EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

BASIC OPERATIONS ON MATRICES

AIM : To perform basic operations on matrices such as addition,
subtraction & multiplication.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED : MATLAB R2023b

THEORY :

Matrix operations mainly involve three algebraic operations, which

are the addition of matrices, subtraction of matrices, and multiplication
of matrices. Matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or expressions
arranged in rows and columns. Important applications of matrices can be
found in Mathematics.

Addition, subtraction and multiplication are the basic operations on

the matrix. To add or subtract matrices, these must be of identical
order, and for multiplication, the number of columns in the first matrix
equals the number of rows in the second matrix.

1. ADDITION OF MATRICES :

If A[aij]mxn and B[bij]mxn are two matrices of the same order, then
their sum A + B is a matrix, and each element of that matrix is the sum
of the corresponding elements, i.e. A + B = [a ij + bij]mxn

Consider the two matrices, A and B, of order 2 x 2. Then, the sum is

given by:

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑏1 + 𝑏2
[ ] + [ ] = [ ]
𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑐2 𝑑2 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
Properties of Matrix Addition:

If A, B & C are matrices of the same order, then

(a) Commutative Law: A + B = B + A

(b) Associative Law: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

(c) Identity of the Matrix: A + O = O + A = A, where O is a zero matrix

which is the additive identity of the matrix,

(d) Additive Inverse: A + (-A) = 0 = (-A) + A, where (-A) is obtained by

changing the sign of every element of A, which is the additive inverse of
the matrix.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

2. SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES :

If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then we define

A – B = A + (-B)
Consider the two matrices, A and B, of order 2 x 2. Then, the difference
is given by:

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 − 𝑏2
[ ] - [ ] = [ ]
𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑐2 𝑑2 𝑐1 − 𝑐2 𝑑1 − 𝑑2

We can subtract the matrices by subtracting each element of one matrix

from the corresponding element of the second matrix, i.e.
A – B = [aij – bij]mxn.

3. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION :

If A and B be any two matrices, then their product AB will be

defined only when the number of columns in A is equal to the number of
rows in B.

If A = [aij]mxn & B = [bij]nxp , then their product

AB = C = [cij]mxp will be a matrix of order m×p where

(AB)ij = Cij = ∑𝑛
𝑟 = 1(𝑎)𝑖𝑟. (𝑏)𝑟𝑗

Properties of matrix multiplication :

(a) Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general, i.e.

AB ≠ BA.
(b) Matrix multiplication is associative, i.e. (AB)C = A(BC).

(c) Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix addition, i.e. A.(B

+ C) = A.B + A.C & (A + B)C = AC + BC.
(d) The product of two matrices can be a null matrix while neither of
them is null, i.e., if AB = 0, it is not necessary that either
A = 0 or B = 0.
(e) If A is an m × n matrix and O is a null matrix, then

A.O = O.A = O
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

i.e. the product of the matrix with a null matrix is always a null
matrix.
(f) If AB = 0 (It does not mean that A = 0 or B = 0, again, the product
of two non-zero matrices may be a zero matrix).
(g) If AB = AC , B ≠ C (Cancellation law is not applicable).
(h) There exists a multiplicative identity for every square matrix, such
as

AI = IA = A

PROCEDURE :
1. Open MATLAB => New script
2. Type the program & save the file with .m extension.
3. Click Run & view the output in command window.

PROGRAM :
clc;
close all;
A = [5 2 -9; -1 9 4; 3 -4 7];
B = [4 6 -2; -9 -1 -8; 2 -5 0];
disp('Matrix A :');
A
disp('Matrix B :');
B
C = A + B;
disp('Sum of A & B is');
C
D = A - B;
disp('Difference of A & B is');
D
E = A*B;
disp('Product of A & B is');
E
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

OUTPUT :

Matrix A :
A =
5 2 -9
-1 9 4
3 -4 7
Matrix B :
B =
4 6 -2
-9 -1 -8
2 -5 0
Sum of A & B is
C =
9 8 -11
-10 8 -4
5 -9 7
Difference of A & B is
D =
1 -4 -7
8 10 12
1 1 7
Product of A & B is
E =
-16 73 -26
-77 -35 -70
62 -13 26
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

CALCULATIONS :

5 2 −9 4 6 −2
A = −1 9 4 , B = −9 −1 −8
3 −4 7 2 −5 0

5+4 2+6 −9 − 2 9 8 −11

C = A + B = −1 − 9 9 − 1 4 − 8 = −10 8 −4
3+2 −4 − 5 7 + 0 5 −9 7

5 − 4 2 − 6 −9 + 2 1 −4 −7
D = A - B = −1 + 9 9+1 4+8 = 8 10 12
3 − 2 −4 + 5 7 − 0 1 1 7

E = A x B =

5∗4 − 2∗9 − 9∗2 5∗6 − 2∗1+9∗5 −5 ∗ 2 − 2 ∗ 8 − 9 ∗ 0

−1 ∗ 4 − 9 ∗ 9 + 4 ∗ 2 −1 ∗ 6 − 9 ∗ 1 − 4 ∗ 5 1∗2 − 9∗8+4∗0
3∗4+4∗9+7∗2 3∗6+4∗1 − 7∗5 −3 ∗ 2 + 4 ∗ 8 + 7 ∗ 0

−16 73 −26
= −77 −35 −70
62 −13 26

RESULT

Hence the basic operations such as addition, subtraction & multiplication

are performed on matrices using MATLAB.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

WAVEFORM SYNTHESIS USING LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

AIM : To find the Laplace Transform & Inverse Laplace Transform of some
signals.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED : MATLAB R2023b

THEORY :

The Laplace transform is an integral transform perhaps second only

to the Fourier transform in its utility in solving physical problems. The
Laplace transform is particularly useful in solving linear ordinary
differential equations such as those arising in the analysis of
electronic circuits.

The Laplace transform of function f(t) is defined by

∞
F(s) = L[f(t)] = ∫0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒^(−𝑠𝑡). 𝑑𝑡
An integral formula for the inverse Laplace transform, called the
Mellin's inverse formula, the Bromwich integral, or the Fourier–Mellin
integral, is given by the line integral:

PROCEDURE :

1. Open MATLAB => New script

2. Type the program & save the file with .m extension.
3. Click Run & view the output in command window & output graphs on
figure windows.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

PROGRAM :

clc;
close all;
syms f t w s;

f1 = 4*t^3;
z = laplace(f1);
disp('Laplace transform of f1 ');
z

f2 = 3*sin(2*w*t);
v = laplace(f2);
disp('Laplace transform of f2 ');
v

f3 = 5*exp(-3*t);
m = laplace(f3);
disp('Laplace transform of f3 ');
m

y1 = ilaplace(z);
disp('Inverse Laplace transform of z ');
y1
figure(1);
ezplot(y1);

y2 = ilaplace(v);
disp('Inverse Laplace transform of v ');
y2
figure(2);
ezplot(y2);

y3 = ilaplace(m);
disp('Inverse Laplace transform of m ');
y3
figure(3);
ezplot(y3);
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

OUTPUT :

Laplace transform of f1
z =
24/s^4

Laplace transform of f2
v =
(6*w)/(s^2 + 4*w^2)

Laplace transform of f3
m =
5/(s + 3)

Inverse Laplace transform of z

y1 =
4*t^3

Inverse Laplace transform of v

y2 =
3*sin(2*t*w)

Inverse Laplace transform of m

y3 =
5*exp(-3*t)
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

CALCULATIONS :

3
1. f(t) = 4t

3! 24
L{f(t)} = L{4t3} = 4. =
s^4 𝑠^4

2. f(t) = 3*sin(2wt)
2w 6w
L{f(t)} = L{3*sin(2wt)} = 3. =
s^2 + (2w)^2 s^2 + 4.w^2

3. f(t) = 5.𝒆−𝟑𝐭
1 5
L{f(t)} = L{5.𝒆−𝟑𝐭 } = 5. =
s−(−3) s+3

RESULT :
Hence the Laplace transform & inverse Laplace transform of given signals
are determined using MATLAB.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

LOCATING POLES, ZEROS & PLOTTING POLE-ZERO

MAPS FOR GIVEN TRANSFER FUNCTION
AIM : To locate the zeros & poles & hence plotting the pole-zero maps in
s-plane & z-plane for the given transfer function.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED : MATLAB R2023b

THEORY :

Poles and Zeros of a transfer function are the frequencies for which
the value of the denominator and numerator of transfer function becomes
infinite and zero respectively. The values of the poles and the zeros of
a system determine whether the system is stable, and how well the system
performs. Control systems, in the most simple sense, can be designed
simply by assigning specific values to the poles and zeros of the system.

The transfer function of a control system is defined as the ratio of

the Laplace transform of the output variable to Laplace transform of the
input variable assuming all initial conditions to be zero.

𝐶(𝑠)
G(s) =
𝑅(𝑠)

The roots of the numerator polynomial n(s) define system zeros,

i.e., those frequencies at which the system response is zero. Thus, z0 is
a zero of the transfer function if G(z0) = 0.

The roots of the denominator polynomial d(s) define system poles,

i.e., those frequencies at which the system response is infinite. Thus,
p0 is a pole of the transfer function if G(p0) = ∞.
The Z-transform converts a discrete-time signal, which is a sequence
of real or complex numbers, into a complex valued frequency-domain (the
z-domain or z-plane) representation.

Z-Transform :
The bilateral or two-sided Z-transform of a discrete-time signal
x[n] for n ≥ 0 is the formal power series defined as:

, where z = r.𝐞−𝐣𝛚
PROCEDURE :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

1. Open MATLAB => New script

2. Type the program & save the file with .m extension.
3. Click Run & view the output in command window & output graphs on
figure windows.

PROGRAM :
clc;
close all;
num = input("Enter the numerator coefficients : ");
den = input("Enter the denominator coefficients : ");
G = tf(num,den);
p = roots(den);
z = roots(num);
G

figure(1);
sgrid;
pzplot(G);

figure(2);
zplane(z,p);

OUTPUT :

Enter the numerator coefficients : [1 7 18]

Enter the denominator coefficients : [1 -4 -16 30]
G =
s^2 + 7 s + 18
-----------------------
s^3 - 4 s^2 - 16 s + 30
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

OUTPUT GRAPHS:
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

CALCULATIONS :

1. s - Plane :

For zeros,
s2 + 7s + 18 = 0

=> s = -3.5 + j2.39, -3.5 - j2.39

For poles,
s3 - 4s2 - 16s + 30 = 0

=> s = -3.375, 1.518, 5.857

2. z – Plane :

For zeros,
z2 + 7z + 18 = 0

=> z = -3.5 + j2.39 = 4.238 ∠ 145.67°,

-3.5 - j2.39 = 4.238 ∠ 214.33°

For poles,
z3 – 4z2 – 16z + 30 = 0

=> z = -3.375 = 3.375 ∠ 180°,

1.518 = 1.518 ∠ 0°,
5.857 = 5.857 ∠ 0°

RESULT :

Hence the poles & zeros of given transfer function are determined &
located on s-plane & z-plane using MATLAB.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

SIMULATION OF 1ɸ DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

AIM : To simulate the dynamic model of 1ɸ diode bridge rectifier with &
without filter for R & R-L load.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED : MATLAB R2023b

CIRCUIT PARAMETERS :

1. AC Voltage Source : 325.269V (Peak), 50 Hz

2. R = 10 Ω, L = 2O mH, C = 47 mF

THEORY :

A rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts an input AC

voltage into a DC voltage at the output terminal. This output is known as
rectified output voltage. Rectifiers are mainly used in power supply,
providing DC voltage for electronic devices to work.

Rectifiers are categorized into two types depending on the operation

:

i. Half Wave Rectifiers

ii. Full Wave Rectifiers

A 1ɸ bridge rectifier is constructed using four diodes D1, D2, D3,

and D4, connected in a closed loop configuration that forms a bridge. The
diodes are arranged in a manner that they conduct in pairs during
positive half cycles.

The input AC voltage is applied through a transformer across the

Diagonal C of the bridge. The load resistor RL is connected between
Diagonal C and D. The output rectified DC voltage is obtained across the
load from Diagonal D.

During the positive half cycle of the input AC supply (0 to π), the
polarity of the secondary voltage across terminal A is positive with
respect to terminal B. This causes the diodes D1 and D2 to be forward-
biased and diodes D3 and D4 to be reversed-biased.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

D1 and D2 diodes create a path of short circuits and start

conducting while diodes D3 and D4 behave as open circuits. The load
current starts to flow through the short circuit path created by both D1,
and D2 diodes. The direction of the load current is from D1, RL, to D2.
The voltage across load resistor RL is positive at terminal D and
negative at terminal C.

During the negative half cycle of the input AC supply (π to 2π), the
polarity of the secondary voltage across terminal B is positive with
respect to terminal A.

D3 and D4 diodes create a path of short-circuit and start conducting

while diodes D1 and D2 behave as open circuits. The load current starts
to flow through the short circuit path created by both D3, and D4 diodes.
The direction of the load current is from D3, RL, to D4. The voltage
across load resistor RL is positive at terminal D and negative at
terminal C.

In both cycles, the load current flows through the positive half
cycles of the input AC voltage and in the same direction through the load
resistor RL. The polarity of the voltage across RL is the same as the
direction of load current through conducting states of diodes D1, D2, and
D3, D4. The output pulse can either be completely positive or negative.

Here, the output pulse obtained is positive. This unidirectional

current means DC. Hence, the input AC voltage is converted into DC
voltage at the output. The obtained output rectified pulse is pulsating
in nature. To purify this, we have to place a filter capacitor at the
output to get a pure DC voltage.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

1 𝜋 2𝑉𝑚
i. Average load voltage VL = ∫ 𝑉𝑚
𝜋 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡) 𝑑(𝑤𝑡) =
𝜋
,
𝑉𝐿
& load current IL = .
𝑅
𝐼𝐿
ii. Current through each diode Id =
2
iii. Average Output Power Po = VL*IL
8
iv. Efficiency η = = 0.8105 or 81.05 %
𝜋^2
𝑉(𝑅𝑀𝑆)
v. Ripple Factor γ = √( )^2 − 1
𝑉(𝐷𝐶)
𝑉𝐿 ∗ 𝐼𝐿
vi. Power Factor cosɸ =
𝑉(𝑅𝑀𝑆) ∗ 𝐼(𝑅𝑀𝑆)

PROCEDURE :

1. Open MATLAB => SIMULINK => Blank Model & create model as per circuit
diagram.

2. Assign parameters to respective components. Add voltage & current

measurement blocks to measure voltages & currents.

3. Add Mean block with supply fundamental frequency to output voltage &
current & display in Display block.

4. Add Powergui block, then save the model & run with desired stop time
to view output in scopes.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

I. FOR R-LOAD WITHOUT FILTER :

MODEL DIAGRAM :

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

II. FOR R-LOAD WITH FILTER :

MODEL DIAGRAM :

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

III. FOR R-L LOAD WITHOUT FILTER :

MODEL DIAGRAM :

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

IV. FOR R-L LOAD WITH FILTER :

MODEL DIAGRAM :

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

CALCULATIONS :
For 1ɸ rectifier with R-load without filter,

VRMS = 230 V => Vm = 230√2 = 325.269 V

2𝑉𝑚 2 𝑥 325.269
Load Voltage, VL = = = 207.07 V
𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝐿 207.07
Load Current, IL = = = 20.707 A
𝑅 10
𝐼𝐿 20.707
Current through each diode, Id = = = 10.354 A
2 2

Average Output Power, Po = VL*IL = 207.07 x 20.707 = 42.88 W

𝑉(𝑅𝑀𝑆) 230
Ripple Factor γ = √( )^2 − 1 = √( )^2 − 1 = 1.211
𝑉(𝐷𝐶) 207.07

𝑉𝐿 ∗ 𝐼𝐿 207.07 𝑥 20.707
Power Factor cosɸ = = = 0.81
𝑉(𝑅𝑀𝑆) ∗ 𝐼(𝑅𝑀𝑆) 230 𝑥 23

RESULT :
Hence the operation of 1ɸ diode bridge rectifier is studied using MATLAB
Simulink & the output waveforms are obtained.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

SIMULATION OF 3ɸ DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

AIM : To simulate the dynamic model of 3ɸ diode bridge rectifier with &
without filter for R & R-L load.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED : MATLAB R2023b

CIRCUIT PARAMETERS :

1. AC Voltage Source : 325.269V (Peak), 50 Hz

Phase = 0° (Phase A), -120° (Phase B), -240° (Phase C)
2. RL = 10 Ω, C = 47 mF

THEORY :

A 3ɸ diode bridge rectifier is an essential component in the world

of electrical engineering, designed to convert 3ɸ alternating current
(AC) into direct current (DC). It is widely used in power supply systems,
motor drives, & various other applications due to its efficient and
reliable performance.
It consists of six diodes connected in a bridge configuration, with
each diode conducting current for 120 degrees of the input waveform. The
input to the rectifier is a 3ɸ AC supply, which is typically generated by
a 3ɸ generator or transformer. The output is a pulsating DC waveform that
can be further processed or utilized in various applications.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

The 3ɸ diode bridge rectifier operates by only allowing the positive

half-cycles of the input AC waveform to pass through, effectively
“clipping” the negative half-cycles. This is achieved by the diodes,
which only conduct current in one direction, blocking the negative half-
cycles. The result is a series of positive half-cycles that form the
pulsating DC output.

Compared to their 1ɸ counterparts, 3ɸ diode bridge rectifiers offer

several benefits :

 Higher Efficiency: Three-phase rectifiers have lower losses due to the

continuous conduction of current. This results in a higher overall
efficiency and reduced power dissipation.

 Reduced Output Ripple: The pulsating DC output of a three-phase

rectifier has a lower ripple voltage compared to single-phase
rectifiers. This means that the output voltage is smoother, which is
advantageous for applications requiring a stable DC supply.

 Smaller Filter Size: Due to the reduced output ripple, the size of the
output filter components can be smaller, which in turn leads to a more
compact overall design.

 Better Load Sharing: In a 3ɸ rectifier, the current is more evenly

distributed among the diodes, reducing the stress on each individual
diode and improving the overall reliability of the rectifier.

PROCEDURE :

1. Open MATLAB => SIMULINK => Blank Model & create model as per circuit
diagram.

2. Assign parameters to respective components. Add voltage & current

measurement blocks to measure voltages & currents.

3. Add Mean block with supply fundamental frequency to output voltage &
current & display in Display block.

4. Add Powergui block, then save the model & run with desired stop time
to view output in scopes.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

I. FOR R-LOAD WITHOUT FILTER :

MODEL DIAGRAM :

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

II. FOR R-LOAD WITH FILTER :

MODEL DIAGRAM :

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

III. FOR R-L LOAD WITHOUT FILTER :

MODEL DIAGRAM :

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

IV. FOR R-L LOAD WITH FILTER :

MODEL DIAGRAM :

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

CALCULATIONS :
For 3ɸ rectifier with R-load without filter,

3√3 𝑉𝑚 3√3 𝑥 325.269

Load Voltage, VL = = = 537.99 V
𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝐿 537.99
Load Current, IL = = = 53.799 A
𝑅 10

Average Output Power, Po = VL*IL = 537.99 x 53.799

= 28943.32 W
= 28.943 kW

RESULT :
Hence the operation of 3ɸ diode bridge rectifier is studied using MATLAB
Simulink & the output waveforms are obtained.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

MEASUREMENT OF ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER OF

3ɸ CIRCUIT
AIM : To measure the active & reactive power of 3ɸ balanced & unbalanced
loads by two-wattmeter method.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED : MATLAB R2023b

CIRCUIT PARAMETERS :

1. AC Voltage Source : 325.269V (Peak), 50 Hz

Phase = 0° (Phase A), -120° (Phase B), -240° (Phase C)
2. R = XL = 100 Ω => L = 0.318 H (Balanced Load)
3. Unbalanced Load :
R = XL = 100 Ω => L = 0.318 H (Phase A)
R = XL = 50 Ω => L = 0.159 H (Phase B)
R = XL = 200 Ω => L = 0.637 H (Phase C)

THEORY :

Two-wattmeter method can be employed to measure the power in a 3

phase, three-wire star or delta connected the balanced or unbalanced
load.

In two-wattmeter method, the current coils of the wattmeter are

connected with any two lines, say R and Y and the potential coil of each
wattmeter is joined on the same line, the third line i.e. B as shown
below :

The total instantaneous power absorbed by the three loads Z1, Z2 and
Z3, is equal to the sum of the powers measured by the two wattmeters, W1
and W2.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

Considering the above figure in which two wattmeters W1 and W2 are

connected, the instantaneous current through the current coil of
wattmeter W1 is given by the equation shown below :
I1 = IR

The instantaneous potential difference across the potential coil of

wattmeter W1 is given as :
ERB = ER – EB
Instantaneous power measured by the wattmeter W1 is

W1 = IR(ER – EB) -(1)

The instantaneous current through the current coil of wattmeter W2 is

given by the equation:
I2 = IY
The instantaneous potential difference across the potential coil of
wattmeter W2 is given as:
EYB = EY – EB
Instantaneous power measured by the Wattmeter, W 2 is:
W2 = IY(EY – EB) -(2)

Therefore, the total power measured by the two wattmeters W 1 and W2 will
be obtained by adding the equations (1) & (2)

W1 + W 2 = IR(ER – EB) + IY(EY – EB)

= IRER + IYEY – EB(IR + IY)
= IRER + IYEY + IBEB (∵ IR + IY + IB = 0)
W1 + W 2 = P
where, P = Total power absorbed in the three loads at any instant.

PROCEDURE :

1. Open MATLAB => SIMULINK => Blank Model & create model as per circuit
diagram.

2. Assign parameters to respective components. Add voltage & current

measurement blocks to measure voltage & current, & Power block to measure
active & reactive power with supply fundamental frequency.

3. Add Powergui block, then save the model & run with desired stop time
to view output in scopes.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

I. 3ɸ BALANCED LOAD :
MODEL DIAGRAM :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

CALCULATIONS :

Given balanced load, R = XL = 100 Ω

𝑋𝐿 100
=> L = = = 0.318 H = 318 mH
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 ∗ 100

VPh = 230V => VL = √3.Vph = √3.230 = 398.37 V

𝑉𝑝ℎ 230
IL = IPh = = = 1.627 A
𝑍 √100^2 + 100^2

PT = √3.VL.IL.cosɸ = √3 x 398.37 x 1.627 x cos(45°)

= 793.82 W

QT = √3.VL.IL.sinɸ = √3 x 398.37 x 1.627 x sin(45°)

= 793.82 W

P1 = VL.IL.cos(30°+ɸ) = 398.37 x 1.627 x cos(30°+45°) = 167.75 W

Q1 = VL.IL.sin(30°+ɸ) = 398.37 x 1.627 x sin(30°+45°) = 626.06 W

P2 = VL.IL.cos(30°-ɸ) = 398.37 x 1.627 x cos(30°-45°) = 626.06 W

Q2 = VL.IL.sin(30°-ɸ) = 398.37 x 1.627 x sin(30°-45°) = 167.75 W

Hence P1 + P2 = 167.75 + 626.26 = 793.82 W = PT

& Q1 + Q2 = 626.26 + 167.75 = 793.82 W = QT

EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

II. 3ɸ UNBALANCED LOAD :

MODEL DIAGRAM :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

CALCULATIONS :

VA = 230∠0° V, VB = 230∠-120° V, VC = 230∠-240° V

=> VAB = VA – VB = √3.230 ∠30° V

& VCB = VC – VB = √3.230 ∠90° V

Phase A : R = XL = 100 Ω

𝑋𝐿 100
=> L = = = 0.318 H = 318 mH
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 ∗ 50

Phase B : R = XL = 50 Ω

𝑋𝐿 50
=> L = = = 0.159 H = 159 mH
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 ∗ 50

Phase C : R = XL = 200 Ω

𝑋𝐿 200
=> L = = = 0.637 H = 637 mH
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 ∗ 50

𝑉𝑎 230 ∠0°
IAB = IA = = = 1.627 ∠-45° A
𝑍𝑎 100√2 ∠45°

Power measured across A-B,

SAB = VAB.IAB* = (230√3 ∠30°)(1.627 ∠45°)

= 648.15 ∠75° = (167.76 + j 626.07) W

𝑉𝑐 230 ∠−240°
ICB = IC = = = 0.813 ∠75° A
𝑍𝑐 200√2 ∠45°

Power measured across C-B,

SCB = VCB.ICB* = (230√3 ∠90°)(0.813 ∠-75°)

= 323.88 ∠15° = (312.84 + j 83.83) W

EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

Total apparent power,

S3ɸ = SAB + SCB = (167.76 + j 626.07) + (312.84 + j 83.83)

= (480.6 + j 709.9) W

RESULT :
Hence the measurement of active & reactive power of 3ɸ circuit for
balanced & unbalanced loads using two-wattmeter method is demonstrated
using MATLAB Simulink & the results are verified successfully.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

DESIGN & ANALYSIS OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS

AIM : To analyze the characteristics of feedback control systems by
simulating the closed loop control of DC motor.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED : MATLAB R2023b

CIRCUIT PARAMETERS :

1. Va = 160 V
2. Ra = 0.5 Ω
3. La = 0.1 H
4. J = 5 kg-m2
5. B = 0.01 N-m/(rad/s)
𝐿𝑎
6. Electrical time constant, Ta =
𝑅𝑎
7. Ke.phi (ke.ɸ) = 1.6
𝐽
8. Mechanical time constant, Tm =
𝐵
9. Repeating Sequence Stair :
Time = [0 1 2]
Output Value = [1 2 3]
Sample time = 2

THEORY :

Feedback control is a control mechanism that uses information from

measurements to manipulate a variable to achieve the desired result.
Feedback control is employed in a wide variety of situations in everyday
life, from simple home thermostats that maintain a specified temperature,
to complex devices that maintain the position of communication
satellites. Feedback control also occurs in natural situations, such as
the regulation of blood-sugar levels in the body. Feedback control was
even used more than 2000 years ago by the Greeks, who manufactured such
systems as the float valve which regulated water level. Today, this same
idea is used to control water levels in boilers and reservoirs.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

In feedback control, the variable being controlled is measured and

compared with a target value. This difference between the actual and
desired value is called the error. Feedback control manipulates an input
to the system to minimize this error. The below figure shows an overview
of a basic feedback control loop. The error in the system would be the
Output - Desired Output. Feedback control reacts to the system and works
to minimize this error. The desired output is generally entered into the
system through a user interface. The output of the system is measured (by
a flow meter, thermometer or similar instrument) and the difference is
calculated. This difference is used to control the system inputs to
reduce the error in the system.

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL OF DC MOTOR :

Consider an armature-controlled DC motor (DC shunt motor) whose

field winding is separately excited by means of external DC excitation.
Since the field current is constant, the speed is proportional to the
armature current, hence the torque & speed can be controlled by armature
voltage. Reversible operation is possible by reversing the armature
voltage.

The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the field

flux ɸ & armature current Ia,

Tm ∝ ɸ.Ia

Tm = ke.ɸ.Ia
The motor back EMF is proportional to speed, i.e.
𝑑𝛳
Eb ∝
𝑑𝑡
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

𝑑𝛳
=> Eb = kb.
𝑑𝑡

where kb = back emf constant.

The differential equation of the armature circuit is

𝑑𝐼𝑎
E = L. + Ra.Ia + Eb
𝑑𝑡
The mechanical torque equation is

𝑑 2𝛳 𝑑𝛳
Tm = ke.ɸ.Ia = J. 2 + B. + TL
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
where
J = Moment of Inertia of motor & load referred to motor shaft
B = Coefficient of Friction of motor & load referred to motor shaft
ϴ = Angular displacement of motor shaft

PROCEDURE :

1. Open MATLAB => SIMULINK => Blank Model & create model as per circuit
diagram.

2. Assign parameters to respective components. Add constant blocks with

different load torque values to Multiport & connect to the torque input.

3. Save the model & run with desired stop time to view output in scopes.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

MODEL DIAGRAM :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

OUTPUT GRAPH :

RESULT :
Hence the characteristics of feedback control systems is studied upon
simulating closed loop control of DC motor by using MATLAB Simulink.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

DESIGN OF 1ɸ AC - DC CONVERTERS
AIM : To design a 1ɸ AC-DC converter & study its operation for R & R-L
loads.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED : MATLAB R2023b

CIRCUIT PARAMETERS :

1. AC Voltage Source : 325.269V (Peak), 50 Hz

2. R = 1 Ω, L = 10mH
3. Pulse Generators :
Period = 0.02s
Pulse Width = 5 %
Phase Delay = 0.00333s (for T1), 0.01333s (for T2) (For α = 60°)
4. Switches Used : Detailed Thyristor

THEORY :

1ɸ controlled rectifiers, also known as phase-controlled rectifiers,

play a crucial role in power electronics applications. These devices are
used to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) with the
ability to control the output voltage. This is achieved by adjusting the
firing angle (or phase angle) of thyristors, which are semiconductor
devices capable of switching large currents. 1ɸ controlled rectifiers
find wide applications in a range of fields, including battery charging,
variable-speed motor drives, power supplies for electronic devices, and
electric vehicle charging stations, among others. With their ability to
regulate the output voltage and handle high power levels, these
rectifiers are suitable for diverse industrial, commercial, and
residential applications.
1. 1ɸ Full-wave Semi-Converter :
A 1ɸ semi-converter is composed of two thyristors & two diodes. SCRs
enable current to flow in one direction when triggered. These devices are
also known as thyristors. In a 1ɸ semi-converter, one diode and one SCR
control the positive half-cycle of the AC input voltage, and the other
diode and SCR control the negative half-cycle. The average DC voltage
delivered to the load can be adjusted by controlling the timing of the
trigger pulses to the SCRs. The timing of the thyristor trigger pulse
with respect to the zero-crossing point of the AC waveform determines the
conduction angle, which can be modified by adjusting the timing of the
trigger pulse, allowing control of the average DC voltage delivered to
the load.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

𝑉𝑚
Average load voltage, Vo = (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼)
𝜋

𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝛼
RMS load voltage, VRMS = √𝜋−𝛼 +
√2𝜋 2

2. 1ɸ Full-wave Full-Converter :
1ɸ full converters utilize four SCRs to deliver a constant DC output
voltage. Like dual converters, full converters offer an uninterrupted
output voltage and support bidirectional power flow. With the
implementation of four SCRs, the full converter is capable of providing a
continuous output voltage for both positive and negative half-cycles of
the AC input voltage.
A 1ɸ full converter can operate in two quadrants: the first quadrant
(Q1) for forward motion and the fourth quadrant (Q4) for reverse braking.
During the first quadrant operation, the input voltage is supplied to the
load in the same polarity as the output voltage, while during the fourth
quadrant operation, the input voltage is applied to the load in the
opposite polarity as the output voltage. This allows the load to either
dissipate energy as heat or return energy to the power source, making
full converters ideal for bidirectional power flow applications like DC
motor drives, where both motoring and braking operations are needed.
Full converters can generate higher levels of harmonic distortion in
the input current, which may lead to issues such as increased power
losses and electromagnetic interference. Therefore, it is crucial to
carefully evaluate the trade-offs among different types of rectifiers
when designing power electronics systems to achieve optimal efficiency
and performance.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

2 𝑉𝑚
Average load voltage, Vo = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝜋

PROCEDURE :
1. Open MATLAB => SIMULINK => Blank Model & create model as per circuit
diagram.

2. Assign parameters to respective components. Add voltage & current

measurement blocks to measure voltages & currents.

3. Add Mean & RMS blocks with supply fundamental frequency to output
voltage & display in Display block.

4. Add Powergui block, then save the model & run with desired stop time
to view output in scopes.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

I. 1ɸ SEMI CONVERTER FOR R - LOAD :

MODEL DIAGRAM :

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
1. Voltage Waveforms :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

2. Current Waveforms :

CALCULATIONS :

For α = 60° , Vm = 230√2 = 325.269 V

𝑉𝑚 325.269
Vo,Avg = (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼) = (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60°) = 155.30 V
𝜋 𝜋

𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝛼 325.269 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2∗60°

Vo,RMS = √𝜋−𝛼 + = √𝜋− +
√2𝜋 2 √2𝜋 3 2

= 206.296 V
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

II. 1ɸ SEMI CONVERTER FOR R -L LOAD :

MODEL DIAGRAM :

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
1. Voltage Waveforms :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

2. Current Waveforms :

CALCULATIONS :

For α = 60° , Vm = 230√2 = 325.269 V

𝑉𝑚 325.269
Vo,Avg = (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼) = (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60°) = 155.30 V
𝜋 𝜋

𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝛼 325.269 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2∗60°

Vo,RMS = √𝜋−𝛼 + = √𝜋− +
√2𝜋 2 √2𝜋 3 2

= 206.296 V
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

III. 1ɸ FULL CONVERTER FOR R - LOAD :

MODEL DIAGRAM :

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
1. Voltage Waveforms :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

2. Current Waveforms :

CALCULATIONS :

For α = 60° , Vm = 230√2 = 325.269 V

2 𝑉𝑚 2 ∗ 325.269
Vo,Avg = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60° = 103.54 V
𝜋 𝜋

Vo,RMS = Vs = 230 V
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

IV. 1ɸ FULL CONVERTER FOR R -L LOAD :

MODEL DIAGRAM :

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
1. Voltage Waveforms :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

2. Current Waveforms :

CALCULATIONS :

For α = 60° , Vm = 230√2 = 325.269 V

2 𝑉𝑚 2 𝑥 325.269
Vo,Avg = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60° = 103.53 V
𝜋 𝜋

Vo,RMS = Vs = 230 V

RESULT :
Hence the operation of 1ɸ AC-DC converters are studied by using MATLAB
Simulink & the output waveforms are obtained.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

DESIGN OF 1ɸ INVERTERS
AIM : To design a 1ɸ multiple sinusoidal PWM inverter & study its
performance characteristics.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED : MATLAB R2023b

CIRCUIT PARAMETERS :

1. DC Voltage Source : 400V

2. R = 100 Ω, L = 1H, C = 100 µF
3. Sine Wave 1 :
Amplitude = 0.9 (Should be less than 1)
Frequency = 314.1592 rad/s
Phase = 0 rad
4. Sine Wave 2 :
Amplitude = 0.9 (Should be less than 1)
Frequency = 314.1592 rad/s
Phase = 3.141592 rad
5. Triangle Generator :
Frequency = 400 Hz
Phase = 90°
6. Switches Used : MOSFET

THEORY :

The inverter is an electrical device that converts DC input supply

to symmetric AC voltage of standard magnitude and frequency at the output
side. It is also named as DC to AC converter. An ideal inverter input and
output can be represented either in a sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal
waveforms. If the input source to the inverter is a voltage source, then
the inverter is said to be called a voltage source inverter (VSI) and if
the input source to the inverter is a current source then it is called as
current source inverter (CSI). Inverters are classified into 2 types
according to the type of load being used i.e., 1ɸ inverters, & 3ɸ
inverters. 1ɸ Inverters are further classified into 2 types: half-bridge
inverter & full-bridge inverter.
Inverters are classified into 5 types :
1. According to the output characteristics :-
i. Square wave inverter
ii. Sine wave inverter
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

iii. Modified sine wave inverter

2. According to the source of the inverter :-
i. Current source inverter (CSI)
ii. Voltage source inverter (VSI)
3. According to the type of load :-
i. 1ɸ inverter -
a. Half-bridge inverter
b. Full-bridge inverter
ii. 3ɸ inverters
a. 180° conduction mode
b. 120° conduction mode
4. According to different PWM techniques :-
i. Simple pulse width modulation (PWM)
ii. Multiple pulse width modulation (MPWM)
iii. Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM)
iv. Modified sinusoidal pulse width modulation (MSPWM)
5. According to the number of output levels :-
i. Regular 2-level inverters
ii. Multi-level inverter

FULL-BRIDGE INVERTER :
The circuit comprises four diodes & four controlled switches, which
can be BJT, IGBT, MOSFET or Thyristors, play a crucial role in the
inversion process. The power circuit of a 1ɸ full bridge inverter is
constructed with precision, featuring four thyristors labelled T1 to T4,
four diodes D1 to D4 & a two wire DC input power source denoted as Vs.
The four diodes, also known as freewheeling or feedback diodes,
facilitate the redirection of stored energy in the load back to the DC
source, particularly beneficial for non-pure resistive loads. This
feedback mechanism enhances efficiency and stability.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

The full-bridge inverter configuration provides versatility in

adapting to various applications & load types, making it a widely
utilized topology in DC to AC power conversion systems. The diodes, known
as freewheeling diodes or feedback diodes, are strategically placed in
anti-parallel configuration with the thyristors; for instance, D1 is
connected in anti-parallel with T1 & similarly for the rest.
1. Mode 1 :

In this mode, T1 & T2 are triggered, while T3 & T4 are OFF. The current
starts flowing through T1 & T2, hence voltage across A & B V AB = +VS.

2. Mode 2 :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

In this mode, T3 & T4 are triggered, while T1 & T2 are OFF. The current
starts flowing through T3 & T4, hence voltage across A & B V AB = -VS. The
whole process is repeated for the next cycles.

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION :

Pulse-width modulation (PWM), is a method of representing a signal
as a rectangular wave with a varying duty cycle (and for some methods
also a varying period).
PWM is useful for controlling the average power or amplitude
delivered by an electrical signal. The average value of voltage (and
current) fed to the load is controlled by switching the supply between 0
and 100% at a rate faster than it takes the load to change significantly.
The longer the switch is on, the higher the total power supplied to the
load. Along with maximum power point tracking (MPPT), it is one of the
primary methods of controlling the output of solar panels to that which
can be utilized by a battery.[2] PWM is particularly suited for running
inertial loads such as motors, which are not as easily affected by this
discrete switching. The goal of PWM is to control a load; however, the
PWM switching frequency must be selected carefully in order to smoothly
do so.
There are 3 types of PWM techniques :
i. Single-pulse width modulation
ii. Multiple-pulse width modulation
iii. Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
SINGLE PULSE WIDTH MODULATION :
A single pulse is produced at each switching cycle in single-pulse
width modulation. The average power applied to the load is controlled by
varying the pulse’s width. Single-PWM is straight-forward & simple to
use, although it could have a larger harmonic content and be unsuitable
for applications that need precision control at low power levels.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

MULTIPLE PULSE WIDTH MODULATION :

Multiple pulses are generated during each switching cycle in
multiple-pulse width modulation. This method seeks to lower harmonic
distortion while raising the output waveform’s general quality. Two-level
and three-level MPWM are frequently used; in these implementations, the
number of pulses in each cycle is increased to improve waveform fidelity,
which makes MPWM especially helpful in high-power applications.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (SPWM) :

Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) is a more complex type of
PWM. SPWM generates a pulse train for each gating signal G1 & G4 by
comparing a sinusoidal reference signal with a triangular carrier signal.
Each pulse's width fluctuates in proportion to the amplitude of a
reference sine wave at its centre.

The reference signal frequency determines the output signal

frequency in SPWM. Further, the peak amplitude of the reference signal
influences the modulation index M, controlling the output RMS voltage.
The number of pulses in each output signal cycle is determined by the
carrier frequency. When compared to single & multiple pulse width
modulation methods, SPWM delivers greater harmonic rejection capabilities
with much lower order harmonics & distortion factor.

PROCEDURE :
1. Open MATLAB => SIMULINK => Blank Model & create model as per circuit
diagram.

2. Assign parameters to respective components. Add voltage & current

measurement blocks to measure voltages & currents. Club the reference
waves (sine waves) & carrier wave (triangle wave) using Mux.

3. Add Powergui block, then save the model & run with desired stop time
to view output in scopes.
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

MODEL DIAGRAM :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

OUTPUT GRAPHS :
EXP NO. 21011A0253 PAGE NO.

CALCULATIONS :
𝐴𝑟 0.9
Modulation index, m = = = 0.9
𝐴𝑐 1

where Ar = Amplitude of reference wave (sine)

& Ac = Amplitude of carrier wave (triangle)

VDC = 400V => Vm = 400V

𝑉𝑚 400
VRMS = m x = 0.9 x = 254.56V
√2 √2
Filtered output,
𝑋𝐶 1/𝑤𝐶
VL = Vs x = 254.56 x = 28.70V
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 𝑤𝐿 − 1/𝑤𝐶
𝑉𝐿 28.7
IL = = = 0.287A
𝑅 100

RESULT :
Hence the 1ɸ multiple sinusoidal PWM inverter is designed using MATLAB
Simulink & the performance characteristics are studied.