciation includes regional, social, and individual accents.
2. Pronunciation varies based on context and social dynamics.
3. Phonetician studies all sound attributes, irrespective of perceived correctness
Branches of Phonetics
1. Articulatory phonetics: Study of speech organ movements.
2. Acoustic phonetics: Study of sound waves in speech transmission.
3. Auditory phonetics: Study of sensation and perception of sound in hearing.
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What are the steps in the process of communication? DR. SPEECH
The communication process begins with the speaker's brain activating its creative function to shape the
message and decide on its form and medium. Once the message is ready, once the forwarding is activated, the
brain sends instructions (electromagnetic impulses) through nervous pathways to the vocal organs to produce
sounds. (After the message is given physical shape, in the form of a word). These sounds are emitted and
travel to the listener's ears, where they are converted into neural impulses. The listener's brain then deciphers
the sounds to understand the message, relying on stored language knowledge.
What are sources of sound and what causes them?
Sound can be produced when two items collide or rub against each other, causing air to move. This movement
of air generates sound waves. Additionally, when two items come close to each other, they can disturb the air
around them, creating sound waves. However, in space where there is no friction, no collisions, and no
narrowing of channels through which air moves, sound cannot propagate.
How does sound shape the message in communication? Or What is the part to be played by sounds in a
communication?
Sound is vital in communication as it shapes the message's form and meaning. How sounds are made, spoken,
and heard affects what is conveyed. Changes in sound production can change the message or its tone. For
example, in Chinese, pitch changes alter word meanings, while in English, pitch variations emphasize different
parts of a message. Sound clarity is crucial for understanding. Any misunderstanding can distort the message.
Therefore, sound is essential for effective communication.
What is the most important element in a communication?
"The message" is super important in communication because it carries the main information or ideas from the
sender to the receiver. It's like the heart of communication, giving it meaning and making sure everyone
understands each other. When a message is clear and well put together, it helps people connect and
communicate better.
The creative function of the brain creates the message. Without the sounds, the messages have no
shape. How?
If the sound aspect is not manipulated accurately then the form of the message is damaged, as a result, the
meaning is also damaged. For example, if we have (a tack and attack), they have the same sequence of
sounds but two different messages are there. You have to give each message a different sound shape. If you
are giving the same message for both, then you are giving a wrong message. Any misforming of the message
or any change in the sound shape of the message changes the message. This is where phonetics interferes in
the act of communication. This is the role of sounds in communication.
In the first word the /t/ sound appears at the beginning of a stressed syllable, so it is aspirated. But /t/ sound in
the word (attack) is unaspirated. So one small change in articulation can change the message.
How does the semantic overtone differ from the semantic content of a word?
The semantic overtone of a word refers to additional meanings beyond its literal content, while the semantic
content refers to the core meaning. Semantic overtone is influenced by factors like pitch or tone variations in
speech, which can alter the emphasis of a word without changing its core meaning. In contrast, semantic
content remains consistent regardless of such variations. For instance, variations in pitch or tone in English
may change the semantic overtone without altering the semantic content of the word.
What role does the creative function of the brain play in communication?
The creative function of the brain plays a crucial role in communication for both speakers and listeners. For
speakers, it activates prior to communication, helping to decide on the form and media of the message.

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How does the brain convey instructions to the vocal organs for producing sounds?
The brain conveys instructions to the vocal organs for producing sounds through nerve pathways. These
pathways transmit electromagnetic impulses from the brain to the articulators, lungs, larynx, tongue, and other
speech organs, directing them to move in specific ways to create sounds.
Can you explain the process of sound reception and recognition in the ear and brain of the listener?
Sound waves travel through the outer ear and reach the middle ear, where they cause vibrations in the
eardrum and tiny bones. These vibrations are then transmitted to the inner ear. In the inner ear, the cochlea
converts the vibrations into electrical impulses, which are then sent through the auditory nerve to the brain.
The auditory nerves carry these impulses to the brain, where they are processed and decoded. The brain's
creative function plays a crucial role in deciphering the sounds and recognizing the message. The brain
compares the received sounds to stored knowledge, including knowledge of language structures, dialects, and
speech patterns. This comparison allows the listener to recognize the message conveyed by the sounds.
In what ways does the brain utilize prior knowledge and dialect recognition to decipher messages?
The brain utilizes prior knowledge and dialect recognition to decipher messages by comparing the incoming
sounds to stored knowledge of language structures and dialects. This comparison helps in recognizing
familiar patterns and understanding the intended message.
How does the process of encoding and decoding in phonetics analogously relate to the roles of the
speaker (encoder), message (code), and receiver (decoder)?
In phonetics, the speaker acts as the encoder, translating thoughts into articulatory movements to produce
speech sounds. These sounds constitute the message, akin to a code composed of phonemes, the basic units of
speech. The receiver, analogous to a decoder, interprets these sounds, extracting linguistic meaning through
auditory processing and mapping them onto phonemes in their mental lexicon.
When a person is about to take over the role of the speaker, then the creative function of the brain is activated.
Creative function involves three things:
1. There should be a need to speak up. This need could be an internal factor (e.g. a feeling to express) or
external factors (e.g. a question to respond).
2. deciding on the medium (e.g. saying ‘go out’ or pointing with hands)
3. deciding on the form of the message (e.g. statement, question, imperative)
When all these things are settled, the message is ready to be sent out.
From the brain till the mouth of the speaker is the major concern of ARTICULATORY phonetics. When air
is set in motion from the mouth of the speaker till the ear of the listener is the concern of ACOUSTIC
phonetics. From the outer ear of the listener till the brain is the major concern of AUDITORY phonetics.
In order for the message to be recognized, the message should also be sent to the creative function in the mind
of the listener. The recognition by the creative function is more important than hearing function.

Are there cases whereby you can hear but no recognize?

Yes, this happens when you hear language or sound but you do not recognize it when the process reaches the
creative function.
The brain of the listener need a decision with respect to many other things regarding the message to be
reorganized (the dialect and the organization of the sounds)
For example, if the listener’s brain hears a sequence of consonants like (stv), then the creative function of the
listener’s brain would reject that because it would compare whatever sound comes to the already stored
knowledge.
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WEEK 4: Articulatory Phonetics/Sources of Energy-The Lungs
Organs of Speech-The Articulators/Air stream Mechanisms
A. Source of energy-lungs
We rely on our voices to interact with others, and a healthy voice is critical for clear communication. But just
as we walk without thinking about it, we usually speak without thinking how our body makes it happen.

In phonetics, the source of energy plays a crucial role in speech production. Today, we will explore how the
lungs act as the primary source of energy and their significance in articulating speech sounds.

Components of speech production involves three main components:

articulators (organs that produce speech sounds), resonators (structures that modify the sound), and the
source of energy (provides the power for speech).

Explanation of the source of energy for speech:

The source of energy for speech production is the respiratory system, specifically the lungs. During speech,
air is exhaled from the lungs, creating airflow that passes through the vocal tract to produce sound. The
stream of expired air does not go out at an even pressure, the muscles pulling down the ribs do not pull
evently, the air comes out in patterns of greater and lesser pressure roughly corresponding of syllables, in
such a way that the pressure is greater at the center of a syllable and less at its border, and greater on louder
syllable and less on not so loud ones. This changing pressure on the word (eccentricity)maybe presented as
following:

Role of the respiratory system in providing energy:

The respiratory system includes the lungs, diaphragm, and intercostal muscles. The diaphragm contracts and
moves downward, increasing lung volume and drawing air into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, air is
pushed out of the lungs.

Overview of the structure of the lungs:

The lungs are paired organs located in the thoracic cavity. They are composed of lobes and are surrounded by
a protective membrane called the pleura.
Function of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles in breathing: The diaphragm and intercostal muscles work
together to expand and contract the lungs during inhalation and exhalation, allowing for efficient breathing.

Different types of breathing:

There are different breathing patterns, including thoracic breathing (shallow chest breathing) and
diaphragmatic breathing (deep abdominal breathing). Diaphragmatic breathing is particularly important for
speech as it provides a steady airflow for longer phrases.

Importance of controlled breathing for speech clarity: Controlled breathing helps maintain consistent
airflow, which is crucial for clear and intelligible speech.

Role of the lungs in phonation:

Phonation is the process of producing vocal sounds by the vibration of the vocal folds in the larynx. The lungs
provide the airflow necessary for vocal fold vibration.

Explanation of how air pressure from the lungs impacts vocal fold vibration: The air pressure from the
lungs sets the vocal folds into motion, causing them to vibrate. The rate and force of vibration contribute to
pitch and loudness variations in speech.
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Brief overview of articulators and resonators in speech production:
Articulators are the lips, tongue, teeth, and palate, which shape speech sounds. Resonators, such as the oral
and nasal cavities, modify the quality of the sound.

How the airflow from the lungs shapes speech sounds: The controlled airflow from the lungs, combined
with precise movements of the articulators, determines the specific speech sounds produced.
Recap of key points about the source of energy and the role of lungs in phonetics:
The lungs serve as the primary source of energy for speech production, providing airflow for phonation,
articulation, and resonance.

Importance of understanding respiratory function for effective speech production: A clear

understanding of respiratory function is essential for speech-language professionals and individuals seeking to
improve their speech clarity and quality.

The Main Parts of Voice Production:

The Power Source: Your Lungs
The Vibrator: Your Voice Box
The Resonator: Your Throat, Nose, Mouth, and Sinuses.
The respiratory, phonatory, and articulatory systems involved in speech production. The respiratory system,
including the lungs and bronchial tubes, primarily functions in breathing and supplying oxygen to the blood.
The phonatory system, represented by the larynx, acts as a valve for the lungs and generates sound. The
articulatory system, comprising the nose, lips, mouth, teeth, and tongue, is involved in various functions such
as eating, tasting, and swallowing, as well as producing non-linguistic sounds like coughs and laughs.

What are lungs doing?

Air Supply: Your lungs hold the air you breathe in.
Pressure for Sound: When you talk or sing, your lungs push air out, making a pressure that creates sound.
Vibrations: The air goes through your vocal cords, which vibrate to make sounds.
Shaping Sound: The sound travels through your throat and mouth, where it gets shaped into different sounds
like words or music.
Control: Your lungs help you control how loud or soft your voice is and how long you can hold a note when
singing.

Sound production system

1. Respiration (Breathing): It all starts with breathing. When you inhale, air enters your lungs, and when
you exhale, air is pushed out. This airflow is crucial for producing speech sounds.
2. Phonation: Inside your larynx, or voice box, are your vocal cords. When you exhale and the air passes
through your larynx, your vocal cords can vibrate. This vibration creates sound, much like a guitar string
vibrating to produce a musical note.
3. Articulation: Once the sound is created in the larynx, it moves into the vocal tract. The vocal tract includes
your throat, mouth, and nose. By changing the shape and position of your tongue, lips, teeth, and palate, you
can modify the sound produced in the larynx. This is where different speech sounds are formed.
4. Resonance: As the sound travels through your vocal tract, it resonates or bounces around in various
cavities. The size and shape of these cavities affect the quality of the sound produced. For example, nasal
sounds resonate in the nasal cavity, while other sounds resonate in the oral cavity (mouth).
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B. Organs of Speech – The Articulators
Speech organs, also known as articulators, are the various parts of the human anatomy involved in the
production of speech sound, but they are not primarily organs of speech at all. Their first job is to make sure
that the body survives.
Articulators are classified into two main categories: active articulators and passive articulators.
Active articulators are movable speech organs that actively shape the vocal tract during speech production
(Tongue, Lower lip, Soft palate), while passive articulators are stationary structures that serve as points of
contact or reference for the active articulators (Teeth, Alveolar Ridge, Hard Palate, Uvula, Pharynx).
Both types of articulators work together in coordinated movements to produce the diverse array of sounds
found in spoken languages.
Larynx: is a fairly rigid box made up of cartilages, situated at the top of the trachea and continuous with it so
that all air passing in and out of the lungs must pass through it.
Vocal Cords: they consist of two bands of muscle and connective tissue lying opposite to each other at the
top of the trachea.
Vocal lips: because they function like the lips.
Lips may open and close thirty times per second but the vocal cords can do so from about 70 to 1000 times
per second (this is what we perceive as continuous vibration or what we call voiced
States of vocal folds:
1. Wide apart (breathing, voiceless consonants:(sh))
2. Narrow glottis: air goes through the glottis when it is narrowed resulting fricative sound /h/ sound
3. Vibration of vocal cords when the edges touching each other \z\
4. Vocal folds tightly closed: air cannot pass through them (glottal stop) or plosive like \t\
Pharynx is a muscular tube-shaped structure that connects the nasal cavity and oral cavity to the larynx. It
serves mainly as the container of a volume of air which can be set into vibration coming from the vocal cords.
It can be divided into three main regions:
1. Nasopharynx
2. Oropharynx
3. Laryngopharynx
4. Epiglottis: a flap of tissue which projects into the pharynx at the root of the tongue (swallowing and helps
to shoot food into the food passage)
The pharynx is not variable in shape only in two ways it will be shortened:
1. Raising the larynx /i:/
2. Raising the soft palate /a:/
Nasal cavity
The nasal cavity like the violin body, has fixed dimensions and its contribution to speech is entirely a matter
of resonance.
1. If the vocal cords vibrate, the soft palate is lowered so that the pharynx and nasal cavity with the oral cavity
will vibrate as well resulting the nasal sounds.
2. If at the same time the mouth is blocked at some points by closing the lips, the air will be pushed through
the nostrils and if the mouth has been opened when saying ah, the soft palate will be lowered, then the
vibrating air goes out of both mouth and nostrils and the result is the nasalization of the sound ah or vowel
number 4.
Nasalization refers to the process of adding nasal resonance to a speech sound, typically a vowel, by allowing
air to flow through the nasal cavity simultaneously with oral airflow. This results in a characteristic nasal
quality being added to the vowel sound. e.g. man.
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Adenoidal gape refers to a space between the soft palate and the back of the throat (the block of the nose
passage at the back of the nasal cavity leads to a condition in which neither nasal nor nasalization sounds can
be produced because air cannot enter and incidentally breathing has to be by mouth making nasalization
sounds possible but nasal sounds will be heavily impaired.
Oral cavity
The oral cavity, also known as the mouth cavity, is the space inside the mouth that is bounded by the lips
anteriorly, the cheeks laterally, the hard and soft palates superiorly.
While the nasal cavity is invariable and the pharynx varies only a little, the mouth can vary enormously.
It is the most variable in dimensions and in shape.
The oral cavity plays a crucial role in shaping sounds to produce speech. Articulators such as the tongue, lips,
teeth, and palate move within the oral cavity to create different speech sounds by modifying the airflow from
the lungs.
Palate
Palate: is a dome-shaped structure whose front part is bony and fixed and whose back part, soft palate is
moveable.
Palate can be divided into three main parts: the soft palate, hard palate and the alveolar ridge.
The hard palate is the (front) portion of the palate. It plays a role in articulating sounds such as palatal
consonants (/j/ and /ʃ/).
The soft palate, also known as the velum, (back) portion of the palate. The soft palate is movable and can be
raised or lowered to control airflow between the oral and nasal cavities during speech.
When the soft palate is raised, it closes off the nasal cavity, directing airflow solely through the oral cavity,
resulting in non-nasal sounds. When it is lowered, it allows air to flow through the nasal cavity, resulting in
nasal sounds.
Alveolar ridge
The alveolar ridge is a raised ridge of bone that runs horizontally across the upper jaw, directly behind the
upper front teeth (incisors).
The alveolar ridge plays a crucial role in the articulation of certain speech sounds known as alveolar
consonants. These sounds, including /t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, and /l/, are produced by touching the tongue against or
near the alveolar ridge.
Tongue
In many languages “tongue” is synonymous with language.
The tongue is a complex muscular organ with several distinct parts, each serving different functions in speech
production.
It is divided into three major parts according to their relation to the parts of the palate.
1. Blade (below the alveolar ridges)
2. The front below the hard palate
3. The back below the soft palate
The tip: the front-most extremity of the blade, is very agile:
It can touch the whole of the palate as far back as the junction between the hard and soft palates.
The back can be raised to any degree including contact to the soft palate while the front and blade remain
relatively low.
The sides and rims of the tongue are also capable of making firm contact with the sides of the palate along the
line of the teeth. So the tongue consists of a complex bunch of muscles, which make it enormously mobile.

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Back of the tongue
The back of the tongue plays a significant role in pronunciation, especially for certain sounds known as "back
consonants" and "back vowels." These sounds are articulated by raising the back of the tongue towards the
roof of the mouth or the back of the throat. Here are some examples:
Back Consonants: Sounds like /k/, /g/, and /ŋ/ (as in "king") are articulated by raising the back of the tongue
towards the velum (soft part of the roof of the mouth). These sounds are called velar consonants.
Back Vowels: Vowels like /ɑ/ (as in "father"), /ɔ/ (as in "thought"), and /u/ (as in "food") are produced with
the back of the tongue raised towards the back of the mouth. These are known as back vowels.
Teeth are not typically considered primary speech organs, but they do play a secondary role in speech
production. While the teeth themselves do not produce sounds, they influence speech in the following ways:
Teeth help in the precise production of certain speech sounds by acting as points of contact for the tongue or
lips. For example, the upper and lower incisors are involved in the production of sounds like /θ/ (as in "think")
and /ð/ (as in "this"), where the tongue makes contact with the upper teeth. Similarly, the lower incisors may
contact the upper lip in producing sounds like /f/ and /v/.
Lips are the two fleshy folds surrounding the opening of the oral cavity.
The lips are capable of the same degree of movements as the tongue:
1. Firmly closed as when we pronounce /p/ or /m/ sounds.
2. They can take up any intermediate position for example the lower lip can contact the upper incisors as in /f/.
Vowel Modification
Lips can also modify vowel sounds:
1. Close rounding refers to a lip position where the lips are brought close together, forming a small opening.
Vowels produced with close rounding typically have a high tongue position and are often described as "high"
vowels. Example: The /u/ sound in "boot"
2. Open rounding refers to a lip position where the lips are rounded but not brought close together. There is a
larger opening between the lips compared to close rounding.
Vowels produced with open rounding typically have a mid to high tongue position.
Example: The /o/ sound in "boat" is produced with open rounding.
3. Spreading refers to a lip position where the lips are stretched horizontally and pulled apart.
Example: The /ɛ/ sound in "bed" is produced with spreading.
4. Neutral refers to a relaxed lip position where the lips are neither rounded nor spread. The lips are in a more
neutral, natural position.
Vowels produced with neutral lips typically have a mid to low tongue position.
Example: The /ə/ sound in "sofa" is produced with neutral lips.
Most languages have spread lips with front tongue raising/i:/ and rounded lips with back tongue raising /u:/,
not the reverse.
In French the case is different:
The French word(lune) the vowel sound is produced with rounded lips and raised front tongue.
Uvula is situated at the (back) portion of the oral cavity, above the back of the tongue and behind the soft
palate, and it is visible when looking into the mouth. While the uvula is not typically considered a primary
speech organ like the tongue or lips, its role in speech production is more indirect, primarily through its
influence on the articulation of certain sounds in specific languages. The uvula may be involved in the
pronunciation of the word "croissant" when pronounced with its original French pronunciation. However, in
everyday English speech, the uvula typically does not play a significant role in sound production.
There are other organs that are involved in sound production, yet they are not called the organs of speech like
jaws and nose. Most importantly, there is a very important organ of speech from a phonetic perspective, and it
is not counted as an organ of speech which are ears. Because you cannot make sounds if you do not hear them.
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What are the three systems involved in sound production? DR. SPEECH
1. Respiration System: This system involves the lungs, diaphragm, and chest muscles. The primary function
of the respiration system in sound production is to provide the airflow necessary for speech. As the diaphragm
contracts, the lungs expand, drawing in air. Upon exhalation, air passes through the trachea to the larynx,
enabling sound production continues.
2. Phonation System: This system includes the larynx, vocal folds, and associated muscles. The larynx
houses the vocal folds, which are essential for sound production. The vocal folds can be manipulated to
vibrate or remain open, controlling the flow of air from the lungs. Vibration of the vocal folds produces
sound, which can be modified further by the articulatory system.
3. Articulatory System: This system encompasses the vocal tract, including the oral and nasal cavities, as
well as the articulators such as the tongue, lips, and palate. The articulatory system shapes the airflow
produced by the phonation system into specific speech sounds by altering the size and shape of the vocal
tract. Movements of the tongue, lips, and other articulators create different consonant and vowel sounds by
changing the resonance properties of the vocal tract.
What is the role of the diaphragm in sound production?
The muscles which press the walls of the lungs are called diaphragm. It is located below the lungs. It is the
major muscle of respiration. The diaphragm is vital for speech as it controls airflow by contracting and
relaxing, generating the energy needed for sound production. It regulates breath by creating pressure changes
in the lungs, driving airflow through the vocal folds for phonation.
What are the four states (shapes) of the vocal folds?
1. Tightly closed: In this state, the vocal folds are firmly pressed together, blocking the passage of air. This
state is necessary for producing certain sounds, such as the glottal stop, but should only be maintained for a
short period of time as it blocks the airflow.
2. Open: In this state, the vocal folds are apart, allowing for unrestricted airflow. This state is used during
normal breathing.
3. Narrow: In this state, the space between the vocal folds is reduced, causing the glottis to narrow. This state
is utilized for whispering and producing certain fricative sounds.
4. Vibrating: In this state, the vocal folds are close enough to touch but not firmly pressed together. This
allows some air to pass through, resulting in vibration of the vocal folds. This state is essential for phonation,
which is the production of voiced sounds, including vowels and voiced consonants.
What is the purpose of the epiglottis?
The epiglottis acts as a protective lid for the air passage, preventing food from entering the airway during
swallowing.
How are sounds classified based on their manner of articulation?
Sounds can be classified into obstruent and sonorous based on their manner of articulation. Obstruent sounds
involve obstruction in airflow, while sonorous sounds allow for a continuous airflow.
What are the two major cartilages in the larynx?
1. Thyroid Cartilage: This cartilage is situated at the front of the larynx and houses the thyroid gland. In
men, especially those who are thin, the end point of the thyroid cartilage can be felt. Its main function is to
provide structural support to the larynx.
2. Cricoid Cartilage: This cartilage is situated at the back of the larynx. It regulates vocal fold movement,
which is vital for sound production. Connected to the cricoid cartilage are the arytenoid cartilages,
responsible for controlling the opening and closing of the vocal folds, thus influencing sound production.
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Explain the difference between respiration and speech in terms of airflow.
1. Subconscious vs. Conscious Control: Respiration is a subconscious process, meaning we breathe in and
out air without conscious effort. On the other hand, speech involves conscious voluntary control over airflow
for producing sounds.
2. Obstruction of Airflow: During respiration, airflow is not obstructed as air moves freely in and out of the
lungs. However, during speech production, airflow may be obstructed or modified by articulators such as the
tongue, lips, and palate to create specific sounds.
3. Path of Airflow: In respiration, the airflow moves freely through the respiratory system, from the lungs to
the mouth or nose. In speech, the airflow is directed and manipulated by the vocal tract, including the larynx,
pharynx, and oral cavity, to produce various sounds.
4. Use of Air: In both respiration and speech, air from the lungs is used for exhalation. However, during
speech production, the same airflow is utilized for producing sounds by passing through the vocal folds and
being shaped by the articulators.

How does the articulation system contribute to sound production?

The articulation system contributes to sound production by shaping the airflow in the vocal tract using various
articulators, such as the tongue, lips, and palate. These articulators modify the airflow to produce different
speech sounds, controlling aspects like place and manner of articulation.

What are the active articulators in speech production?

The active articulators in speech production are the parts of the vocal tract that actively move to shape the
airflow and create specific sounds. They include:
1. Tongue: The tongue is one of the most versatile and active articulators in speech production. It can move
in various directions within the oral cavity to create different vowel and consonant sounds.
2. Lips: The lips play a crucial role in speech production, especially for bilabial sounds like /p/ and /b/, where
both lips come together to create a closure.
3. Velum (Soft Palate): The velum can be raised or lowered to either allow airflow through the nasal cavity
(nasal sounds) or block it (oral sounds).
4. Glottis: While not typically thought of as an articulator, the glottis, which includes the vocal folds, can also
be considered an active articulator as it regulates the opening and closing of the vocal folds to produce voiced
and voiceless sounds.

What are the passive articulators in speech production?

Passive articulators in speech production refer to parts of the vocal tract that are not directly involved in
creating speech sounds but rather serve as points of contact or articulatory landmarks for active articulators to
interact. These passive articulators play a crucial role in shaping the vocal tract and providing points of
contact for the active articulators to produce specific speech sounds.
1. Teeth: Both upper and lower teeth serve as passive articulators, providing points of contact for the active
articulators such as the tongue to interact with during speech production.
2. Hard Palate: The hard palate, located on the roof of the mouth, acts as a passive articulator, providing a
surface against which the tongue can articulate sounds.
3. Alveolar Ridge: The ridge behind the upper front teeth, known as the alveolar ridge, serves as a passive
articulator, providing a point of contact for the tongue when producing certain sounds like /t/ and /d/.
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C. The Airstream Mechanisms

The Organs of speech sounds

Speech production involves the coordinated functioning of various organs. According to David Abercorombie
and O'Connor “Speech is an additional function,” Which means that some organs in the human body are
designed for some more basic or fundamental functions like breathing, chewing, swallowing, smiling and so
on, these are the more fundamental functions of the so-called organs of speech. And speech produced by these
organs as an additional function.

Is there any organ or part of human body that is specially designed for speaking?

The production of speech sounds

Approximately half of the human body, from head to abdomen, is involved in the production of spoken
language. Three systems cooperate for speech production: respiratory (bellows), phonatory (reed), and
articulatory (resonator). These systems, with distinct primary functions, work together to create speech sounds.

1. Respiratory system (Trunk): includes the primary organs like (lungs, muscles, bronchial tubes, trachea)
2. Phonatory system (Throat): Which means the (larynx) sometimes called (voice box) is one of the most
important components in (phonatory system) that is used for speaking. Phonation starts at the larynx, so we
have two points:
A. The source of energy (The lungs).
B. The source of sound (The larynx).
What is the larynx?
The larynx is sometimes called (The box of voice), The sound production takes place at the larynx which is
made of two large cartilages.
What is a cartilage?
A cartilage is a bone like material but it is less hard than bone. There are two main cartilages in the larynx,
The (Thyroid cartilage), which is in the front part of the larynx, and the (Cricoid cartilage), which is in the
back part of the larynx. Inside the larynx or inside the box that is made of cartilages there is the vocal folds.

What are the vocal folds?

The vocal folds are the two white flaps of muscles and (V) shaped, they are joint at the front part of the larynx,
but they are not joined at the back part of the larynx, they are connected to two small balls of cartilages which
are called (Arytenoid cartilages), they help the vocal folds to move towards each other which causes the vocal
folds to close, and to move away from each other which causes the vocal folds to open.

3- Articulatory system (Head): includes (nose, lips, mouth, teeth, tongue). After the sound is made in the
larynx, That sound should be modified and this modification takes place in the (vocal tract), which is a path or
the way between the larynx and the (outlet of air). Sounds produce at the larynx, but they are shaped or
modified in the (Vocal tract). There are things that happen in the vocal tract that would make the sound either
nasal or oral.

What is an outlet air?

1- The source of energy (The lungs)

2- The source of sound (The larynx)
3- Filteration of sound (In the articulatory system)
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How do these three mechanisms work?
1. The Respiratory system: In every system there is something which is called the (Initiator), and the
initiators for the respiratory system are the (Muscles) that control the movement of the lungs. When these
muscles are contacted, they exert pressure on the lungs and cause the lungs to send out the air, when these
muscles are relaxed, they cause the lungs to expand and pull in air, so the initiator in the respiratory system is
the muscles in the chest and basically there is one very known muscle which is a down shape

2. What is the initiator in the second or the phonation system?

There are certain muscles in the larynx that could make the larynx move up or down, these muscles are called
the initiator in the phonation system.

The Airstream Mechanisms

In phonetics, the term "air-stream mechanism" refers to the specific way in which the flow of air is
manipulated during speech production to create different sounds. This concept is crucial for understanding the
physiological processes involved in generating speech. Airstream mechanism is the basis of almost all human
speech, it is all about the way we control the flow of air out of our body or the flow of air into our body or
letting the air in and pushing the air out.
Which part of our body is used to pull the air in and to push the air out?

Human beings use three different types of airstream mechanisms which are as follows:
1- The pulmonic air-stream mechanism: driven by the lungs and respiratory muscles, is the primary
mechanism for speech production.
2- The glottalic air-stream mechanism: involving the closed glottis, is another mechanism producing
distinctive sounds, often found in certain languages.
3- Velaric or Egressive-Ingressive Clicks:
The velum, or soft palate, serves as a valve controlling the outlet through the nose. It determines whether an
air-stream escapes through the nose, mouth, or both. Understanding the interactions between these organs and
systems helps explain the complexity of speech production.

1. Pulmonic Mechanism:
This is the most common air-stream mechanism in human speech production. Speech sounds are produced by
pushing air out from the lungs through the trachea and into the oral or nasal cavity. Most of the world's
languages, including English, utilize the pulmonic mechanism. The pulmonic airstream is mostly egressive (to
push air out) or the air coming from the lungs, Human beings most frequently use that air coming from the
lungs and moving out of the body either through the nose or through the mouth in making the sound, so
(egressive pulmonic airstream) is the most frequently use type of airstream mechanism in speaking. And
sometimes (Ingressive) which is produced by inhaling air rather than exhaling it.

Do we need the ingressive pulmonic airstream in any activities in life? Whether linguistic or non-linguistic?
For example, in the airstream mechanism, what is the plunger?
The walls of the lungs, they push the air then moves out. If the plunger is moved in the opposite direction then
the air is pulled in. This is (ingressive)

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2. Glottalic (UK), or Pharyngeal (USA) Mechanism:
In this mechanism, the manipulation of the glottis, the space between the vocal cords, plays a crucial role.
Sounds are created by varying the airflow through movements of the glottis. The glottalic airstream
mechanism is strange and rare and it doesn’t exist in every language, only few languages of the world use
glottalic airstream mechanism in sound production.
In some languages, such as Hausa, a glottalic egressive airstream mechanism is utilized. For instance, in the
production of velar stops like [k'], the glottis closes, trapping air below it, and then an upward movement of
the glottis forces this air out of the mouth. This mechanism is characterized by the use of a glottal closure to
manipulate air pressure.

Ejectives: Stops made with a glottalic egressive airstream mechanism are termed ejectives. They are indicated
by an apostrophe ['] following the symbol of the consonant. For example, in Hausa, the velar ejective is
symbolized as [k'], contrasting with the voiceless velar stop [k]. Ejectives are found in various languages,
including Native American and African languages. Contrasts between ejectives and non-ejectives can be
observed acoustically, such as through differences in stop release bursts in spectrograms.

While using the glottalic airstream mechanism we have three blockages or obstructions:
1- The vocal folds are tightly closed.
2- The oral cavity is closed.
3- The nasal cavity is closed.

The soft palate is raised in this case, the nasal cavity is blocked or closed. The mouth is closed, so this means
that the oral cavity is closed also. The nose and the mouth are both closed. down we have the vocal folds also
closed. So here we have an amount of air that's compressed between the vocal folds, the soft palate and the
mouth. There is air blocked now, the muscles of the larynx can contract and bring down the larynx, in this
case they cause the air to move down. When one of the paths oral cavity, nasal cavity or the vocal folds is
open, the soft palate is raised.

An example of ingressive glottalic airstream. There is a sound that children make when they cry too much,
it is like bleaching. An amount of air is blocked, compressed and once we open the vocal folds, the air moves
inside. In certain languages in the world, there are certain sounds that are made with either ingressive or
egressive glottalic airstream.

3-Velaric or Egressive-Ingressive Clicks:

This less common mechanism involves the tongue and velum (soft palate) in the production of speech sounds.
The Velaric airstream mechanism is not used in making speech sounds, they are used in making non-speech
sounds like when we are riding horses or smoking or kissing, drinking and sipping. Click sounds are formed by
creating a pocket of air between the back of the tongue and the velum and then releasing or sucking in the air.

Clicks: are sounds produced with a velaric airstream mechanism, where the back of the tongue creates a
partial vacuum in the mouth that is then released to produce the click sound. Different types of clicks include
dental clicks (produced with the tongue against the teeth), lateral clicks produced with the side of the tongue
against the roof of the mouth), and bilabial clicks (produced with both lips).

The most common type of Velaric click is the (Tisk), we call it (tisk-tisk), this is the sound in the European or
western culture, everyone makes it.
Examples of clicks are given in various languages, including Zulu, Xhosa, Nama, and !Xóõ. These languages
use different types of clicks in their phonetic inventories, and the transcription systems may vary with some
languages using specific letters like c, q, and x to represent clicks.

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How are speech sounds produced? DR. SPEECH
Sound production might be an unconscious process that we carry out every moment. Almost half of the human
body is involved in sound production, from the abdomen to the head. Between those two parts, three systems
are involved which are respiration, phonation and articulation system.

The Airstream Mechanisms

1. Pulmonic airstream: In pulmonic airstream, the initiator is the lungs. This is the most common type of
airstream mechanism used in human speech production. Air is expelled from the lungs by muscular action,
passing through the larynx where it can be modulated by the vocal folds to produce voiced sounds or allowed
to pass freely for voiceless sounds. Most consonant sounds in human languages are produced using pulmonic
airstream.

2. Glottalic airstream: In glottalic airstream, the initiator is the vocal folds. This means that the airstream is
initiated by movements of the vocal folds themselves. Glottalic airstream mechanisms are less common in
human languages compared to pulmonic airstream, but they are found in some languages, such as those that
use ejective consonants. In ejectives, the vocal folds are closed, creating pressure in the oral cavity before the
release of the sound. When you produce a sound with glottalic airstream mechanism, it means you are
controlling only the air above the larynx which is the pharynx. That’s why it is called pharyngeal airstream.

3. Velaric airstream: In velaric airstream, the initiators are the back of the tongue in firm contact with the soft
palate. This type of airstream is relatively rare in human languages and is primarily found in a few click
languages, such as those spoken by some indigenous groups in Africa. In velaric airstream mechanisms, a
pocket of air is trapped between the tongue and the soft palate, and then released by lowering the tongue to
create a sudden airflow, producing a click sound.

Sound from a physical perspective is movement that is audible. For the movement of any muscle needs energy.

What is the source of energy for speech production?

The source of energy for speech production are the muscular movements in the chest not the lungs by
themselves because they do not contain muscles but are spongy structures.

Is there any organ or part of human body that is specifically designed for speaking?
No organ or part of human body is specifically designed for speaking, even the larynx (the voice box) does
something that is more important than speaking, it prevents things from escaping into the breathing passage.

What is the initiator in glottalic airstream?

The vocal folds are the initiators. The larynx can move up and down. So, when you make your larynx move
down, you cause the air move in. but if you make your larynx move up, you push the air out.

Do we use ingressive glottalic?

It is used in some languages, such as Caucasian language and some North American languages. But in English,
there is only one sound that can be produced with ingressive glottalic, which is the glottal stop [ʔ]

What is the initiator in velaric airstream?

The back of the tongue and the soft palate together are the initiators in velaric airstream. Together, they are in
firm contact, they move back or forward.

Do we need velaric airstream in speaking, whether ingressive or eggresive?

We do not need velaric airstream in speaking. But we need it for some non-linguistic acts, such as smoking,
sipping, kissing and clicks.
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WEEK 5: The Description and Classification of Sounds
Vowels and Consonants versus Vocoids and Contoids

A. CONSONANT SOUNDS
Received pronunciation (RP) is a standard accent of British English. Consonants in RP are based on
fortis/lenis correlation.
Fortis/lenis correlation
Consonant pairs (/p, b/, /t, d/, /k, g/, /tʃ, dʒ/, /f, v/, /θ, ð/, /s, z/) are distinguished by fortis/lenis correlation.
Fortis sounds are stronger and have greater intensity and duration compared to lenis sounds.
Fortis consonants are characterized by a rapid release of compressed air, while lenis consonants often exhibit
a noticeable fricative release.
Fortis sounds are perceived as stronger, while lenis sounds are perceived as weaker.
Lenis sounds are typically shorter than fortis sounds.
Example: Greater intensity in the burst of fortis plosives (/p, t, k/) compared to lenis plosives (/b, d, g/).

Stops (/p, t, k, b, d, g/) are categorized into two groups: those pronounced as plosive consonants and those as
affricates (/tʃ, dʒ/).
Plosive stops are characterized by a sharp explosion of air, while affricates have a fricative release.
Voicing: /p, t, k/ are invariably voiceless, while /b, d, g/ may or may not be fully voiced depending on context.
Aspiration: notably before a stressed vowel in the same word. As in (pat, cat, top)

Incomplete plosive
When one plosive consonant follows another in English, only “one explosion” is generally heard due to the
second closure preventing the release of the first explosion.
Examples include /bd/ in "rubbed", /kt/ in "act", /db/ in "good boy", and /gt/ in "ragtime".
Incomplete single plosives may also occur in final position in an utterance, where the closure and
compression stages are made, but the lung pressure ceases, leading to normal breathing without an explosion.
For example, /t/ of (good night)

Nasal plosion
When a plosive is followed by a nasal consonant, the explosion takes place nasally, with the compressed air
bursting out through the nose. For example, /dn/ for goodness
Nasal plosion occurs when the plosive and the nasal have homorganic articulation, maintaining the same
primary place of articulation. e.g. /pm/ in Upminster, /tn/ in chutney
If the plosive and the nasal are not homorganic, two changes are needed: lowering of the soft palate and a
change in the place of mouth closure. For example, in /tm/ of atmosphere, /dm/ in admit,

/p,b/ Most often realized as bilabial plosives, with characteristics such as fortis/lenis, voicing, aspiration, and
release.
Occasionally, labio-dental plosives occur when /p/ or /b/ is immediately followed by /f/ or /v/
e.g. hopeful and subversive
The glottal stop [ʔ] often precedes /p/ in RP and other accents, particularly before a pause or consonants.
e.g. in apse, apt, hopeful

/t,d/ Apical stops are primarily articulated with the tongue-tip, demonstrating fortis/lenis characteristics.
The most common place of articulation for [t] and [d] in English is alveolar, but they may become dental
when followed by a dental fricative, as "width" or "at this".
In accents like RP, the place of articulation shifts to post-alveolar when followed by /r/, as in "true"
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Lip-rounding occurs during the pronunciation of [t] if a rounded vowel or [w] follows. The tongue anticipates
the subsequent articulation while the tip remains in the alveolar stop position.
In RP and many other accents, [t] may be replaced by a glottal stop [ʔ] before consonants, especially stops, as
seen in words like "whiteness" or "that bus".
/k,g/ Velar stops are primarily produced with the back of the tongue in contact with the soft palate, although
the exact point of contact varies depending on surrounding sounds.
The articulation of /k/ slightly shifts depending on surrounding vowels, with variations from post-palatal to
velar articulations.
Both /k/ and /g/ exhibit fortis/lenis characteristics similar to other stop consonants (/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/).
Lip position may vary based on following sounds, such as spread lips in "key" or rounded lips in "Gwen".
Glottalization of /k/ is common in accents like RP, occurring before pauses and consonants, as in "back"
[bae̯k] and "axe" [æks]

/tʃ, d3/ Palato-alveolar affricates are realized with the tongue-tip against the back of the alveolar ridge,
accompanied by a secondary palatal articulation.
The affricates are produced by slowly removing the tongue-tip after compressing air, allowing homorganic
friction to be heard.
These two sounds can be accompanied by lip-rounded. e.g. church
Notice the distinction between the single phoneme /tʃ/ in "watch out" and the sequence of /t/ + /ʃ/ in
"whatshout". The fricative segment of /tʃ/ is shorter than that of /ʃ/.
Glottalization of /tʃ/ before pause and consonants is common, as seen in "watch" [wɒʔtʃ] and "watched"
[wɒʔtʃt].

Fricative
characterized by turbulent airflow through a constriction in the vocal tract.
The phonemes /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/ are commonly realized as fricative sounds.
They can be divided into correlated pairs: /f v/, /θ ð/, /s z/, and /ʃ ʒ/, with /h/ having no correlate.
/f, v, θ, ð/ are distinguished by relatively weak fricative noise compared to /s, z, ʃ, ʒ/, which have stronger
fricative noise. This corresponds acoustically to differences in intensity.

Fortis / lenis correlation

Applies to these groups similarly as with stops.
/f, θ, s, ʃ/ are stronger sounds with more obvious friction than /v, ð, z, ʒ/.
Voicing differences exist, but there is no aspiration difference as with stops.
Voicing in /v, ð, z, ʒ/ depends on surrounding sounds; full voicing occurs only when neighbouring sounds are
voiced
/f,v/ & /θ, ð/
/f,v/ Generally realized as labio-dental fricatives, with /v/ sometimes having no audible friction, especially
between vowels. in fish, very
Lip position varies depending on neighbouring sounds. in fool, roof

/θ, ð/ Usually dental fricatives, with the tongue-tip close to the edge or back of the upper incisors.

/s, z/ & /ʃ, ʒ/

/s, z/ Alveolar sibilants formed with the blade of the tongue making almost complete contact with the alveolar
ridge. Such as sit, zip
/ʃ, ʒ/ Palato-alveolar sibilants with the tongue-blade close to the back of the alveolar ridge.
Friction noise distinguishes /ʃ, ʒ/ from /s, z/; /ʃ, ʒ/ have more hissy and less hushy noise. Example: sure, measure

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/h/ The phoneme /h/ is an intriguing sound within linguistic study due to its unique characteristics. Unlike
other phonemes, /h/ operates differently and manifests various allophones depending on its phonetic
environment. /h/ stands apart from other phonemes in two significant aspects:
Fortis/Lenis Correlation: Unlike other consonants, /h/ doesn't adhere to the fortis/lenis correlation, which
categorizes consonants based on their degree of voicing or force of articulation.

Frictional Nature: The sound of /h/ is primarily characterized by breath passing through a relatively open
vocal tract. While other fricatives like /s/ and /z/ involve localized friction, /h/ relies on cavity friction,
resulting in a generalized friction of breath passing through a relatively open vocal tract. Such as heart, hat

Nasals
Definition: Sounds produced with a complete stop in the mouth and lowered soft palate, allowing airflow
through the nose. Phonemes: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/
Allophones and Examples: Voiced, with occasional devoicing after voiceless plosives. In utmost, Putney
Syllabic Usage: /n/ often syllabic, with examples like "button" and "garden"

/m/ The phoneme /m/ is a bilabial nasal consonant, meaning it's articulated using both lips.
Normally, the lips are flat during the production of /m/, creating a bilabial closure.
The tongue remains free to position itself for subsequent articulations after /m/
The allophone of /m/ can vary when followed by /f/ or /v/, the labio-dental nasal [ɱ] may be realized instead
of the typical bilabial /m/
For example, in the word "nymph," the /m/ sound is articulated as [ɱ] due to the following
The pronunciation of /m/ can be influenced by neighbouring sounds.
If a neighbouring sound is rounded, such as in "rumor," the lips may protrude during the articulation of /m/

/n/ The phoneme /n/ is an alveolar nasal consonant, typically articulated with the tongue-tip on or near the
alveolar ridge.
During the production of /n/, the sides of the tongue make contact with the palate, preventing lateral escape of
air.
Most allophones of /n/ are alveolar, with the sides of the tongue in contact with the palate.
However, when /n/ is followed by the dental fricatives /θ/ or /ð/, as in "tenth" or "clean them," the allophone
may become dental, with the tongue-tip against the upper incisors.
Similarly, when /n/ is followed by the post-alveolar glide [j], as in "Henry," the allophone of /n/ becomes
post-alveolar, with the tongue-tip placed further back.

/η/ The phoneme /ŋ/ is a velar nasal consonant, articulated with the back of the tongue against the soft palate
or the back of the hard palate.
The placement of the articulation may vary between velar and post-palatal, influenced by adjacent front or
back vowels.
Before /j/ or /n/, such as in "hangman" or "hangnail," the stop of /ŋ/ is retained until the following stop has
been established.
The articulation of /ŋ/ may vary between velar and post-palatal, with adjacent front vowels favoring a post-
palatal contact and back vowels favoring a velar one.
Compare "sing" and "song" to observe the difference in articulation.
/ŋ/ doesn’t come initially, but medially, it has two possibilities:
If the word is one morpheme, it is two sounds /ŋg/ 1 > 2 e.g. finger /ŋg/
If the word is two morphemes, it is one sound /ŋ/ 2 > 1 e.g. singer /ŋ/

Laterals
The lateral phoneme /l/ is a distinctive sound in English, characterized by its lateral airflow and diverse
articulatory variations.
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Distinctive Features
Alveolar Articulation: In most English accents, the primary articulation point for /l/ is the alveolar ridge.
This means that the tongue-tip makes contact with the alveolar ridge, allowing air to flow freely over the sides
of the tongue.
Voicing: The majority of /l/ allophones are voiced throughout. However, when /l/ follows a voiceless plosive
(e.g., play, neatly), some or all of the lateral articulation may lack voicing, akin to aspiration observed with
voiceless plosives.
Non-fricative Nature: Allophones of /l/ are typically non-fricative, meaning they do not involve turbulent
airflow like fricatives. However, lateral friction may occur when breath passes between the sides of the
tongue and the palate in specific contexts.
RP: Clear [l] occurs before vowels, while dark [l] occurs elsewhere (e.g., before consonants or pauses).
Frictionless continuants
Frictionless continuants are sounds that exhibit characteristics of both vowels and consonants. They possess
vowel-like voicing, lack of friction, and a non-lateral oral airstream, yet function as consonants.
Within English phonetics, the phonemes /r/, /j/, and /w/ predominantly manifest as frictionless continuants.
These phonemes showcase allophonic variation, especially when preceded by voiceless plosives (/p/, /t/, /k/)
such as prove, twice, cue
/r/ In Received Pronunciation (RP), the initial consonant /r/ is a post-alveolar frictionless continuant.
The tongue-tip is positioned fairly close to the back of the alveolar ridge, with the sides of the tongue in
contact with the palate. Lateral bunching of the tongue is a notable feature, crucial for producing the correct
effect of the consonant.
The flap pronunciation of /r/ may occur in RP and other accents, particularly in words like "marry" and
"borrow", where /r/ is preceded by a short, stressed vowel and followed by an unstressed one.
/j/ The vocalic glide /j/ involves a smooth transition from a close or half-close front vowel position to the
position required by the following vowel.
When the following vowel is lengthened, /j/ gives rise to an [i]-type vowel, as demonstrated in the word "see"
However, when voiced, particularly before a very close variety of /i:/, /j/ may exhibit friction. This friction
arises due to the prime requirement for /j/ to move the tongue from a higher and/or fronter position than that
needed for the following vowel.
The phoneme sequence /hj/ at the beginning of words like "hue" is commonly realized by a single voiceless
palatal fricative sound [ç], as in [hjuː] pronounced as [çuː]
/w/ The consonant /w/ entails a vocalic glide, transitioning from a close or half-close back-rounded position to
the position of the following vowel.
When /w/ is lengthened, it gives rise to an [u]-type vowel sound, as exemplified in the word "too"
In Received Pronunciation (RP), the sequence /hw/ is not widespread, with plain /w/ being more common.
Consequently, words like "which" and "witch" are pronounced identically in RP.
It is more accurate to view /hw/ as a sequence rather than an extra phoneme. The sequence /hw/ is analogous
to other sequences like /sw/, /tw/, and /kw/, as observed in words such as "sway", "twenty", and "thwart"
Marginal consonant
Marginal consonants are sounds used irregularly in English, often borrowed from other languages or
possessing meanings of their own. These sounds cannot be easily incorporated into English words like central
phonemes (/p/, /t/, /k/), and they may lack flexibility in combining with other phonemes.
Some marginal consonants, like [x], the voiceless velar fricative, are borrowed from other languages. For
example, [x] occurs in words like "loch" (Gaelic), "Bach" (German), and "bach" and "fach" (Welsh). The
alveolar click, known as the "Tut-tut" click, signifies sympathy or reproof, while the lateral click,
characterized as the "Gee-up" click, conveys approval or encouragement.
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The Description and Classification of Sounds (consonants): DR. SPEECH
What is the difference between describing sounds and classifying sounds?
When describing a sound, the aim is to provide as many features as possible that characterize the sound.
However, it's important to note that achieving a complete description of any sound is often beyond our
capability. For instance, consider the sound /s/. While it may be described as an alveolar sound and voiceless,
its exact articulation can vary significantly depending on context. We may struggle to pinpoint precisely
which parts of the tongue are in contact, the size of the tongue, or the distance from the roof of the mouth.
This demonstrates the relative nature of sound description. Additionally, certain sounds like /z/ may exhibit
variations such as being voiced, voiceless, or devoiced, further complicating attempts at comprehensive
description.
Classification involves identifying features that differentiate sounds into distinct categories or classes. For
example, based on certain features, we might classify sounds into groups like plosives. Within this
classification, we group sounds that share similarities in their distinguishing features. However, other
consonants may be categorized differently due to their differences from the plosive group. Thus, classification
relies on identifying differentiating factors among sounds to create meaningful classes or categories.
What is correlation?
Correlation in phonetics refers to a feature that distinguishes multiple pairs of consonants from each other. In
the case of the pairs /p, b/, /t, d/, and /k, g/, each pair shares certain individual features such as bilabial,
alveolar, and velar articulation. However, there exists a common parameter that can differentiate the
consonants in the first part of each pair from those in the second part. This parameter is voicing, which
categorizes the consonants into two classes: voiced and voiceless, or more precisely, lenis and fortis. While
the individual features such as bilabial, alveolar, and velar are specific to each pair, voicing is a feature that
traverses across all three pairs, thereby correlating them. This correlation demonstrates how voicing serves as
a distinguishing factor across multiple consonant pairs.
Why is it not possible for voiced and voiceless to correspond with lenis and fortis?
Why is the lenis and fortis classification preferred over the voiced and voiceless classification?
It is not possible for voiced and voiceless to correspond with lenis and fortis due to the nature of voicing as a
temporary rather than permanent feature of a sound. Voicing can vary depending on context, making it
unreliable for establishing a correlation. A sound may be voiced in one context and voiceless in another, but
the distinction between lenis and fortis, representing the weakness and strength of a sound respectively,
remains consistent. Unlike voicing, which is accidental and temporary, the distinction between lenis and fortis
is permanent. For example, consider the sound /r/, which is typically voiced, but in a word like "pray," it
becomes voiceless. However, regardless of its voicing in different contexts, /r/ retains its lenis quality.
Therefore, classification based on the strength of a sound is more stable and reliable than classification based
on voicing.
How do linguists classify consonants based on acoustic and auditory perspectives?
Linguists classify consonants based on acoustic perspective by noting that fortis consonants have high
intensity, while lenis consonants have low intensity. However, from an auditory perspective, these consonants
are described as strong (fortis) or weak (lenis).

What determines whether a sound is aspirated or unaspirated?

Aspiration is determined by the timing of the vibration of the vocal folds. When there is aspiration, the
vibration of the vocal folds occurs after a delay, typically following the release of sounds like [p], [t], or [k].
In contrast, if the vibration of the vocal folds begins immediately with these sounds, they are considered
unaspirated. Therefore, the crucial difference lies in when the vibration of the vocal folds commences relative
to the articulation of certain consonants.

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What are the four phases involved in making plosive sounds, and how do they relate to the articulation
of incomplete plosives like in the phrase "good boy"?
The four phases in making plosive sounds are closure, compression, release of the closure, and post-closure.
In the case of incomplete plosives such as "good boy," there is indeed a closure, but it remains incomplete
because the following plosive "b" interrupts the airflow before the closure is fully released. This interruption
creates a unique articulatory pattern where the closure of the first plosive is never fully completed.

What linguistic phenomenon occurs when a plosive is followed by a nasal sound?

Nasal plosion is the term used to describe the sound production when a plosive consonant is immediately
followed by a nasal consonant, resulting in the airflow being redirected through the nose. An example of this
phenomenon can be found in the British pronunciation of the word "happen," where the initial "p" sound is
followed by the nasal "n" sound, causing the sound to be partially nasalized.

What are homorganic sounds, and can any other consonant combinations besides /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ merge to
form a single phoneme?
Homorganic sounds are those involving the same articulator and place of articulation, such as /t/ and /ʃ/
combining to form /tʃ/, or /d/ and /ʒ/ combining to form /dʒ/. These combinations produce affricate phonemes,
where a plosive transitions into a fricative. However, not every consonant combination can merge to form a
single phoneme like /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ do. The process of phoneme formation involves various linguistic factors,
including articulatory properties and perceptual distinctiveness. While other consonant combinations may
exist within a language, only those meeting specific linguistic criteria, such as similarity in place of
articulation and articulatory gesture, can merge to form a distinct phoneme. Thus, only consonant pairs
sharing these specific characteristics, such as /tʃ/ and /dʒ/, have the potential to become phonemes through
merger.

Why does the phoneme /h/ have no correlation?

The phoneme /h/ lacks correlation because its voicing can vary depending on adjacent sounds. Unlike most
consonants which are consistently either voiced or voiceless, /h/ is unique in that it can be voiced or voiceless
depending on its phonetic context. For instance, in words like "house" or "help," /h/ tends to be voiceless,
while in words like "ahead" or "behind," it can be voiced. This flexibility in voicing makes /h/ distinctive
among consonants, resulting in its lack of correlation.

Can you provide an example of sounds that exhibit characteristics of both vowels and consonants?
Sounds such as /h/, /j/, and /w/ demonstrate this duality. While phonetically they may resemble vowels in
their form, they exhibit phonological characteristics of consonants. This means that although they may sound
like vowels, they function more like consonants within the structure of language.

The classification of consonants based on their acoustic and articulatory features:

Consonants

Obstruent Sonorous

Stops Fricatives Nasals Approximants

(Plosives+ Affricates) (Lateral + Central)

Or (liquids + semivowels)
Or (Glides)

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B. THE DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS

A vowel is a speech sound that is produced without friction in the vocal tract and with the vocal cord
vibrating during pronunciation. Since there are no restrictions, the lips, teeth, and tongue do not come into
contact with one another while pronouncing the vowel sound.

According to RP (Received Pronunciation), we have 20 or 21 vowel sounds:

/i:/ peat - /ɪ/ pit - /e/ pet - /æ/ pat - /ʌ/ putt - /a:/ part - /ɔ/ pot - /ɔː/ port - /ʊ/ put - /u:/ fool - /3:/ furl - /eɪ/ fail
/əʊ/ foal - /ai/ file - /au/ foul - /oɪ/ foil - /iə/ pier - /ɛə/ pear - / ɔə/ pour - /ʊə/ poor - /ə/ banana

Types of Vowel Sounds

1. Monophthongs: These are pure vowel sounds produced with a steady and unchanging articulation.
Examples include the vowel sounds in words like bit, and cat.
2. Diphthongs: They involve a glide or movement from one vowel to another within a single syllable.
Examples include the vowel sounds in words like "boy," "coin," and "loud."
3. Schwa /ə/ : The schwa is a reduced vowel sound often pronounced as a weak, unstressed "uh" sound. It is
the most common vowel sound in English and can be found in unstressed syllables. Examples include the
schwa sound in words like "about," "banana," and "mother.“
4. A Triphthong is a kind of vowel sound that consists of combination of three vowels in a single syllable.
Unlike diphthongs, which consist of two vowel sounds, triphthongs consist of three distinct vowel sounds that
change in quality and glide smoothly from one to another within the same syllable. In English, examples of
triphthongs include the sounds /aɪə/ as in fire, /aʊə/ as in hour, and /jʊə/ as in cure.
5. TENSE VOWELS are produced with a general tension of the speech muscles.
6.LAX VOWELS are produced with a more relaxed speech muscle movement.

Classification of Vowel Sounds

There is significant variation in the number and realization of vowel phonemes. RP, for example, has twenty
or twenty-one vowel phonemes, including monophthongs and diphthongs. The phoneme /ə/ (schwa) is
notable for being the most frequent RP vowel, occurring only in unstressed syllables e.g. adorn /ə'dɔːn/. It is
almost possible in RP to consider [ə] as an allophone of /ʌ/; most occurrences of /ʌ/ are exclusively in
stressed syllables, e.g. comfort /'kʌmfət/, except in some few cases, e.g. hiccough /ˈhɪk.ʌp/, uphold /ʌpˈhəʊld/,
etc.

Vowels are classified according to:

1. Tongue height (Vertical classification): Open, half-open, half-close, and close, or we can say
(high – to – low) position in the mouth:
High vowels: Produced with the tongue high in the mouth. [i, ɪ, u, ʊ]
Mid vowels: Produced with the tongue in the middle of the mouth. [e, ə, ʌ, o, ɔ, ɔɪ]
Low vowels: Produced with the tongue low in the mouth. [æ, ɑ, aɪ, aʊ].

2. Tongue position (Horizontal classification): Front, central, and back or we can say (front – to – back)
position in the mouth:
Front vowels: Produced with the tongue in the front of the mouth. [i, ɪ, e, æ].
Central vowels: Produced with the tongue in the center of the mouth. [ə, aɪ, aʊ].
Back vowels: Produced with the tongue in the back of the mouth. [ʌ, ɑ, ɔ, u, ʊ, ɔɪ].

3. Lips shape: Rounded, spread, and neutral.

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1. /i:/ Front, close, spread
/i:/ Is realized as being a slight diphthong in RP, though it is also realized as a monophthongal vowel sound.
Examples: see, unique, and receive

2. /ɪ/ Front (nearer to the center), close (above the half-close), slightly spread
RP realizes /ɪ/ as being short and monophthongal. e.g. village /ˈvɪl.ɪdʒ/

3. /e/ Front, between half-close and half-open, slightly spread

In RP /e/ is generally realized, in set, meant, many, etc., as a short, front vowel between cardinals [e] and [ɛ].

4. /æ/ Front, below half-open, slightly spread

/æ/, as in pat, plait, cash, is realized in RP as a short vowel between cardinal [e] and cardinal [a]. Generally it
is monophthongal but there may be a diphthongal glide from that position to a more central one.

5. /ʌ/ Central, open, neutral

In RP, /ʌ/ as in bus, come, rough is generally realized as a short almost open central vowel

6. /a:/ Back, Open, Neutral

The vowel /a:/ of half, part, pass in RP is an open, rather back vowel and it is relatively long.

7. /ɒ/ Back, open or between open and half-open, rounded

In RP this is realized as a short, back, open or almost-open vowel, e.g. pot, what, cost.

8. /ɔː/ Back, below half-close, rounded

This is realized in RP in words such as caught, port, talk as a long monophthong just below cardinal [o]
It is not often separate from /ɔə/. Many speakers use a diphthong /ɔə/ before pause such as saw and sore.

9. /ʊ/ Nearer to central, half-close, rounded

RP /ʊ/ is realized in, e.g. wood, could, put as somewhat more central and closer than cardinal [o].

10. /u:/ Back, close, rounded

In RP, /u:/ most often has a diphthongal realization, but it may be given a monophthongal pronunciation
slightly lower and more central than cardinal [u].

11. /3:/ Central, between half-close and half-open, neutral

In RP the /3:/, e.g. bird, hearse, word, is typically a long, mid, central vowel.

12. /ə/ Final: Central, Half-open and Non-final: Central, Half-close

The commonest English vowel phoneme for the reason that it has replaced many other vowels over the
centuries, e.g. / ɒ / in contain /kən'tein/, /æ/ in postman /'pəustmən/ etc., and the process is still alive in the
sense that words such as and, can, of, at typically have /ə/ when they are unstressed.
There are two major allophones in RP:
1. Central and about half-close which occurs in non-final positions, e.g. in about and callous.
2. Central and about half-open which occurs before pause (final), e.g. in sailor, sofa.

13. /eɪ/
In RP this is generally realized as a diphthong moving from a position between cardinals [e] and [ɛ] to a
typical RP [i] position, e.g. day, late, vein. The change of quality is not very great but usually perceptible.

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14. /əʊ/
The most common RP realization of this phoneme in words such as go, dough, coat is probably a diphthong
starting at a typical RP [3:] position, i.e. mid-central, and moving slightly up and back to RP [u]

15. /ai/
This diphthong in words like buy, fine, sight, etc. has a realization in RP with an open or almost open
beginning point which varies from central to front and moves towards RP [i].
In fire, fiery, etc., the realization is often monophthongal, with the quality of the diphthong’s starting point.

16. /aʊ/
In RP, words such as now, drought, fowl have a diphthong which begins somewhat further back than for /ai/
and changes towards RP [u].
In words such as shower, showery, the realization may be monophthongal with the quality of the diphthong’s
beginning point and this may lead to confusion with /a:/; showery and starry are exact rhymes in such
pronunciations, which are not uncommon but fiery, even with its monophthongal pronunciation, will be
distinguished from them by its fronter quality

17. /ɔɪ/
In words like boy, join, voice, RP has a diphthong which starts around cardinal [o] and moves towards [i].

18. /ɪə/
There are two main allophones of /ɪə/ in RP, corresponding to those of /ə/.
Before pause, as in fear, idea the endpoint of the glide is a half-open central vowel, and elsewhere, e.g.
fierce, really, it is somewhat closer than this.
In both cases, the beginning point is about as for RP[i].
Before /r/, as in weary, fearing, there is often no perceptible diphthongization, but rather a long
monophthong of [i] quality, compare fear and fearing.

19. /ɛə/
In words like scare and scarce, RP employs a diphthong for the vowel sound. The diphthong begins at or
below [ɛ] and moves to a more central but equally open position.
Before /r/, as in "vary" or "wearing," a monophthongal allophone is frequent, matching the starting point of
the diphthong.

20. /ɔə/
As mentioned earlier /ɔə/ as an independent phoneme, differentiating pour from paw /po:/, is quite rare in RP.
It occurs in ‘r’- words like pour, score whereas /o:/ occurs in non-‘r’-words such as paw, saw, but /ɔə/ does
not necessarily occur in all ‘r’-words; the only place where /ɔə/ is regularly distinguished from /o:/, even by
those few who make the distinction is before pause, so it is quite unusual, though not unheard of, for caught
and court to be distinguished on this basis in RP.

21. /ʊə/
This occurs in RP in words like lure, endure and is realized as a diphthong changing from the normal [u]
quality to a central and more open position

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C. VOWELS AND CONSONANTS VERSUS VOCOIDS AND CONTOIDS
Understanding Vowels and Consonants
Defining Vowels and Consonants:
The common understanding of vowels and consonants is based on airflow obstruction during speech
production. Vowels are typically characterized by a smooth flow of air without any obstruction from the
larynx to the lips, as in the sound "ah." In contrast, consonants involve partial or complete obstruction of
airflow, resulting in sounds like "s" and "d." Distinguishing vowels from consonants can be tricky when some
sounds share traits of both categories, for example, sounds at the beginning of "hay" and "way," don’t
obstruct the air flow more than some vowels do. Understanding vowels and consonants in phonetics requires
a more detailed understanding due to their complex definitions and characteristics.

Challenges in Classification:
Different languages categorize sounds differently, such as the "r" sound in English being a consonant but in
Mandarin Chinese, it might be seen as a vowel. These variations highlight the complexity of speech sound
classification and the influence of linguistic diversity on phonetic analysis.

Alternative Approach:
We need an alternative approach to classify speech sounds by examining their distribution in different
linguistic contexts. (production). Researchers analyze sounds after letters like "h" and "b" to understand how
vowels and consonants are used. For example, words following "h" mostly contain vowels, while those after
"b" are usually consonants, like "hen" and "bid. There is one exception for "h" in the word huge.
Understanding how sounds are used in different parts of words is really important in phonology, as it helps us
see how languages follow certain patterns with their sounds.

Describing Vowel Characteristics:

Studying the characteristics of vowels, particularly in terms of tongue shape and position. Understanding
vowel differences is crucial. We simplify this complexity by focusing on two factors: the height of the
tongue and its position within the mouth. Tongue height can be altered by moving the tongue up or down
within the mouth.

Illustrating Tongue Positions:

The tongue positions for vowels like "i:" and "ǽ" When pronouncing "i:" as in "see," the surface of the tongue
is held close to the roof of the mouth, creating a close vowel sound. In contrast, when producing "ǽ" as in
"cat," the tongue is lower, resulting in a more open vowel sound. Close vowel (i:) is characterized by a high
tongue position, while open vowel ǽ has a lower tongue position. They are both front. When the back of the
tongue is raised, it produces back vowels like "a:" and "u:".

Cardinal Vowels, Lip Shapes

Cardinal vowels, like [i], [a], and [u], represent extreme points of vowel quality, defining the closest, most
open, and fully close vowel sounds, respectively. Intermediate points (other vowels)fill the gaps between
these extremes.

Shapes of lips:
Rounded: Lips brought together and pushed forward, seen in Cardinal Vowel No. 8 [u].
Spread: Lips moved apart, resembling a smile, evident in Cardinal Vowel No. 1 [i].
Neutral: Lips neither noticeably rounded nor spread, as in the hesitation sound "er."
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English Short Vowels:
English has a variety of vowel sounds, with short vowels represented by symbols. These vowels, though
termed short, may vary in length depending on context. Descriptions of each vowel are made relative to
cardinal vowels.
/I/ Examples: 'bit', 'pin', 'fish'. Positioned in the close front area, slightly more open compared to Cardinal
Vowel No. 1 [i], with slightly spread lips.
/e/ Examples: 'bet', 'men', 'yes'. A front vowel between Cardinal Vowel No. 2 [e] and No. 3 [e], with slightly
spread lips.
/ǽ/ Examples: 'bat', 'man', 'gas'. A front vowel not as open as Cardinal Vowel No. 4 [a], with slightly spread
lips.
/˄/ Examples: 'cut', 'come', 'rush'. A central vowel, more open than open-mid tongue height, with a neutral lip
position.
/ᴅ/ Examples: 'pot', 'gone', 'cross'. Positioned between open-mid and open in tongue height, with slightly
rounded lips.

/ꓴ/ Examples: 'put', 'pull', 'push'. Close to Cardinal Vowel No. 8 [u] but more open and nearer to central, with
rounded lips.
/ə/ Examples: 'about', 'oppose', 'perhaps'. Known as schwa, a central vowel distinct from others, studied
separately.

Ambiguity in Syllable Structure Elements

In linguistics, vowels and consonants are essential elements of speech sounds that form the building blocks of
language. Syllables consist of consonant (C) and vowel (V) elements. These terms are ambiguous due to
historical usage, referring sometimes to form (production) and sometimes to function(how they are used)
Resulted in compromise terms like semivowel, demi-vowel, semi-consonant, vocalic consonant, etc. Clear
distinction required to avoid ambiguity in phonetic analysis.
Textbooks often define vowels and consonants based on their general phonetic form, with vowels described
as sounds without closure, friction, or contact of tongue or lips. However, the same terms are also used to
describe the phonological function of segments in a syllable, where vowels represent syllabic elements and
consonants denote marginal elements. In Greek where the terms originated, sounds and their roles matched,
but in English, they don't always match. In English, "y" and "w" sometimes act like vowels although they're
considered consonants. This can cause confusion in classifying sounds within syllables.

Contemporary Definitions
Contemporary definitions of vowels and consonants focus on their phonetic form. Vowels are sounds
modified without tongue or lip closure, while consonants encompass all other sounds involving closure or
friction. Describing sounds as vowels or consonants within syllables can be tricky. Some sounds can play
both roles, which makes classification challenging and requires a good understanding of phonological
processes. A semi-vowel being a segment which defined by phonetic (form) is a vowel, but by phonological
(function) is a C element in a syllable pattern—such as the ‘y’ in English yet, or the ‘w’ in English wet.

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Resolving Ambiguity in Linguistic Terms
Scholars like H.D. Darbishire, F. de Saussure, and L. Bloomfield have long discussed the challenge of
ambiguity in vowels and consonants. One approach to resolving this issue is by introducing new terms and
redefining existing ones to eliminate conflicts between form-based and function-based applications. Previous
attempts by Darbishire, Saussure, and Bloomfield to introduce new terminology were not widely adopted. K.
L. Pike's approach, outlined in his book "Phonetics" (1943), has been one of the most successful attempts to
disambiguate linguistic terms in this area.

Pike's Solution, Clearing the Confusion

Pike addressed the confusion between "vowel" and "consonant" by introducing new terms focusing on
phonetic form. A vocoid is a segment with a stricture of open approximation, with or without a velic closure,
and with central passage of the air-stream. (Represents vowel-like sounds). All other segments are contoids.
Pike then puts forward the term syllabic for a segment representing a V element of syllable structure, (the
core of a syllable). Non-syllabic for a segment representing a C element of syllable structure. (Represents
sounds on the syllable's margins)

The four categories

1. in English, a syllabic vocoid in awe.
2. a non-syllabic vocoid at the beginning of yet.
3. a syllabic contoid in the second syllable of people,
4. and a non-syllabic contoid at the beginning of pet.
The traditional terms vowel and consonant, Pike suggests, can be used as synonyms of syllabic vocoid, and
non-syllabic contoid, respectively.

Syllabic and Non-Syllabic Sounds in Language

Voiceless Non-Syllabic Vocoids: Found at the beginning of words like "he" or “who” in ‘he’ both sounds are
vocoid but /h/ non-syllabic and /i:/ is syllabic.
Syllabic Contoids: Heard in interjections like "sh!" or "h'mm!" and in languages like African languages
where "m" is syllabic.
English Examples: In rapid speech, syllabic contoids can be observed in words like "never" (where the
second syllable may be entirely a syllabic "v") or "solicitor" (where syllabic "s" sounds occur in the first and
third syllables).

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VOWELS AND CONSONANTS VERSUS VOCOIDS AND CONTOIDS DR. SPEECH
Who is credited with devising the concept of cardinal vowels, and what purpose do they serve in phonetics?
The concept of cardinal vowels was devised by Daniel Jones, a prominent phonetician. Cardinal vowels serve
as reference points to accurately describe the position of vowels in any language. They are not specific to any
particular language but act as a standardized measuring tool, akin to a measuring tape, to gauge the proximity
of vowels in different languages to these reference points.

Explain the basis for classifying sounds into vowels and consonants according to K. L. Pike's
classification, distinguishing between vocoids and contoids, and their syllabic and non-syllabic forms.
In K. L. Pike's classification system, the distinction between vowels and consonants is based on both phonetic
and phonological criteria, which are further delineated into vocoids and contoids, each with syllabic and non-
syllabic forms.

Vocoids are sounds characterized by an open approximation of the vocal tract, allowing the free flow of air
through the mouth's center without obstruction. Phonetically, vocoids have no stricture, resembling traditional
vowels. Syllabic vocoids serve as the nucleus of a syllable, while non-syllabic vocoids do not. For example,
typical vowels like /i/, /a/, /u/ are syllabic vocoids, whereas sounds such as /j/, /w/, /h/, despite lacking
stricture, are classified as non-syllabic vocoids due to their inability to function as the nucleus of a syllable.

Contoids (non-vocoids) encompass all sounds exhibiting stricture or disturbance of airflow. These sounds
may or may not serve as the center of a syllable. Phonetically, contoids include any sound with a stricture,
such as stops (/p/, /t/, /k/). Contoids can be further divided into syllabic and non-syllabic forms. For instance,
the sound /l/ can act as a syllabic contoid in words like "people," indicating its ability to form the nucleus of a
syllable despite having stricture. Conversely, sounds like /p/, /t/, /k/, which are traditionally considered
consonants, are non-syllabic contoids.

This classification system introduces new terms to resolve the ambiguity between consonants and vowels:
"non-syllabic vocoid" and "syllabic contoid." Traditionally, vowels are synonymous with syllabic vocoids,
while consonants align with non-syllabic contoids. However, this expanded classification acknowledges
sounds that possess characteristics of both consonants and vowels, providing a more nuanced understanding
of speech sounds.

What are the main types of vowels, and why are triphthongs not typically considered a separate type?
Vowels are primarily categorized into monophthongs and diphthongs. While triphthongs exist, they are not
usually considered a distinct type of vowel because they are modifications of diphthongs. Triphthongs can be
further classified into closing and centering triphthongs, both of which are essentially combinations of
diphthongs with a schwa sound.

This classification system introduces terms like "non-syllabic vocoid" and "syllabic contoid," providing a
more understanding of sounds that possess characteristics of both vowels and consonants.
Sounds

Vocoid Contoid

Syllabic Non-syllabic Syllabic Non-syllabic

(Vowels) (j, w, h) (l, r, m, n) (Consonants)

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WEEK 6: Acoustic phonetics
What is Acoustic Phonetics? (Sound Between Mouth and Ear)
Acoustic phonetics is the branch of phonetics concerned with the physical properties of sounds as they are
transmitted through the air. It deals with the analysis and measurement of sound waves, including their
frequency, amplitude, intensity, and duration.

"The Molecular Dynamics of Speech and Acoustic Phonetics"

The medium through which speech sound normally travels is air. Air is a mixture of gases, and an important
property of a gas is that it can be compressed or rarefied; what this means is that the component molecules
can be brought closer together or further apart.
Example:
When a tuning fork is struck, it vibrates steadily, with each prong moving back and forth through a certain
distance. This movement pushes and pulls the surrounding air molecules in a similar manner, creating a
pattern of vibration until the vibration ceases and the prongs return to their resting position.
This operation takes time. We can introduce time in
the following graph, where the vertical axis represents
time and the horizontal one movement. This is the sort
of trace we would see if we could attach a pen to the
moving molecule. In normal practice the graph is turned
round so that time is always shown along the horizontal
axis and movement along the vertical one.

There are two ways in which this movement can vary:

If the molecule is given a good strong bump it will travel
further from its place of rest than if it were bumped only lightly.
The maximum movement away from the place of rest
is amplitude of vibration.

One complete cycle of operations (from the place of rest to the maximum
Amplitude in one direction, then back to the maximum amplitude in the
other direction and finally back to the place of rest again) is known as one cycle
The second type of variation is in time; regardless of amplitude a
cycle may be completed in a longer or shorter period of time and
the length of time is known as the cycle’s period.

If a vibration has a period of one hundredth of a second, then in

one second there will be a hundred cycles. The number of cycles
per second (cps) is known as the frequency of vibration.
Periodic sounds:
Sounds whose period remains the same for cycle after cycle are known as periodic sounds.
Periodic sounds give rise to a clear sensation of pitch whose height is related to the
frequency of vibration - the higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.
Not all periodic sounds have Sinusoidal Shape (simple and elegant shape of the vibration).
Non Sinusoidal shape is that it can be analyzed into a combination of two shapes
which are sinusoidal. The more complex the periodic shape is the less like a simple
sinusoidal curve the more sinusoidal components will be needed to build it up. A piano
note or a spoken vowel, may be made up of a great many sinusoidal components. The sinusoidal components
of any complex periodic sound are known as the harmonics of that sound.
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The higher harmonics are always simple multiples of the lowest harmonic which is known as the fundamental
frequency.

Two quite distinct sounds may have the same fundamental frequency, but different harmonics.
For instance, the same note played by a violin and a piano. The difference between the two is one of quality -
there is violin quality and piano quality, and quality is closely related to the harmonic structure of the sounds.
The complex wave of the piano note is built up of different higher harmonics than that of the violin.

A sound spectrum is a representation of a sound in terms

the amount of vibration at each individual frequency.

No speech sounds are absolutely periodic, that is, perfectly repetitive

from one cycle to the next, but some are so nearly periodic.
(e.g. vowel sounds)
The wave forms of spoken vowels are very complex.

The pitch of a note, i.e, our sensation of its being a high

note or a low one, depends on the fundamental frequency.

If the fundamental frequency is high, the perceived pitch will be high if low, low.
So the same vowel said on two different pitches must have different fundamental frequencies.
But if the fundamentals are different, so too must the harmonic structures be, because the higher harmonics
are always simple multiples of the fundamental.
We recognize the same vowel sound, such as[a], even when its fundamental frequency and harmonic structure
vary.
Suppose I say the vowel [a] with a fundamental of 100 cps and
then again at, say 175 cps. In the first case the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc.
harmonics will be at 200, 300, 400, etc. cps. In the second case,
they will be at 350, 525, 700, etc. cps.
While the number and frequencies of harmonics differ between vowels, the general shape of their spectra
remains consistent. Despite variations in pitch among speakers, vowels maintain recognizable characteristics
due to this consistent spectral shape. Women and children, despite having higher-pitched voices, can produce
the same vowels as men because the relative amplitudes of harmonics, rather than their specific frequencies,
define vowel sounds.
Aperiodic sounds
Aperiodic sounds are sounds that do not repeat their waveform pattern regularly over time.
Aperiodic sounds such as [s] can also be specified in terms of their spectra, but for them it is no longer a case of a
tidy harmonic structure, with each harmonic being a simple multiple of the fundamental. For aperiodic sounds
there is no fundamental, no harmonics; instead, noise is going on at every frequency.
The spectra of aperiodic sounds cannot be a series of vertical lines
representing the frequencies and amplitudes of the separate harmonics; it must
be a continuous line representing the amplitude of vibration at every frequency.
Aperiodic sounds, such as the voiceless retroflex fricative [ʂ] and the voiceless
alveolar fricative [s], can be distinguished based on their spectral characteristics.
While both sounds contain a range of frequencies, the amplitude of these
frequencies varies. These differences in amplitude across the frequency
spectrum enable us to distinguish one aperiodic sound from another.

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Sound intensity
The intensity of a sound is the amount of energy
being transmitted through the air at a particular point.

Intensity is related to amplitude of vibration in the following way:

An air molecule vibrates back and forth about its place of rest at specifiable
frequencies and amplitudes.
Suppose that the molecule is vibrating at one particular frequency and the
amplitude is suddenly doubled, but since the frequency is the same, it only has the
same amount of time to do this, so it must move faster, twice as fast in fact; and the
amount of energy expended in doing this is also increased.

f the amplitude of a sound is doubled, the intensity will increase four times; if the amplitude is trebled, the
intensity will increase nine times, so the intensity of a sound is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
Intensity is a physical measurement and is not to be directly equated with loudness.
Loudness is a perceptual matter, like pitch, a matter of hearing and judging what we hear.
But there is a close relation between the physical dimension of intensity and the perceptual dimension of loudness.
The range of energy in the sounds we can hear is very large.

The intensity of a very loud sound may be as much as a billion times as great as the quietest sound we can hear, so
it would be inconvenient to use an absolute scale for referring to intensity.

We use the decibel scale(db) to compare two sounds’ intensities to determine which is louder and the decibel scale
works as follows:

Intensity Ratio: If sound B is a hundred times more intense than sound A, then the intensity ratio between them is
100:1. This means that sound B has an intensity that is 100 times greater than that of sound A

Conversion to Decibels: To convert this intensity ratio into decibels (db), we use the formula: db=10*log10(IB/IA)

Resonance
Resonance is the transmission of vibration from one body to another. It occurs when vibrations produced by
one object are transferred to another object, causing the second object to vibrate in response. This transfer of
vibrations often results in an amplification of the vibrations, making them stronger than they were originally.
The body to which the vibrations are transmitted is called a resonator.

A classic example of resonance can be observed when you strike a tuning fork. Initially, the vibrations
produced by the tuning fork may not be very loud, but when the tuning fork is placed on a solid surface, such
as a table, the vibrations are transmitted to the table, causing it to vibrate as well. This amplifies the sound,
making it louder and more audible. Another example is in a violin, when the strings are bowed, the vibrations
produced by the strings are transmitted through the bridge to the body of the violin. The body of the violin then
resonates, amplifying the sound produced by the strings.

Every resonator has a natural frequency at which it vibrates most readily. This means that when vibrations
close to this natural frequency are applied to the resonator, it responds strongly. However, resonators can also
react differently to vibrations depending on their characteristics. Some resonators, like the table in our earlier
example, respond quickly to vibrations and stop vibrating soon after the source of vibrations is removed.
Others, like the body of the violin, may sustain vibrations for a longer period. Such resonators (the body of the

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violin) are said to be damped, and damped resonators have the characteristic (contrary to the undamped tuning
fork resonator) of responding to a much wider range of outside frequencies.
In the study of resonance, researchers often use resonance curves
to visualize how resonators respond to different frequencies.
These curves show the relationship between the frequency of
an applied vibration and the amplitude of the resonator's response.
Resonators with a narrow bandwidth, such as tuning forks, respond
most strongly to vibrations close to their natural frequency,
while those with a wider bandwidth, like the body of the violin, can respond to a broader range of frequencies.

Resonance plays an important role in shaping the sounds we produce. The human vocal tract acts as a
resonator, with different cavities resonating at different frequencies to produce distinct vowel sounds. By
adjusting the shape and size of the vocal tract, we can modify the resonance patterns and produce different
vowel sounds. If we take the nasalized vowel [ã] in French banc, three distinct cavities are relevant, the
pharynx, the nasal cavity, and the oral cavity. The vocal cords provide the input vibrations, rather weak but
have a wide range of frequencies; the volumes of air in the three cavities are set resonating in accordance with
their own characteristics, which are determined by the size and shape of the cavities. Each separate vowel
sound has a different combination of two or three cavity shapes (the nasal cavity is not always included) and
thus a characteristic pattern of resonance.

Acoustic characterization of sounds

- This figure shows the simplified acoustic pattern for the vowel [ɪ] of ‘sit’.
- The patterns show areas of energy at certain frequencies, called formants.
- the vowel [ɪ] has three main formants: F1 is 500, F2 is 1780, an d F3 is 2500 cycles per second (cps).
- Vowels generally have more than three formants F4, F5, etc.
- Formants are important for specifying vowels and are more connected with identifying the voice quality of a
particular speaker.
- This kind of analysis can be carried out quickly and accurately through the acoustic spectrograph
(spectrogram) which is a tool used in audio analysis to visualize the frequencies present in a sound signal over
time. It essentially converts sound into a visual representation.
- The machine can also be used to give an accurate specification of the spectrum of the sound at a particular
moment of time. This is known as an amplitude section.
- Sounds other than vowels may also display a clear formant structure, for instance [m, n, r, l], etc. All sounds
which are voiced and non-constrictive can be summed up acoustically in terms of their formants.

Consonant fricatives like "s" have different acoustic patterns compared to vowels.
- Their energy is spread over a wider range of frequencies, without clear formants.
-Voiced fricatives are similar in their noise characteristics to voiceless ones. Still,
they differ in that the vocal cord vibrations which accompany them cause resonance
in the cavities behind the narrowing.
-A formant-type structure may also be quite characteristic of some voiceless fricatives: this is particularly true
for [h] sounds, since [h] is in effect simply a voiceless variety of a following vowel. -Notice how [h] before the
vowels [i, a, Ͻ] in he, hah, haw has noise formants which correspond exactly in frequency to the formants of
the following vowel.
-the voiceless velar fricative [x] of Scots loch has a clear formant structure of its own.

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Time is a factor which has to be taken into account in characterizing sounds in general, but it is crucial in
the case of the plosives, and that in two ways:

FIRST, The explosion of the plosive corresponds to a burst of noise, similar to the noise present in fricatives,
but of very short duration. The burst is very short we hear it as an explosion; if the duration of the burst were
extended, it would be heard as more and more like a fricative.

SECONDLY, The time between the burst and the onset of a following sound is important. It corresponds to
the movement of the speech organs from the stop position of the plosive to the open position of the vowel.
Changes of this kind in vowel formants are known as transitions. Transitions in consonants relate to changes in
vocal tract shape and are essential for describing consonant sounds. The bursts of different plosives have
different noise characteristics. the main energy, as with the fricatives, is distributed differently according to the
different places of articulation. The explosion of [p] does not sound like that of [t] and it is acoustically
different.

Three main factors describe sounds acoustically:

1- Formant structure: Concentration of energy at different frequencies.
(Particularly important for voiced non-constrictive sounds such as vowels, nasals, laterals, and frictionless
continuants, but may also be characteristic of at least some fricatives, e.g. [h, x].)
2- Noise component: Continuous distribution of energy over a range of frequencies. (Particularly important for
all fricatives and for the burst of plosives, flaps, and rolls.)
3- Transitions: Changes in formant frequency associated with changes in vocal tract shape. These are
specifiable in terms of
(a) initial and terminal frequencies of transition.
(b) initial and terminal intensity of transition.
(c) duration of transition, including differential durations.
(Not important for vowels but crucial for most consonants, especially with regard to place of articulation
(frequency, intensity) and manner of articulation (duration).)

Acoustic complexity
It iss the complexity of acoustic signals in speech, particularly focusing on spectrograms and their
interpretation. Even simple utterances, like the phrase "Penguin linguistics," exhibit significant acoustic
changes over time. These changes can be segmented into various parts along the timeline, each corresponding
to different acoustic features. For example, in the spectrogram of [sϽ] saw, there are four segments
representing the transition from the friction of the [s] sound to the formant structure of the vowel [Ͻ]. That is
why acoustic segmentation should be considered in relation to articulatory segmentation and human perception
of sounds.

There are two main reasons behind challenges in understanding which acoustic features are crucial for
sound and sound sequences (speech recognition):
1- The acoustic information present in speech is enormously abundant and detailed and we need to find out
how much of it is in fact relevant to speech.
2- Human beings are, from an acoustic point of view, very variable in their performance: if someone says [sϽ]
saw, twice, in apparently identical ways, the machine will show acoustic differences, and if we compare the
acoustic records of me saying [sϽ] saw, and you saying it, the differences would be very considerable.

Researchers use methods such as filtering and synthetic speech to identify essential acoustic features. However,
the ultimate test lies in human perception, as experiments must be validated by listeners' judgments.

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What is a tuning fork tool used for? DR. SPEECH
A tuning fork tool is primarily used for calibrating musical instruments, particularly stringed ones like the
lute. When struck, it emits a clear tone, but its true purpose lies in its ability to vibrate at a specific frequency.
These vibrations are typically inaudible unless the tuning fork is placed on a resonator, such as a sounding
board, which amplifies the sound, indicating whether the instrument's strings are tuned correctly.
What does acoustic phonetics deal with?
Acoustic phonetics deals with the study of sound between the mouth of the speaker and the ear of the listener.
What is the basic physical process of sound articulation?
Sound articulation involves setting air in motion, resulting in a stream of air moving out of the mouth and
hitting air molecules outside.
Describe the movement of air molecules outside the mouth during sound articulation.
Air molecules outside the mouth are set into motion by the stream of air coming out. They move horizontally
and vertically, oscillating back and forth from their point of rest.
What determines the characteristics of sound in acoustic phonetics?
The characteristics of sound, such as amplitude, frequency, and period, are determined by factors like the
energy exerted, the speed of movement of molecules, and the rate of vibration.
Define amplitude in the context of sound.
Amplitude refers to the maximum movement of an air molecule away from its point of rest during sound
oscillation.
What does frequency represent in acoustic phonetics?
Frequency represents the number of cycles a molecule makes in one second, indicating the rate of vibration of
the sound.
Explain the concept of a cycle in sound movement.
A cycle in sound movement consists of one complete movement away from the point of rest in one direction,
followed by a movement in the opposite direction back to the point of rest.
What is the period of a cycle?
The period of a cycle is the amount of time it takes for an air molecule to complete one full cycle of
movement, measured in seconds.
How are amplitude, frequency, and period related in describing sound characteristics?
Amplitude represents the maximum movement, frequency indicates the rate of vibration, and period
measures the duration of one cycle of movement, collectively describing the characteristics of sound.
What are periodic sounds?
Periodic sounds are sounds whose cycles repeat with the same period of time.
How do we describe periodic sounds from a time perspective?
From a time perspective, periodic sounds are characterized by cycles taking the same amount of time to
complete.
What term describes the shape of waves created by periodic sounds?
The shape of waves created by periodic sounds is described as sinusoidal.
How do we differentiate between the terms "periodic" and "sinusoidal" in describing waves?
"Periodic" describes the cycle from the time dimension, while "sinusoidal" describes the shape of the wave
perspective.
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Can we talk about "sinusoidal sounds"?
No, we talk about sinusoidal wave shapes, not sinusoidal sounds.
How do non-sinusoidal waves relate to sinusoidal waves?
Non-sinusoidal waves can be seen as a combination of two sinusoidal wave shapes, with patterns or shapes
repeating.
What are harmonics in the context of sound?
Harmonics are the sinusoidal components of a sound, representing the symmetrical wave shapes that make up
the sound's complex waveform.
Do all sounds have harmonics?
A: Yes, all sounds have harmonics, especially vowel sounds, which have multiple sinusoidal wave shapes
contributing to their overall sound.
Why are vowels considered periodic sounds while consonants are aperiodic?
Vowels exhibit periodicity because they are produced with a relatively consistent airflow, resulting in a steady
stream of sound waves. In contrast, consonants involve various obstructions or alterations to the airflow, such
as closures or narrowings in the vocal tract. These interruptions cause irregularities in the airflow, leading to
aperiodic sound production. For instance, when producing a consonant like /n/, the airflow encounters an
obstruction at the alveolar ridge, necessitating a redirection through the nasal cavity. These changes in airflow
direction and obstruction lead to variations in the shape and periodicity of the resulting sound waves. Thus,
vowels typically manifest as periodic sounds with sinusoidal waveforms, while consonants tend to be
aperiodic, characterized by non-sinusoidal waveforms.
What is the “fundamental frequency” in the context of sound waves?
The fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency component of a sound wave. It serves as the basis upon
which higher harmonics are built, with each harmonic being a simple multiple of the fundamental frequency.
How does the quality of a sound, such as that produced by a violin or a piano, relate to its harmonic
structure?
The quality of a sound, often referred to as timbre, is closely related to its harmonic structure. Different
instruments produce different harmonic structures, resulting in unique qualities of sound.
What is a sound spectrum and what does it represent?
A sound spectrum is a graphical representation of a sound, displaying the amplitude and frequency of its
individual components, including harmonics. It provides insight into the complex makeup of a sound wave.
What determines the perceived pitch of a note?
The perceived pitch of a note is primarily determined by its fundamental frequency. Higher fundamental
frequencies correspond to higher perceived pitches, while lower fundamental frequencies correspond to lower
perceived pitches.
How is intensity defined in the context of sound waves?
Intensity in the context of sound waves refers to the energy with which the sound is emitted. It is a measure of
the physical energy associated with sound.
Can intensity be objectively measured?
Yes, intensity can be objectively measured. It is a physical concept and can be quantified using mathematical
units, such as decibels, which provide a measure of sound intensity.

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How does intensity relate to frequency and amplitude in sound waves?
Intensity is directly related to both frequency and amplitude in sound waves. Higher frequencies and
amplitudes correspond to greater intensity, resulting in louder and more energetic sounds.
Why can't our perception of intensity be equated to the actual amount of intensity?
Our perception of intensity cannot be equated to the actual amount due to several factors.
Firstly, our perception varies and is subjective, not always aligning with the actual intensity.
Secondly, individual differences play a significant role, as each person's auditory system varies in accuracy.
This discrepancy is exemplified by individuals who are tone deaf. While intensity can be objectively
measured using units like decibels, subjective factors such as loudness and pitch vary from person to person.
Consequently, what may seem too loud for one person could be perceived as normal by another.
Why is loudness considered an auditory phonetic term while intensity is considered an acoustic
phonetic term?
1. Loudness pertains to the perception of sound by the auditory system, whereas intensity relates to the
physical characteristics of sound waves in the air.
2. Loudness reflects how the brain interprets the amplitude or energy of sound waves, while intensity
specifically measures the amount of energy transmitted through the air at a particular point.
What is the relationship between amplitude and intensity in sound, and how does it affect the intensity
when the amplitude is doubled?
The relationship between amplitude and intensity in sound is that the intensity is proportional to the square of
the amplitude. When the amplitude is doubled, the intensity increases by a factor of four. This means that to
double the amplitude, the intensity must be increased by four times. For example, if the amplitude is doubled,
the intensity becomes four times greater. This relationship is measured in decibels.
What is resonance?
Resonance is the transmission of vibrations from one body to another, resulting in an amplification of the
vibrations and often making them stronger than they were originally.
How does resonance occur?
Resonance occurs when vibrations produced by one object are transferred to another object, causing the
second object to vibrate in response.
Can you provide an example of resonance?
A classic example of resonance is observed when a tuning fork is struck. Initially, the vibration produced may
not be very loud, but when the tuning fork is placed on a solid surface, such as a table, the vibrations are
transmitted to the table, causing it to vibrate as well. This amplifies the sound, making it louder and more
audible.
What is the role of a resonator in resonance?
The body to which the vibrations are transmitted is called a resonator. It amplifies the vibrations and makes
them more audible.
How is vibration transmitted from one body to another in instruments like the violin?
In instruments like the violin, vibration from the strings is transmitted to the wooden body through a bridge.
The bridge functions as a connector between the string and the body, allowing the vibration to be transferred
effectively, resulting in resonance.

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Does the vibration of the second body start simultaneously with the vibration of the original body?
It depends on the nature of the resonator. Damped resonators, like wood, resonate in harmony with the
vibration of the original body almost simultaneously and continue to vibrate longer. However, undamped
resonators stop vibrating in harmony with the original body once the source vibration is stopped.
Does the body to which the vibration is transmitted vibrate simultaneously with the original body?
It depends on the nature of the resonator. Damped resonators, like the body of a violin, may sustain vibration
for a longer period, starting almost simultaneously with the original body's vibration. On the other hand,
undamped resonators respond quickly to the vibration but stop vibrating soon after the source vibration is
removed.
What is the significance of resonators being damped or undamped?
Damped resonators resonate in harmony with the original body's vibration almost simultaneously and
continue vibrating longer, while undamped resonators respond quickly to vibration but stop vibrating once
the source vibration ceases. This distinction affects how resonators transmit and sustain vibrations.
What role does resonance play in shaping the sound we produce?
Resonance plays a crucial role in shaping the sound we produce by amplifying vibrations generated at the
larynx through various resonators in the vocal tract.
Why is the vibration of the vocal folds at the larynx not audible on its own?
Because it needs to be transmitted to different resonators in the vocal tract, such as the pharynx, oral cavity,
and nasal cavity, which amplify the vibrations and make them audible.
What are the primary resonators in the human vocal tract?
The primary resonators in the human vocal tract are the pharynx, oral cavity, and nasal cavity, which amplify
vibrations of sounds produced at the larynx.
How does the adjustment of the shape and size of the vocal tract affect resonance?
By adjusting the shape and size of the vocal tract, we can modify resonance, which leads to the production of
distinct vowel sounds. This variation in the vocal tract's shape gives rise to the differences perceived between
different vowels.

How can a consonant sound be transformed into a vowel sound?

A consonant sound can be transformed into a vowel sound by making slight adjustments to the shape of the
vocal tract. For example, by modifying lip shape, a consonant sound like /w/ can change into a vowel sound
like /o/.
What is the difference between a nasal consonant and a nasalized consonant?
A nasal consonant occurs when the oral cavity is completely blocked, forcing all the air to pass through the
nasal cavity. In contrast, a nasalized consonant involves both the oral and nasal cavities being open, allowing
air to pass through both simultaneously.
What are formants and why are they important in the acoustic characterization of sounds?
Formants are areas of energy or banks of energy in the production of sounds, particularly in vowels and some
consonants. They represent specific frequencies at which the energy in a sound signal is concentrated.
Formants are crucial for specifying vowels and identifying the voice quality of a particular speaker. In
vowels, typically the first two formants (F1 and F2) are particularly important as they characterize the vowel,
with each vowel having a certain location where F1 and F2 occur. The other formants (F3, F4, F5) may not be
as significant for characterizing the vowel itself but are relevant for secondary features of sounds, such as
sound quality.
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