TRAINING COURSE ON INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY TESTING AND SAFETY - (RT-1) (VOLUME - 1) Compiled by GURSHARAN SINGH Isotope Division, BARC AND M.J. SUBRAMANYA. Radiological Physics and Advisory Division, BARC RADIOLOGICAL PHYSICS AND ADVISORY DIVISION BHABHA ATOMIC RESEARCH CENTRE MUMBAY 400 085 1997 | |A. CONTENTS Non-Destructive Testing Methods Properties of Materials Defects in Materials Material Defects and Failures in Service X-ray Technology Radiation Sources Gamma Radiography Equipment Photographic and Non-Photographic Recording Lead and Fluorescent Screens Work Parameters and Conditions Evaluation of Radiographic Quality Defectology Selection of Radiography Techniques Radiographic Standards and Selection of Test Methods Advances in Radiography3.1.1: X and Gamma Radiography Radiography testing is most widely used in industry for inspection of welds, castings and assemblies. ‘The image of a material produced on an X-ray film shows optical density (degree of blackening) variation depending on the internal structure of the object. Industrial X-ray machines in the range of 50-400 kV are used for inspection of metal thicknesses upto 7.5 cm steel equivalents. Betatrons and linear accelerators upto 30 MeV are used for higher thicknesses. Artificially produced radioisotopes, emitting gamma radiations, such as iridium-192 and cobalt-60 have many advantages over X-ray machines. Equipment used for gamma radiography is compact, rugged and ideal for field work, _Iridium-192 and cobalt-60 sources combined together can cover inspection range of 10-200 mm of stee! equivalents. 3.2 : Ultrasonic Method ‘Ultrasound waves are generated by piezo electric transducers which convert electrical energy to mechanical vibrations and vice-versa. ‘These waves are made to fall on the material to be tested. As the wave travels through the material, it may get reflected, refracted, scattered or transmitted depending, upon the structure of the material Longitudinal waves Shear a. Pulsecho Method b. Transmission Method Fig. 1.2 : Ultrasonic Methods Most commonty used frequency range for industrial inspection is 0.5 - 25 mega hertz. Three important methods of ultrasonic testing are pulse-echo, transmission and resonance techniques. 3.2.1: Pulse-Echo Method In this method, evenly timed pulse waves are transmitted into the material to be tested. Ina homogeneous material, the wave travels through the material and gets reflected from the back surface. In case of a defect, the original pulse reflects back from the defect location and returns to the transducer before the return of back surface echo pulse as shown in figure 1.2a. A single transducer can serve both as transmitter and receiver,3.2.2 : Transmission Method In this method, two separate transducers are used on either side of the material, one as transmitter and the other as receiver (Fig. 1.2b) Variation in intensity across the transmitted ‘beam indicates the soundness of the material. Attenuation of the sound beam is indicative of coarse grain structure of the material. When the wave length is comparable to the grain size of the medium, scattering process predominates, Transmission mettiod is less sensitive. 3.2.3 : Resonance Method ‘This method is mainly useful for measurement of thickness of plates or sheets and also in case of bonded materials. In this method, ultrasonic wave of continuously varying frequency is fed into the material. The frequency is varied till a standing wave is set up within the material, causing it to resonate at the fundamental frequency or multiples of it at a greater amplitude as shown in figure 1.3. The resonance is sensed by an instrument, Change in resonant frequency is an indication of discontinuity. FEAL Fig. 1.3 : Principle of Resonance method. 4: METHODS FOR SURFACE/SUB-SURFACE INSPECTIONS 4.1 : Visual and Dye Penetrant Testing Methods Examination of cracks and other irregularities on the surface under visible light is the cheapest, simplest and quickest NDT method. However, all defects cannot be seen, by unaided eyes. Therefore, techniques to increase the contrast of the discontinuity to make it visible, are used. Coloured and fluorescent dyes are made to seep into the surface cracks to provide contrast against the background. bi Oe4.2 : Rayleigh Wave Testing Rayleigh waves are ultrasonic shear Waves propagated near the surface of a material. Waves of frequencies in the range of 1-10 MHz are used for detection of surface cracks and other defects. ‘The technique is used, where access is timited. 4.3 : Magnetic Particle Testing ‘This method is applicable only to materials which can be magnetised, ‘The object is magnetised by applying high alternate ot direct currents (A.C or D.C) and flow of magnetic powders is observed either in dry or wet process. Surface discontinuity, such as grinding cracks, forging laps and seams, etc. can be easily detected. In some cases, sub-surface defects about one centimeter deep, can also be revealed. Fig, 1.4 : Principle of Eddy Current Testing 4.4 : Eddy Current Testing ‘The incthod employs alternating currenis in the range (50-5000 kHz), and is useful for detection of surface and near surface defects in electrically conducting materials. When a coil carrying alternating current is placed in the proximity of metal specimen, as shown in figure 1.4, eddy currents are induced on the surface layer, Strength of these eddy currents depends on a large number of surface variables,Depth of inspection depends upon type of material and frequency of the alternating current and it is about 1-10 mm. $: LEAK TESTING Leak testing method is used to check fabricated components and systems, for nuclear reactors, pressure vessels, electronic valves, vacuum equipment, gas containers, etc. A leak is passage of a gas from one side of the wall of the container to the other side, under pressuse or concentration difference. 1 is measured as ct/sec. Depending upon the range of teak detection capability, a number of test methods are available. Some examples are; pressure drop/tise, ultrasonic leak detectors, bubble tests and ammonia sensitised paper, with detection capabilities upto 10 cc/sec. Halogen diode sniffer, Hetium mass spectrometer and Argon mass spectrometer have detection sensitivities in the range 107 - 10" co/sec.18. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 1: INTRODUCTION Selection of a material for a given job depends upon its physical and mechanical properties. Most structural materials are subject to external forces, which generate internal mechanical stresses. The reaction of the part to these stresses can be critical to its continued functioning. Hence, it is important for the NDT personnel to know the normal material properties, as well as effect of disconsinuity upon the material serviceability. 2: TYPES OF PROPERTIES ‘The application for which a material is used, determines which property is most important. 2.1: Chemical Properties ‘Chemical properties (reaction with other materials) are of interest, mainly because of the need for resistance to corrosion. 2.2 + Physical Properties Physical properties of materials are associated with their atomic structures - eg., density, crystalline type, atomic spacing, specific heat, meiting point, etc. 2.3 : Mechanical Properties Mechanical properties of materials like strength, hardness, are most important in manufacturing processes and for determining sizes and shapes necessary for carrying loads. “Tensile Strength A stress strain diagram is used to describe many of the mechanical properties important in the strength of a material, It shows the stress-strain behaviour of the material under gradually applicd and increasing tensile stress. It indicates three regions : a, Elastic Region at Low Stresses - indicates that the longitudinal strain produced by stresses is quite small and is proportional to the applied stress. '. Plastic Region at Medium Stresses : indicates that at a certain stress level an abrupt increase in strain occurs and the material is said to yield. c. Necking Region at High Stresses : wherein, when the ultimate strength is reached, the material staris to neck into larger strains, until the material ruptures and breaks into two parts, Strains beyond the elastic limit, which result in residual strains on unloading are called inelastic or plastic strains. Materials which undergo relatively large plastic strain to rupture are referred to xs “ductile”, ‘Those which undergo little or no plastic strain, prior to rupture, 1.6are referred 10 as “brittle”. 2.3.21 Toughness and Notch-Tonghness “The toughness of a material is defined as the ability of an unnotched member (e.g. a smooth round bar) 10 absorb energy, when loaded slowly. Notch toughness of a material, is defined as she ability of a material co absorb energy in the presence of a sharp notch, when loaded very rapidly with an impact toad. 2.3.3: Creep Creep is the flow of material over a period of time, when under a Joad too small tp produce any measurable plastic deformation at the time of application. The simplest type of creep test is made by just hanging a weight on the test specimen and observing its elongation, as a function of {ime by using a microscope of other sensitive detector of strain, 2.3.4: Fatigue Fatigue testing determines the ability of a material to withstand repeated applications of stress which in insetf is 100 small to produce appreciable plastic deformation. Fatigue, usually is amore critical design criterion than any other, for the structural safety and reliability of machinery or structural components. 2.3.5 : Hardness ‘The hardness of a material is measured by hardness tester, ‘Three types of hardness test are the scratch, rebound and penetration tests. Hardness measurements are extremely useful as a quick and rough indication of the mechanical properties of a metal.1C. DEFECTS IN MATERIALS 1: INTRODUCTION A discontinuity can occur any time in the history of a piece of metal. If it is introduced during the initial production from the molten state, it is termed as inherent discontinuity. If caused during further processing, fabrication or finishing, it is called processing discontinuity. Finally, if it arises during the use of the end product either due to environment, load or bath, * is called service discontinuity, 2: CASTING DEFECTS Casting is the process of causing liquid metal to fill a cavity and solidify into a useful shape. ‘The discontinuity that can occur during casting process are given below ; a. Non-metallic inclusions ; Non-metallic inclusions within the molten metal, are caused by the impurities in the starting material and most of the non-meuallic matter being lighter, rise to the top of the ingot, but some are trapped within, because the molten metal above them hardens before it could reach the surface. These inclusions are irregular in shape. b. Porosity : It is spherical or nearly spherical shaped and is caused by the entrapped gas in the molten material. ©. Pipe + The molten metal, after being poured into a mold, starts to coo! and it solidifies. The solidification process starts from the surface and travels towards the centre of the ingot: On. solidification, the molten metal contracts. Since the centre of the ingot is the last to cool and solidify, most of the shrinkage is observed in the centre. This results in a-cavity called “PIPE”. It may extend from the top towards the interior of the ingot along the axis. 4. Cold-shut ; Cold shut is formed when molten metal is poured over solidified metal. When the metal is poured, it hits the mold too hard and spatters small drops of metal. When these drops of metal hit higher up on mold, they stick and solidify. When the rising molten metal reaches and covers the solidified drops of metal, a crack like discontinuity is formed. Cold shuts can also be formed by the lack of fusion between two intercepting surfaces of molten, material of different temperatures. a vc. Hot tear (shrink crack) : Hot tear is caused by unequal shrinking of light and heavy sections of a casting as the metal cools. In a casting having tight and heavy sections, the light sections, being smaller, solidify faster; they shrink faster pulling the heavier sections towards them, a5 they are houer and do not shrink as fast. £, Shrinkage cavity : Shrinkage cavity is caused by lack of enough molten metal to fill the space created by shrinkage of the solidifying metal, just as a “PIPE” is formed in an ingot. It can be found anywhere in the cast product, unlike the "pipe" in the ingot, which always occurs ‘only at the top portion of the ingot.g. Micro shrinkage : Shrinkage can also ocour in the casting at the mold gate, ie., at the entrance to the mold through which the moles metal is poured. Shrinkage ocours, if metal at the gate solidifies or is blocked off while some of the metal beneath is still molten, Shrinkage which occurs at the gate appear as a number of small holes called "micro shrinkage”. Micro shrinkage can also occur deeper within the metal, if the mold is improperly designed. h. Blow holes ; Blow holes are small holes on the surface of the casting and are caused by external gas emanating from the mold itseif. 3: FORGING DEFECTS Forging is the process of working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing. Most forging operations are carried out hot, although certain metals can be cold forged. ‘The defects that can occur during forging are given below: a. Forging lap : A forging \ap is discontinuity caused by folding of metal into a thin plate on the surface of the forged material. [t is dye to the mismatching of the mating surfaces of the two forging dies in “closed-die forging" or abrupt changes in grain direction. It is always open to the surface. b. Forging bursts or cracks : {tis 2 rupture caused by forging at improper temperatures. Forging a metal at too low a temperature can cause this defect, They may be’ internal or may occur at the surface, 4: WELDING DEFECTS Welding is the process of joining metals. Two basic types of welding are used, fusion welding and pressure welding. 4.1: Fusion welding It is essentially a casting process, in which a metal is melted and cast in the joint and is made (0 fuse with the parts to be joined. ‘The metal is supplied by filler rods, which are generally of composition similar to the metal being welded. There are cases in which no filler rod is used - for example, in thin sheet, where part of the sheets are melted to produce the filler metal. 4.2: Pressure welding \n this process, pressure and heat are applied to the pieces to be welded. The pressure produces plastic deformations, the heat then produces recrystallization across the boundary, resulting in the formation of new crystals which are an integral part of both pieces and thus the welding takes place, All critical welds require NDT for assurance of quality or as a means to enable repairs.1. Overlap 2. Lack of Fusion 3. Undercut 4. Porosity 5. Crack 6. Slag Inclusion Fig. 1.5: Typical Weld Defects a. Overlaps : A fin of surplus metal on the end of a billet may be caught and folded into the surface during subsequent rolling. ‘The bent-over metal, while forced tightly against the main stock, will not bond to it. The resulting lap is a possible initiation point for a fatigue crack. ». Crater cracks : Crater cracks are caused in the weld bead by improper use of heat souree, either when a weld is started or stopped. A crater crack can also occur at the temporary stop of the weld. Crater cracks are primarily of three types - transverse, longitudinal and multiple star-shaped. ©. Stress cracks : These are cracking of weld metal and base metal in or near the weld zone and they are usually caused by high stresses set up by localised dimensional changes. Stress cracks are most likely to occur when weldments are of heavy sections. These cracks usually occur transverse t0 the weld in a single pass weld and fongitudinat ina multiple pass weld. 4. Porosity : Porosity is the term for the gas pockets of voids free of any solid material that are, Teequently found in weld metals. Porosity can come from gases released by the cooling weld metal and from gases formed by chemical reactions in the weld metal. Porosity may be scattered unitormly throughout the entire weld, isolated in small areas or concentrated at the root. Gas pores are usually spherical in shape, although they may also occur as non-spherical pockets along grain boundaries. Most welds contain some amount of porosity which may be micro or macro in size. e, Slag inclusions : This term is used to describe the oxides and other non-metallic solid materials that are entrapped in the weld metal or between weld metat and base metal. Slag inclusions may be caused by contamiration of the weld metal by the atmosphere, but in most. cases. they are generally derived fiom electrode covering materials or fluxes, employed in arc welding operations. In multilayered welding operations, failure to remove the slag between passes will result in slag inclusions in these zones. Slag inclusions, are generally linear and may occur either as short particles or tong bands. f, Tungsten inclusions : In the gas tungsten arc-welding process, the occasional touching of the electrode to the work or to the molten weld metal, particularly in manual operation, ot excessive currents during are welding may transfer particles of the tungsten into the weld 2.10metal. These are called ‘tungsten inclusions’ . . Lack of fusion : Lack of fusion or incomplete fusion, as it is frequently wermed, describes the failure of adjacent weld metal and base metal or interweld passes to fuse together completely. This failure to obtain fusion may occur at side wall of in the interpass region. Lack of fusion is usually elongated in the direction of welding and may have either rounded or sharp edges depending on how it is formed, h. Lack of penetration : Lack of penetration is due to failure of weld metal to extend inta the root of the joint. The most frequent cause for this type of defect is the unsuitabie groove design for the selected welding process. i. Undereut : During welding of the final of cover pass, the exposed upper edges of the weld preparation tend to melt or run down into the deposited metal in the weld groove. Undercutting occurs when insufficient filler metal is deposited to fill the resultant, at the edge of the weld bead. The result is a groove that may be intermittent or continuous and parallel to the weld bead. Undercutting may be caused by excessive welding current, incorrect arc length, high speed, incorrect electrode manipulation, etc.1D. MATERIAL DEFECTS AND FAILURES IN SERVICE 1: INTRODUCTION The response of metals to various stages of manufacture, construction or service life can vary widely depending upon chemical composition, heat treatment, mechanical working, surface conditions, presence of discontinuity and other material characteristics. 2: CAUSES OF MATERIAL FAILURE Products and structures may be subjected to a number of service conditions, as mentioned below, which may result in discontinuity. stationary load, . dynamic load, unidirectional or multidirectional, mutti-directional - more serious, . high temperature, pressure creating stress above a material's elastic limit corrosive environment, vibrations, . excess loading, . improper maintenance and ageing rpm mpaogP 3: TYPES OF MATERIAL FAILURE ‘There are two generally accepted types of material failure in service: one is the easily recognized "FRACTURE" or separation into two or more parts; the second is the less easily recognized "EXCESSIVE PLASTIC DEFORMATION” or change of shape and/or position, 4: SERVICE CONDITIONS LEADING TO MATERIAL FAILURES 4.1: Corrosion Corrosion is the deterioration of metals by the chemical action of some surrounding of contacting medium which may be liquid, gas or some combination of the two. This deterioration can be either uniform or localized. To some degree, corrosion can influence all metals, but the effect varies widely depending upon the combination of the metal and the corrosive agent, 4.2 ; Fatigue Failures occurring under conditions of dynamic loading are called "FATIGUE FAILURES". Most service failures occur as a resuit of tensile stress.4.3: Wear Wear is probably the most important factor in the deterioration of machinery with moving components, often limiting both the life and the performance of such equipment. Wear is the loss of material from the surface. Wear is affected by a variety of conditions, such as the type of lubrication, loading, speed, temperature, materials, surface finish and hardness. 4.4: Overstress It may happen when a part is accidentally exposed to a load which is much greater than its design load, When this happens, the component may undergo plastic deformation or fracture, to selieve the high stress within the part. 2.132A. X-RAY TECHNOLOGY 1: INTRODUCTION X-rays were discovered by a German scientist, Prof, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1895. Some of the properties of X-rays are given below. . X-rays are electromagnetic radiations, similar w visible light, with higher energy. ‘They can pass through matter and get absorbed/scattered in the process. . They can affect X-ray/photographic films, . They can excite and ionize atoms of the medium, through which they pass. . They can cause injury to biological systems. veer 2:X AND GAMMA RAYS X and gamma rays have similar properties. Gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus, whereas X-cays are generated outside the nucleus when high speed electrons interact with atoms. Gamma rays have definite, discrete energies, whereas, X-rays have continuous energies, The maximum energy of X-rays depends on the incident electron energy (Fig, 2.1). Characteristic K-rage Relative fv of Tingsten Intensity Applied Voltage = 200 kV Q s@ 100 180 200 Fhoton Energy (keV) — Fig. 2.1 : Typical X-ray Spectra 2.1 : Advantages and Disadvantages of X-ray Equipment for Radiography a, Advantages 1, X-ray machines have higher radiation output (about 45 R/min at 200 kV, ,I5iMA X-ray unit, compared to 40 R/h at $0 om from a 20 Ci source), enabling larger turnover of workload. 2. They have sinall focal spot size, which helps to obtain sharper images.3, Use of X-rays results in better image contrast, as X-rays have continuous spectrum. 4. X-ray units ensure complete radiation safety, when they are switched 'OFF'. b. Disadvantages 1. X-ray units are bulky, for use at intricate & inaccessible locations. 2, They require electric power for operation. 3. They require high capital investment. 3: PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS. X-rays are produced when a beam of high energy electrons collides with any material (target). X-ray production increases with increase in atomic number of the target atom and with increase in the incident electron energy. In an X-ray machine, less than one per cent of the electrical power supplied is converted to X-rays and the remaining power appears as heat. If this heat is not removed efficiently, the target material may mel. Although X-ray intensity is different for different target material, the distribution of X-ray energies for all targets is similar, the maximum energy being the energy of the incident electrons, In an X-ray machine, if the potential difference between the filament and the target or the applied kilovoltage is 200 kV, then the energy of the electrons hitting the target is 200 keV and the maximum energy of the X-rays would be 200 keV. A typical X-ray spectrum is shown 2A. ie continuous Xray speiom-wialg contain ne. mor shar ‘These peaks are of definite energies, dependent an the target element-hence are — ged characteristic X-rays. X-ray ‘The’ quality of an X-ray beam can be described by its Half Value Thickness (HVT). ‘The HVT is a function of the effective energy of the X-ray beam, which is approximately 1/3rd of the applied kilovoltage. It also depends upon the nature of the power supply and the added filtration. Fig. 2.2 : Hooded Anode X-ray Tube,The essential requirements for the production of X-rays are a. a source of electrons (heated tungsten filament), b, high voltage supply to accelerate the electrons, c. a target, usually tungsten, to stop the electrons and to convert their energy to X-rays ‘The cross-section of a typical X-ray unit is shown in Fig, 2.2. The target is usually of small dimension, say 2-3 mm. When the electrons hit the target, much of the energy appears in the form of heat and it has to be rapidly removed. Copper, is used for the purpose of heat removal. Certain ariodes are hollow in construction, so that primary coolants can be circulated through the same to remove the generated heat. Mineral oil is also sometimes used around the X-ray unit, to remove heat and serve as electrical insulator. The penetration of X-ray beam depends on the applied kilovoltage, whereas, the intensity is decided by the current flowing through the filament (millamperage). Selection of the target material is based on the following properties: 1, The target material should have a high melting point. 2. It should possess a high atomic number. : 3. It should possess high thermal conductivity (to dissipate the heat quickly). 4, It should have low vapour pressure at high temperatures (to prevent evaporation of the target material and its deposition onthe walls ofthe Xcray tube, a8 this would cause absorption of X-rays and disturbance in the insulation properties of the tube), “Tungsten, having an atomic number 74, and melting point 3400°C: is the most preferred target material. X-ray tube is contained in a suitably shaped steel shell for ruggedness. The power ratings, viz., kilovoltage (kVp), tube current (mA), besides the cooling pattern, decides the structure of an X-ray unit, 4: REQUIREMENTS OF AN INDUSTRIAL X-RAY TUBE 1, An industrial X-ray tube must be capable of operating continuously for indefinite periods at maximum loading, 2, It should be able to pass appreciable current over the lowest range of operating voltages. This is to permit such radiographs to be taken, which necessitate low voltage techniques, within reasonable exposure periods. 3, It should possess the smallest possible focal area, For maximum radiographic definition, a poimt source of radiation is one of the requirements, Modern X-ray tubes have very small focal areas.4, The design safety should include sufficient shielding material (say \ead or equivalent steel) so that the leakage radiation ievel at every rating combination (KV, mA) does not exceed { R/h at I metre from the target. 5: SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL X-RAY TUBES Industrial radiography involves inspection of objects of various materials and in many shapes and sizes. For objects containing organic compounds, eg., food stuff, plastic insulating materials, etc, the required voltage is in the range of 50-100 kV. ‘The examination of light metal and steel castings, wetds in pipelines, pressure vessels, ships and bridges and weapons of war, requires kilovoltage in the range 150 kV - 2 MV. Most frequently used voltage is between 150 kV and 400 kV. Portable X-ray units, in the voltage range 150 kV to 250 kV are used for field radiography. X-ray units of higher voltage are generally stationary ones, fa use in enclosed installations, X-ray units can also be used as cabinet installations with incorporated lead shielding and safety interlocks (eg., the unit becomes operable, by actuation of certain microswitches, only when the object occupies a preset position in front of the beam port). 5.1: Fluoroscopy The fluoroscopy technique is used for continuous production line scanning of die castings, in food processing industry, etc. A fluoroscopy unit consists of X-ray source, fluorescent screen (ine cadmium sulphide) and leaded glass barrier. ‘The equipment is normally supplied in shielded enclosures. ‘The object to be examined is placed in between X-ray beam and fluorescent screen, A shadow image is produced on the screen and it is viewed through television monitor system or by the use of image intensifiers. 5.2 : Fine Focus Tube The use of fluorescent screens, for examination of castings and assemblies at considerable magnification, is made possible by using a tube with a very fine focus of about 0.2 mm in diameter, ‘The smait size of the spot reduces geometric unsharpness and also produces image magnification Fig, 2.3 : Rod Anode System,a 2B. RADIATION SOURCES Radioisotopes are broadly classified as 1. naturally occurring and 2. artificially made. Potassium-40, uranium-238 and its daughter products are some of the naturally occurring radioisotopes. Of these naturally occurring radioisotopes, radium-226(encapsulated) was used earlier in industrial radiography. Radioisotopes, presently used in industrial radiography viz. cobalt-60, iridium-192, thulium-170, are artificially produced, 2: PRODUCTION OF RADIOISOTOPES. ‘There are three methods of producing artificial radioisotopes; by, a. activating elements with neutrons in a nuclear reactor, b. processing fission products from spent uranium fuel rods from a nuclear reactor, ©. bombarding elements with charged particles from panicle accelerators. 2.1 : Production by Activation Process ‘When a target element is bombarded with neutrons in a reactor, activation may occur mainly bby one of the following processes depending on the energy of the neutrons, a. (a.r)resction : eg. pay (n,7) - b. (n.p)reaction = eg. co (no) 5 27, e(na}reaction < eg. AL (ya) ‘ Iridium-192 is also obtained by a process similar to “a', by bombardment of iridium-191 with neutrons. ‘When a target containing ‘m’ gram of the element of interest is exposed to a neutron flux of “¢' nfem?-sec. the activity induced in the target (S,) is given by the relation O6XmXGXe awon 2 SABRES [1-200] by Where, 5, is activity in beoaeres (Bd) of radi isotope produced (t & T are in same units). is cross section in bams (10% cm*) for the reaction mass number of the target element‘Scatter tur pects tage eRTmH Om 2.2; dain by Nod on ‘inns i ae ah Ln ete an a oni {AL 21 CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOGRAPHY SOURCESTABLE 2.2 : DECAY CHART FOR COBALT-60 SOURCE (Half-life : 5.27 years) Months-> 00 02 04 06 08 10 Years 00 - 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.90 on 0.88 0.86» 0.34 0.82 0.80 0.78 02 0.76 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.70 “0.69 03 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.61 0.60 o4 0.58 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.53 05 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.46 06 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40 o7 0.39 0.38 0.38 0.37 0.36” 0.35 08 0.34 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.32 0.31 09 0.30 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.27 10 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.24 ‘TABLE 2.3 : DECAY CHART FOR IRIDIUM-192 SOURCE (Hait-tife : 74.5 days) Days oO $ 0 1 20 2% 30 35 40 45 00 - 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.72 0.69 0.66 050 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.54 052 050 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 100 0,39 0.37 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.34 0,30 0.28 0.27 0.26 150 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 200 OAS O15 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.12 O12 O11 O11 0.10 3)2C, GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT 1: INTRODUCTION Gamma radiography equipment of camera consists of the following : 1. A source housing, which serves as a shielded container for the gamma source during its storage and if has an arrangement to give a controlled radiation beam, when needed. 2. An “Exposure Mechanism’, buile in the source housing or separately attachable and 3. Accessories such as sousce manipulators, teleflex cable and gear drive system, flexible guide tubes for the cable and source travel, source position indicators, radiation beam collimators, source changers (for transport), etc. Design and development of radiography equipment has special importance in the programme of NDT inspection. 2: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR EXPOSURE DEVICES The design and test criteria for radiographic exposure devices are based upon both use and transport considerations, as these devices are also used as transport packages. Size, shape and weight of a radiography camera is dependent upon the types of exposure mechanism, the activity of the radioisotope and also on the shielding material used, The heart of the gamma radiography exposure device is source assembly with its housing. The design and fabrication criteria 1o be considered are shielding materiat exposure mechanism source assembly safety intethocks control unit accessories feasibility and reliability easy maintenance and source replenishment installation transportation SEMI AVENE ‘in general, the exposure devices can be broadly classified on the basis of their weight. 1) Manually handled (light) = —upto S0kg_- (Class P) (Portable) b) Trolley mounted (medium) - 50-500kg (Class M) (Mobile) ©) Fixed inhouse) (Heavy) - Over SOO kg. (Class F) Fixed) Trolley and manually handled units can be moved at the site for exposures. Classifications given in brackets ate as per ISO 3999.1. Main body 2. Source 3. Source assembly 4. Shutter 5. Teleflex cable 6, Driving unit Fig. 2.5 : Source Exposure Methods. - 8) Source held in the housing and the shutter is displaced to expose the'Source (Fig. 2.5a). It could be used only in portable cameras because of practical limitations on size and weight of the shutter. (no longer in use in India) b) Source held on a cylindrical drum which is rotated to expose the source (Fig. 2.5). It provides wide radiation beam. ©) Source enclosed in a rigid source holder which is moved through a small distance for giving the exposure (Fig, 2.5c). This type is used generally for sources with more penetrating radiation such a cobalt-60, of higher activity, and for use in permanent ‘exposure rooms. 4) Source assembly attached to the tip of a flexible cable and driven out of the source housing for panoramic exposure (Fig. 2.5d). ! 2.12 \a The important points to be considered, while designing a radiography camera are ; 3: DESIGN type of source assembly, . shielding material, source exposure mechanism, . incorporation of safety devices, feasibility of fabrication, . easy maintenance and source replenishment, installation and transportation. aN ARNE 3.4: Source Assembly “The radiation source in a radiography camera is always housed in a secondary container called “source assembly’. The source assembly can be of two types, rigid of flexible. Rigid source holder is preferred for source housings shown in fig, 2.5a to 2.5c. Flexible source assembly is used, when the source is required to travel large distance to and from the source housing, through bends and at different planes. (Fig 2.6) Tridium-192 Sources capsule Geren eerreeree rer SS ROLI-1 source assembly Techops-660 source assembly a1 “Teletron source assembly Fig. 2.6 : Source Assemblies 3.2 : Shiciding Material As stated earlier, size and weight of a source housing is decided by the thielding material and its 5 thickness. Properties of different shielding materials are given Table 2.4,TABLE 2.4: PROPERTIES OF RADIOGRAPHY SHIELDING MATERIALS Material Lead Heavy Alloy Depleted Uranium 4, Atomic number 82 88% tungsten (Z=74) 92 9% copper (29) 3% nickel (28) 2. Density in gram/ee n3 18.9 19.07 3. Melting point (°C) 327 3420 1132 5. Half value layer Cobalt-60 (mm) 12.45 7.65 6.88 Iridium-192 (mm) 4.8 32 27m Lead is a commonly used shielding material, as itis cheaper, easily available and can be made in any desired shape. But, it needs a metal lining to hold it, as it is a soft material. Heavy alloy and uranium are best suited for shielding to produce compact and light weight cameras. However, fabrication of source housings with these materials requires special techniques. 3.3 Source Exposure : Directional exposures with collimated beam with source fixed in the source housing are best from the radiation safety stand point. However, such exposures greatly restrict the exibility Of operation. Therefore, most of the modern units are designed for panoramic exposure with provisions to attach collimators (Fig. 2.7) for directional exposures. For circumferential exposure For unidirectional exposure Shielding thickness should be more than | TVL Fig. 2.7 : CollimatorsPanoramic exposures are made by moving the source assembly out of the source housing, using remote driving devices, operated by pneumatic, electrical or mechanical systems, With flexible source assembly, only mechanical systems using teleflex cable are favoured, 3.4 + Safety Devices All radiography equipment should be provided with safety devices such as interlocks, source couplings source holder locking, immobilizing device for the source, etc. In-house ff are planned with more elaborate safety devices, such as door interlocks, audio-visual signals, search operations in exposure areas, and other fool-proof safety features. In addition, radiation monitoring instruments should also be incorporated in the design. 3.5 : Fabrication Design of the unit should be done keeping in mind the limitations during the fabrication of components. These components are evaluated for soundness and reliability to ensure fool- proof performance over the designed life of the equipment. 3.6 : Maintenance The equipment should be designed in sucha way that minimum maintenance i required during its service and defective part is easily replaceable, 3.7 : Transportation The design of the camera, when loaded with source should meet the prescribed transport regulations. 3.8 : Installation Installation of units with kilocurie activity needs special gadgets. These gadgets should be designed in conjunction with the unit to be installed, TABLE 2.5 : PERMISSIBLE LEAKAGE LEVEL AROUND RADIOGRAPHY CAMERAS Maximum exposure rate mGy/h (mR/h) Class ‘On external 50mm from, Im from surface of external surface external surface container of container of container Portable 2.0(200) or 0.5 (50) 0.02 @) Mobile 2.0200) or _1.0(100) 0.05 (6) Fixed 2.0(200) or _1.0,(100) 0.10 (19)4: QUALITY CONTROL DURING PRODUCTION All radiography cameras are requited to be subjected to strict quality control examination to confirm the integrity of mechanical parts and also to ensure that cadiation leakage levels are below the permissible limits. The existing permissible radiation leakage levels on the source. housings in ‘off" position are given in the table 2.5 Prototype units with remote control system are specially tested for operationa} reliability under simulated conditions to assess the life of components and associated accessories. § : EQUIPMENT IN USE IN INDIA Iridium-192 and cobalt-60 sources together can cover an inspection range of thickness 10-200 mm, steel equivalent. ‘Thus, efforts for equipment development have been mainly directed towards these sources. Many equipment are commercially available, with these sources, shielded either with lead, heavy alloy or depleted uranium 1. Portable ‘Teletron SU-100/50 Gammamat TI/TI-F/S-301 Amertest-660 Cemury SA Spec-2T Gammarid 2. Mobile ROLEt Garamamat-M (Crawler) CRC-2A Gammamat TK 10 YRCX-150 GRSO 3. Fixed CBC 5000 Gammamat TK 100/600 Amertest 520 Gas Prom Some of these equipment are discussed below. 5.1 : Lead shielded, low cost equipment 5.1.1: Iridium-192 Units ROLI-I is a remote operated lead shielded camera designed for 35 Ci (Fig, 2.8). It has *S* conduit to house a flexible source assembly. idium-192 source 5.1. : Cobalt-60 Unit Radiography camera with a capacity of 10 Ci designed for panoramic exposure is shown infigure 2:9. The spherical source housing, is mounted on a rugged trolley for ease of maneuver. The unit enables source movement in a rigid guide tube for panoramic exposure. Radiation beam can be restricted for directional exposures using a collimator, which can be fixed to the source housing. 5.2: Light Weight, High Activity Equipment ‘These have either depleted uranium or heavy alloy material for shielding. Fabrication of these source housings is not as easy as lead source housings. The cost of the material is also very high. Some of the imponed radiography equipment approved in India are shown in figures 2.10 10 2.14, 6: TYPE APPROVAL OF GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT ‘The built-in safety of gamma radiography equipment, both from radiation and operationa) point of view, is very essential because majority of the radiography work is carried out in workshop areas and construetion sites which call for a strong and rugged equipment. As per the present safety requirements, in addition to shielding adequacy, all models of radiography equipment must be so designed, as to withstand various mechanical and operational tests, such as drop test, fire test, vibration test, shock test, Water immersion test and endurance test, as per the specifications laid down by International Standards Organisation (ISO 3999). Only those equipment which conform to all the provisions of ISO 3999 are type approved and permitted to be used for industrial radiography work.1, Source assembly 2. ‘Source 3, Lead Shield 4. Locking system 5. Secondary container Portable/mobile camera Flexible source assembly Flexible guide tube. "S* conduit Ball & socket coupling Fig. 2.9. CRC-2 Camera 2.8: ROLI-1 Camera 1. Source position 2. Source assembly 3. Rotating shutter 4, Lead shield 5. Shutter handle 6. Shutter arrestor plug 7. Shipping cap 8. Front side cover 9. Rear side cover1. Shield 2. Source 3. Source assembly 4, Source assembly catch 5. Key lock for shutter 6. Shutter opening handle 7. Spring lock for shutter 8, Shielding plug Portable camera Depleted uranium shield Rigid source assembly Ball & socket coupling (tungsten) Seraight conduit Fig. 2.10 : Teletron/Gammavolt Camera 1. Source 2. Lock 3, Source assembly 4, Stopper 5, Shield Portable camera Depleted uranium shield °S' conduit Flexible guide tube Ball & socket coupling Flexible source assembly | Fig. 2.11 : TechOps/Amertest Camera 2.19 Femrternnnene ns1. Source capsule 4. Source assembly 2. Safety plug 5. Plunger type lock 3, Depleted uranium shield Fig. 2.12 : SPEC - 2T Camera. 2 4 € 1. Source assembly 2, Source 3, Shield 4, Shutter 1 a Portable camera Depleted uranium shield Flexible pencil Straight conduit Flexible guide tube Ball & socket coupling. Fig. 2.13 : Gammarvat Camera 2.201. Shutter plug in a holiow shutile 2. Shutter arrestor 3. Shutter shuttle receptor 4. Source capsule 5. Source holder 6. Shield 7. Lock Fig. 2.14 : Gammarid - 192 Camera. 2,223A. PHOTOGRAPHIC AND NON-PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORDING 1: INTRODUCTION ‘The type of X-ray film used in radiography, plays an important role in the detection of flaws. Itis therefore, important to have detailed knowledge about strucrure and properties of films. 2: STRUCTURE OF X-RAY FILM. Figure 3.1 shows cross-section of a typical X-ray film, It consists of base, emulsion, binding layer and protective layer Protective layer (1) Emulsion (10 - 15) Polyester Base (1751) Emulsion (10 - 154) Protective layer (1) Fig. 3.1 : Cross Section of an X-ray Film 2.4 : Film Base Polyester is the most commonly used material for film base. 2.2: Emulsion Silver bromide (AgBr) mixed with gelatine is used as film emulsion, 2.3 : Binding layer ‘This layer acts as binder between film base and emulsion, 2.4 : Protective layer ‘The protective layer consists only gelatine. It serves to protect the lower !ayers from physical damage, abrasion and stress marks.3: CHARACTERISTICS OF FILMS 3.1 : Film Density X-ray film on exposure to radiation and processing produces black deposits of silver. ‘This blackening of the film is called optical density (D) and is given by the expression, L, D = Logg c Where L, L, Imensity of incident light intensity of transmitted light Optical density is measured with an instrument called “Densitometer’. ‘The factors which control the optical density are ; a. type of film b. energy of radiation cc. amount of exposure and 4. processing conditions Density 3 A- Fast Film B- Slow Film o 1 2 3 Log relative exposure —> Fig. 3.2 : Characteristic Curves of X-ray Films. 3.2 : Characteristic Curve Ifa number of different exposures are given to various areas of an X-ray film and densities obtained at these areas after processing are plotted as a function of Log,, (exposure), theresulting curve is called “Characteristic Curve of the film (Fig. 3.2). A characteristic curve gives information on : a, speed of film and b, film contrast 3.2.1 Speed Speed is defined as the density recorded on a film due to a given radiation exposure. {tis measured in terms of inverse of exposure required to produce a radiograph of a particular density, under given conditions. Keeping other factors constant, a film which requires less exposure is faster, Figure 3.2 shows characteristics of two industrial X-ray films in which film A is faster than film B, , TABLE 3.1 : FILM FACTORS OF SOME COMMON FILMS Source ‘Type of Film Film Factor | Source Type of Film Film Factor with Double with Double Lead Screen Lead Screen Iridium-192 Agfa D-2 95R Cobalt-60 Agfa D-2 19,.6R D4 4.0R D-4 8.0R D7 12R Da 25k NDT -55 38R NDT - $5 75R NOT - 65 14R NDT - 65 3.0R NDT -70 LOR NDT - 70 2.0R ‘The amount of exposure of a given radiation energy required on & film to produce a given film density (usually 2.0) under specified conditions of processing is called “film factor’. A film with lower film factor is faster than the one with a higher value. Film factor depends on energy of radiation. Film factor values for a few commonly used films are given in Table 3.1. 3.2.2 Contrast Film contrast or gradient is defined as the change in density recorded on a film for a given change in radiation intensity, The slope of the characteristic curve at a given density is the measure of the gradient of the film, G,, at tat density, G. D,-D, “Log E, - Log E,The gradient of a film depends on the size of its crystals, Gradient of industrial X-ray films goes on increasing with optical density, as shown in figure 3.3. lt is practically independent of the radiation energy. In general, compared to coarse grain film fine grain films have lower speeds, but, higher gradient at a given density. 8 Zz t 6 Film Speed Gradient A ay K>Y>Z 2 x 0 o $ 2 3 4 Density —> Fig. 3.3. Gradient Versus Density 3.3 : Effect of radiation energy There is very little effect on the shape of the characteristic curve due to energy of radiation. However, the film speed depends on radiation enexgy, as can be seen in table 3.1. 3.4 : Various Types of Films ‘The films can be divided imto three groups on the basis of radiography requirements. 1. Films for use with fluorescent screens, also known as salt screen films. 2. Films for use with metal screens or without screens (also called “direct films’). ‘This group covers a large range of industrial X-ray films. The films are classified depending upon the grain size of the films; Ciass-1 = Highest contrast, lowest speed film Class - {1 = High cortrast, low speed film Class - 11 - Medium contrast, medium speed film Class IV - Lowest contrast, highest speed film 3. Films used for special purposes, e.g, single emulsion films.3B. LEAD AND FLUORESCENT SCREENS 1, INTRODUCTION ‘When an object is radiographed without using screens, there are two disturbing factors. \. The absorption of primary radiation (transmitted through the object), in film is low. This results in longer exposure time. 2. The absorption of low energy scattered radiation (scattered by the object), in film is relatively more. This reduces the image quality. Hence, to reduce exposure time and improve image quality of radiographs, radiography screens are used. 2: TYPES OF RADIOGRAPHY SCREENS There are two types of radiography screens, commonly used in industrial radiography practice : metallic foil screens and Muorescent screens. ‘These screens differ in their basic characteristics e.g, speed, contrast and elimination of scattered radiation. 3: METALLIC FOIL SCREENS Metallic screens help in reduction of scattered radiation from the object. The X-ray film is sandwiched between a pair of lead screens, as shown in figure 3.4. Radiation transmitted Nite LE EN So ome ETAT TE ET ors torent CE N— Card board / plastic NI7NUININSN prereset atin Fig. 3.4: X-ray Fitm Sandwiched Between a Pair of Lead Intensifying Screens.3.1 : Reduction of scattered radiation Attenuation of incident radiation in the object results in production of low energy scattered vadiation and this falls on the film, along with the transmitted primary radiation. As high atomic number elements have more absorption capacity for low energy radiations, ifa metal foil of high atomic number is placed between object and film, it will absorb most of the tow energy radiation, before it falls on the film. Hence, effect of the low energy, scattered radiation will be reduced, This metallic foi! will serve additional purpose of intensification action also. Similarly, to reduce low energy back scattered radiation (obtained due to back scattering of the primary radiation, from objects placed behind the specimen to be radiographed), a metal sheet of high atomic number is placed behind the film. Hence, a double coated K-ray film is sandwiched between a pair of metallic foil screens to reduce the effect of scattered radiation on the film, thus resuiting in an improved definition of radiograph. 3.2: Intensifying Action imensiying action of a radiography screen is expressed in terms of Intensification Factor (IF) whieh is defined as Exposure time required to produce a certain ' film density without screen F = Exposure time required to produce same density with screen In this definition, it is assumed that same film and radiation source are used for both the ‘exposures. *IF* due to double lead screen exposure with iridium-192 source is about 4.5. Intensification action occurs due to the photoelectrons, emitted as a result of interaction of X or gamina rays with the material, Intensification factot due to metallic screens depends on : a, foil elemem, : D. thickness of foil, , energy of radiation, and d. specimen thickness. 4: FLUORESCENT SCREENS ‘These are also called ~Salt Screens’. ‘These screens consist of a card board or plastic mate on which certain inorganic crystalline substances are coated on one side. They glow giving light when radiation is incident on them. Since a photographic film is more sensitive (0 light than to X/r rays, ‘it enhances the sensitivity of the film. A material which has its light emission in blue or ultraviolet region, is used for this purpose, since the film is highly sensitive to blue light. ‘The most commonly used material for this purpose is calcium tungstate, These screens are used is pairs, so that a double coated X-ray film can be sand-witched between them as shown in figure 3.5.Each crystal in salt screen emits light. This light diverges in all directions and gives image ‘unsharpness. Intensification factor (IF) due to salt screens depends upon a. density of radiograph, b. thickness of screen, . coating material and d, energy of radiation In gamma radiography, the intensification factors with salt screens, are not very much greater than that obtained with lead screens. Secondly, these screens give poor quality image. Hence, these screens are not much used in industrial radiography, LLL tit | | ose |- Card board / plastic |-Sait (CaWO,) sareen SS Fim }- Salt (CaWO,) screen Card board / plastic Fig. 3.5 : X-ray Film sandwiched between a pair of salt intensifying screens rherscxen — \O TS44, WORK PARAMETERS AND CONDITIONS 1: INTRODUCTION In radiography, work parameters and conditions play an equally important role as the applied radiography techniques. The handling of X-ray films before and after exposure and film processing are important in this respect. 2: HANDLING OF FILMS: X-ray films should be handled carefully to avoid physical strains such as pressure creasing, buckling and friction on it, ‘The normal pressure applied on a cassente w provide good contact with the object does not damnage the films. Whenever the films are loaded in flexible cassettes and external clamping devices are used, it should be seen that pressure is applied uniformly. Localized pressure on fiim can produce artifacts in the radiograph 2.1 : Loading and Unloading Films Films should be held by edges in order to prevent finger or pressure marks. Precaution should be taken to avoid handling films in a manner which would cause friction and give confusing black marks on the radiograph. 2.2: Expiry Date | ‘The expiry date on a film pack means that the film should be used before the given date. Expiry dates of the films depend on the storage conditions, 3: FILM STORAGE 3.1 : Protection from Gamma and X-rays X-ray film should be protected from X-rays and gamma rays to avoid fogging. 3.2 : Chemical and Physical Hazards Film should not be kept in a chemica} storage room of in any location, where there is leakage of gas. Chemical vapours, high humidity and temperatures also contribute to film fogging. Film should be stored in as cool a place as possible, and in tropical regions, temperatures contro) in the store toom is tecommended. Films may be stored for long periods ina refrigerator. 4: FILM PROCESSING After exposure to radiation, a latent image of the object is formed in the X-ray film. Film processing converts this invisible image to a visible and permanent image. There are five main stages involved in film processing.1. Development : creation of the visible image. 2. Stop bath removal of excess developer solution and stopping of developing action. 2. Fixation removal of unwanted, unexposed silver halide and making image permanert!. 3. Washing : removal of unwanted fixation products. 4, Deying + removal of unwanted water. 5: LATENT IMAGE FORMATION On exposure to X or gamma radiation, siiver bromide in the film is converted to metallic silver. 6: EFFECT OF DEVELOPMENT The function of developer solution is to reduce only exposed grains of silver bromide into additional metalic silver and leave unexposed, unaffected grains, The rate of development of exposed crystals is much greater than corresponding rate of unexposed crystals. Mechanism of the reaction is Agt te -—-> Ag ‘The electron for the reaction is donated by developer solution. 6.1 : Developers in Use ‘There are two distinet types of developers. 1, Solid gack, containing two separate bags of chemicals which have to be dissolved in Correct quantity of water before use. 2, Liquid concentrate, which requice appropriate dilution with water to give the working solution. 6.1.1 : Commercial Developers ‘Some of the commercially available developers for manual processing of X-ray films are given in Table 4.1. 6.1.2 : Use of Developers Ideal developing temperature is 20° C and duration of 5 minutes. To avaid faults during + developing, it should be properly agitated during developing,TABLE 4,1 Make ‘Trade Name Size of the pack to make (in litres of working solution Kodak Indian DA-19 2.25 Photographic Co developer 4°50 9.00 13.30 22.50 Agfa-Gaevert 6-230 2.25 developer 4:30 9.90 13,50 22/50 May & Baker Solidex X-ray 2.50 Developer 450 3.00 13.50 22.50 7: STOP BATH After developing, the image comes inte existence and remaining processes makes it permanent and enable to be viewed. If no action is taken, the developer will continue: 10 wark producing enhanced density, fog or irregular developer stains. ‘The unwanted developer js temoved using stop bath, ‘There are two types of stop baths. 7.1: Water Rinse The excess developer is removed from the film simply by immersing it in a running water bath, Static water rinse involves the risk of solution becoming alkaline with use and cease to be of any use in stopping development. Hence, running water bath is recommended. 1.2: Acetic Acid Rinse This bath is siatic and 2 to 3 per cent sol ion of acetic acid is employed. This is more efficient in action and requires films to be immersed in it for about 5 seconds with agitation. However, unlike flow water rinse, acetic acid will become continuously exhausted with use. A {hroughput of 100 FT?/gallon is reasonable life suggested for this, 7.3 Faults atising during rinsing. The only fault which can occur at this stage is due to delay in putting the developer laden:film im stop bath. A thin layer of oxidized developer on the film can i¢ad to production of brown stains,8 : FIXING BATH The fixer reacts with undeveloped silver bromide in the film and transforms it into water soluble compound which gets dissolved in washing operation. In addition, it enables the image to become permanent. Since the silver halide is still sensitive to light to a small extent, and so will slowly darken if it is allowed to remain on the film, 8.1: Fixing Agent ‘The most widely used agent is sodium thiosulphate (Na,S,O,), commonly known as ‘hypo’. Its solution in water rapidly dissolves silver chloride and bromide. 8.2 : Use of Fixing Bath Generally, the film is kept for 2-3 minutes in rapid fixing bath and for about 10 minutes in ordinary hypo bath. 1, Agitation: The films should be agitated initially, when immersed in fixer, 2. Temperature; ‘The fixation process is less critical than development process and a temperature range of + 2.5°C to standard 20°C is acceptable. 8.3 ; Faults arising due to fixation Most of the defects arise due to contamination of fixer by developer into fixer, through careless use of stop bath stage. Faults may also arise if films are inserted without agitation. Streaks may be produced, due to uneven removal of developer. 9: WASHING AND DRYING 9.1: Washing Washing is carried out to eliminate unwanted products from the emulsion after the fixing operation. For this purpose, the film is washed in running water for about 20 minutes and then taken for drying. i is important to use flowing water, so that the film on its removal from bath is taken out from uncontaminated water. 9.1.1 : Faults arising ing washing Usually twenty minutes are allotted for this stage, but the period may prove insufficient if, a. the water is unusually cold, b. flow is inadequate, . tank is 100 small for film throughput and 4, film is not inserted in a proper way.Each of these factors will lead to incomplete elimin: gelatin, This will make the film yellow/brown on storage. of thiosulphate complexes from 9.2 : Drying It is necessary to remove excess water, 25 a wet radiograph is not convenient ¢o handle and is Jiable to mechanical damage. Usually the wet films are dried by blowing a current of hot air over the films, and various types of drying cabinets exist for this purpose. These cabinets often include filter at their air intake to free the air from dust, which may stick to the wet film. 10: CHECK LIST OF PROCESSING DIFFICULTIES AND FILM BLEMISHES Blemish or Difficulty © Causes Black crescents Kinking of film before processing. White crescents Sharp bending or folding of the processed film. Overall fog Over-development, over-age film, prolonged exposure to safe light, improper safelight filter, insufficient protection in storage from radiation sources, film stoced where temperature or humidity is too high or chemical vapours exist, viewing developed film, before it is properly fixed. . Black streaks / blotches Light leaks due to faulty film holders or cassette. Streaks White and black streaks at points where film was attached to hanger caused by processing solution remaining on clips from earlier use. Inadequate agitation ding development, Removing film to view ducing development time causing developer to run across film unevenly. Contamination by chemically active deposits, contamination of developer / fixer. Drying spots and Drops of water on semi-dried film or drops of water running streaks down semi-dried surface, Black spots Developer splashes. before placing entire film in developer. Brown stains Inadequate fixing or exhausted fixing solution, prolonged development in old developer, inadequate rinsing, Dark deposits Oxidized products from developer or reacting silver salts. ‘White crystalline Inadequate washing after processing. deposits: Milky appearance Uncomplete fixing, exhausted fixing bath, Sharply outlined Uneven development, films not agitated during development, light dark areas films, hung too close together in developer. Blisters Formation of gas bubbles in film ermulsion. Air bubbles Air trapped on film surface during development, light spots/patches)Reticulation (leather Solution too warm, extreme differences in temperature of like appearance) successive processing baths. Frilling (loosesiing Fixing in warm or exhausted bath. of emulsion) Prolonged washing at high temperature. Static-marks (Black Due to static electric discharges caused friction between film and birdtrack effects) some other object. Scratches (black, Improper handling crack-like lines), Dark fingerprints Film touched with dirty fingers before development. Light fingerprints Film touched with greasy fingers before development, ‘White spots and areas Pitted or worn screens. Dirt on film screens. Brittle radiographs Excessive hardening in fixer. Excessive drying time. 11 : GEOMETRY OF IMAGE FORMATION ‘The radiographic image on the film is governed mainly by the basic principles of the shadow formation. A sharp and undistorted image is obtained by controlling various geometrical factors such as source size, source to film distance, film to object distance, alignment of radiation beam with respect to the plane of the object and film. Different exposure geometries are shown in Fig. 4.1. From these exposure geometries, it could be seen that the radiographic images always have an element of magnification which will depend upon the closeness of the film with the specimen. Distortion in the image would depend on the relative planes of the object and the film. Attempts are made to keep both of them in the same plane, however, with specimen of odd geometry image distortions are observed, Both X and gamma rays produce a certain unsharpness on the radiograph due to the finite size of the focal spot or the source. This unsharpness is called geometrical unsharpness (U,) which is calculated as dxt = =e U, = Sepa OF SPD = tas au where, d _ - effective diameter of the source/focal spot, SFD - source to film distance, t= thickness of the object. is clear from this expression, that U, can never be zero. ‘The magnitude of U, can only be ized by proper selection of exposure variables. Considering this fact, various codes Permit a certain U, vatue related to object thicknesses. 4.6“Thinner abject Thicker object Small Ug Large Ug Eentral, axis gt Aufeuiar to ReRhenu’ Sbyect centre Shiect centes Small Up Large Us | \ | 8 Y { J ° | ° i o e A Large SFD Small SFD Small Ug Large Ug Ss s 4 i | c | c | | | | Io io F Film close to object FE Small U, raall Uo Film away from abject Large Up S-Source, 0 - Object F-File, Ug- Unsharpness C - Central radiation beam axis Fig. 4.1 : Geometric Representation of Radiographic Image. 4.7 | : : } i isent —emsTES 4s ses eek 6 BFRS BSS ‘Tcnnes9 wre x Fig, 4.3 : Exposure Chart for [ridium-192 Source. (Different Films) Radiation, X-ray = Material Stee! | = Film DaPont NDT 65 | 12.0 fs : 36 inches Pe Screens Lead 4 Front 0.12 mm ¢ Back : 0.25 mm ae Development : 5 minutes ae 20°C z 4e ber 38 ae O75 Oho Ors 4o 1a eo LT B ; TRCKMESS INCHES) ci Fig. 4.2 : Exposure Chart for X-rays. Radiation Tridium-192 gamma rays Stee! DuPont NDT 35-75 j 2.0 ibe. 24 inches Lead ee 0.12 mm a 0.25 mm 5 minutes 20°C f299. Curie x hour. . SFD (cm) R50} oe + 20 10 w as oz on o 2 ¢ & 8 es ¢ 6 6 0 @ Thickness (cm) —> Thickness (em) ——> Lead sereen : 0.1 mum front Lead screen : 0.15 mm front 0.15 mm back 0.20 mm back Iridium - 192 Cobalt - 60 Density : 2, Developing time : 5 minutes, 20° C Film : Agfa D,, For NDT - 65 film, multiply above values by 1.5 “To obtain exposure values in GBq x hour, multiply above values by 37. Fig. 4.4 : Exposure Chart for Gamma Rays (Different SFD)* Recommendations for optimum results are - 1. source or focal spot size should be as small as practicable, Ideal source will be a point source, 2. source to object distatice should ve as large as possible, 3, the film should be in close contact with object and 4. source location should be such, that radiation pass normal through object thickness, iit 12 : EXPOSURE TIME CALCULATIONS For calculating the exposure time, the foliowing steps should be followed : 1,Calculate the present source activity in curies (Ci) from the decay charts, 2.Find thickness (cm) of the object. 3:Find HVT (cm) of object materia, for the given source, from the HVT tables. 4.Find SFD (cm) for the object thickness. 5,Write REM value (0.5 for iridium-192 and 1.33 for cobalt-60) 6.Find film factor (F in Roentgen) from table 4.2. TABLE 4.2 ; FILM FACTOR (F) VALUES Film Factor (F) Source — NDT-65 NDT-70 AgfaD-7 Agfa D-4 Iridium-192 14R 10R 11R 9 35R Cobait-60 « 28R = 20R22R— 7.0K, Substinie all these values in the following formula : Ex 2% x (SEDY x 60. Exposure time (minutes) = It may be noted that this formula is not very accurate for higher thicknesses, particularly when using cobalt-60 source. Exposure charts as given in figures 4.2 - 4.4 are more accurate and are recommended for use. - Exercise 1: Calculate the exposure time in minutes for 0.75 inch thick steel using 180 kV X-rays. ‘The machine is operated at 5 mA settings. From figure 4.2, the exposure for 0.75 inch steel at 160 kV is 35 mA.min, If the machine is operated at § mA setting. the exposure time is 35/5 = 7 minutes. Exercise 2 : Calculate the exposure time in minutes for 1.5 inch thick steel using NDT 65 film at 12 inch SFD to produce optical density 2.0, using iridium-192 source of 8 curies. 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WINS “Y Jowoypuy frypenb aBeusy “ wd *Z saunog | qifled wife WU, “sorejd Tey YO SPINA Ng Jo UONDedSUy JoF Sondra AYdeABOpEY : 1-9 “Bey suy wong "pw °Z ‘worreredand 2p9 jo offue ay) 20 uoysny Jo su] *g samog “T39 “siujor 49U0D 40} sonbyuyoay, AydesBoipey ¢ 9 “Big utd "Z — 20snOg *] o @ ©) uonenauad % QT AsIqnop Apis qulof 49us09 oue}g YALA TUOL 4240 uomensued 4811109 % 001 i iy yi [st 16 “swuyof r2q 44 303 sonbuyoas AydeBoIpey *¢°9 “Sa ‘utof azenbg ‘9 ‘atel “Z_ a0unog “T auyof dey “PpComer joints may have configuration as shown in figure 6.4. Square joint with 100 per cent corner penetration is radiographed as shown in figure 6.4a for revealment of side fusion, if any. Corner joints with double bevel are examined with exposure set up as shown in Fig. 6.4b. A plane corner joint, having 100 per cent joint penetration is examined for root ‘ cracks with film and joint in a parallel pasition (Fig. 6.4¢) : 4, : Techniques for Welded Joints on Pipes or Cylindrical Objects Depending upon the size and accessibility of both sides of the pipe, the following techniques are adopted. 4.2, ¢ Single Wall Penetration : In this technique, several methods of exposure are possible . 6.5). The ideal position to locate the source would be the centre of the pipe or | cylinder as in (@) & (4). However, if he centre is not accessible or if pipe diameter is small, the source can be off the centre and the exposures can be taken as in (b). The welds can be divided into several segments and the exposures are carried out, ¢. Source outside, film inside : 4, Source inserted in centre through adjacent hole 1. Source 2, Film 3. Lead backing Fig. 6,5 : Radiographic Examination of Pipes with Single Wall Penetration 6.7In the second case, the film is placed inside the pipe and the source is placed externally as in (©. This technique is more sensitive for detecting root defects. However, the area accessible for interpretation wil! be small and the entire weld is covered by taking several exposures. 1. Source 2, Film Fig, 6.6 : Radiographic Examination of Pipe with Double Wall Penetration. 4.2.2 : Double wall single image : If there is no access to the inner side of the pipe, co keep either the film or the source, this wechnique may be adopted (Fig. 6.6). This is mostly suitable for the pipes of diameter above 80 mm. Sources can be kept on the pipe or away from the pipe, depending on the diameter of the pipe, SFD required and accessibi 4.2.3 : Double Wall Double Image : This technique is adopted for smaller size pipes of diameter upto 80mm. The source is kept at one angle with respect to the weld, s0 as to avoid overlap of the top and bottom weld. Generally, 10° - 12° offset angle is given for the exposures (Fig. 6.6), Two exposures are taken by rotating the pipe through 90°, 6.87. RADIOGRAPHIC STANDARDS AND SELECTION OF TEST METHODS 1: INTRODUCTION ‘The purpose of inspection standards and codes is to prescribe a test procedure for correct assessment of the quality of a product. ‘The inspection standards and codes prescribe optimum conditions, which could produce test sensitivity closest to the theoretical values. Applicability of radiographic inspection for non-destructive evaluation mainly depends upon the nature, size and location of the discontinuity looked for. General radiographic standards followed are briefly mentioned below. 2: INSPECTION STANDARDS AND CODES There are several national and international standards and codes practiced in industrial cadiography, Some of the prominent ones are ASTM, ASME, B.S, DIN and 1SO. These are broadly classified into four groups, 2.1: Standards for Image Quality Indicators (IQ (Penetrameters) Relevant standards are ASTM E-142 (USA) B.S, 3971 (UK) DIN 54109 (West Germany) NF A 04-304 (France) 1SO-1021, JIS G 3522 Gapan) “These standards specify the wpe, material, size and shape of [Ql and method for calculation af sensitivity, 2,2: Standards for Techniques ‘The standards give information on the following points : {. General requirement and technique classification, Film and screen selection and acceptable fog density. Radiograph density. Identification system and location markers. Source selection, Source to film distance - U_ values. Image Quality Indicators (G0, Procedure requirements. page Ren 2.3: Standards for Specific Structures and Products Standards in this group cover specific areas of applications, such as fabrication of pressurevessels and pipelines. Content of the standards include guidelines for test procedures and acceptance and rejection criteria during fabrication, Some of the important codes are ; ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code Sec. II & VIII BS 5500 (1515) Pipelines Carrying fluids APL-Std-1104, B.S. 4677 Petrol Storage tanks B.S. 2654 2.4: Reference Radiographs Sets of different types of radiographs are available for welds and castings. Indications revealed on the radiograph are classified as per type of defects and also graded according to their severity levels. Principle collection of reference radiographs include ‘Welds ITW Collection of Reference Radiographs. ASTM-E-390 in three volumes upto 203 mm thick steel welds, Castings (Steel) ASTM-E-446 for thickness upto 51 mm. ASTM-E-186 for thickness from 51 - 115 mm. ASTM-E-280 for thickness from 115 - 305 mm. ‘The standards have been classified into four broad categories. 1, Standards for welds in steel plates. 2. Standards for welds in pipes and cylindrical objects. 3. Standards for welds of boiler and pressure vessels. 4. Standards for steel castings. 3: STANDARDS FOR WELDS IN STEEL PLATES 3.1: Classification of Techniques In IS0-R-1106, which is applicable to fusion welds upto 50 mm thickness, the techniques are classified as - Class A - General techniques for X-rays applicable to mild or low alloy steels Class B= More sensitive X-ray techniques for important applications needing higher sensitivities, Cless.C- General techiques for, gamma, rays, for general spplications when shape, *~ “thickness and accessibility renders use of X-rays impossible. 7.2For plate thickness in the range 50-200 mm, ISO 2405 is applicable. In DIN S4111, two classes of radiography techniques are specified. Class A - General technique. Class B - More seusitive technique. ‘TABLE 7.1: SCREEN THICKNESS- BS 2600 PART-I Thickness in mm Energy Screen Front Back (minimum) Below 120kV Lead _ on 120-250KV Lead = 0.025 -0.125 OL 250-400KV Lead 0.05 - 0.16 O Jridiom-192 Cobalt-60 | Lead 0.08 - 0.16 O16 Cobalt-60 Steelor 05 -20 0.25-1.0 Copper 3.2: Films and Screens ISO R 1106 Class A - No screen type films, with of without lead screens Class BB &C - Fine grain high contrast films in combination with lead screens. According to ISO.2405, only direct types of films; with: medium speed fine grain and very fine grain films can be used. Recommendations for.screens,-asiper BS:2600;'4re given in table 7.1. cate st j soithe saastan : a 3.3: Source to Film Distance (SFD) _ Minimuin SED depends upon the permissible U, values. tt also decides the field of coverage ina single unidirectional exposure:. > n ISO_1106, the resulting U, valye should not be more than 0.4'mm for'tectiniques’A and C and 0.2 mm for technique 3. 13TABLE 7.2 : RECOMMENDED U, VALUES AS PER ASME SEC-V Material = Maximum U, thi . ickness (mm) {mam) Upto 50 08 50-75 0.75 75-100 1.0 > 100 17 34: Length of Specimen ‘The area to be considered for interpretation on a radiograph depends upon the difference of the thickness of the material at the extreme end of the area measured in the direction of beam incident at that point and the actual thickness at that point, ‘This difference should not be greater than the values given below: ISO/R 1106 - 10% of the material thickness for Class A & B techniques. ~ 6% of the material thickness for Class C techniques. 3.5: Film density The limits of acceptable film densities and maximum fog density fevels are given in wble 7.3. Higher film densities are permissible, if adequate viewing facility is available. TABLE 7.3: LIMITS OF ACCEPTABLE FILM DENSITIES Code cable Film density range Max, fog coins density TSO/R.1106 Class A. 1,703.0 0.2 (Non-sereen film) 1.31023 2 (Screen (ype film) ClassB&C 2.01030 02 ASME X-rays 1.81040 Section = Gamma rays 2.004. 02 Composite 2.6 04.0 4: CHOICE OF RADIATION SOURCES Selection can be made as per tables 7.4 and 7.5.