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Core
Earth’s core is the very hot, very dense center of our planet. Saved by
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GRADES SUBJECTS
9 - 12+ Earth Science, Geology, Geography, Physical Geography, Physics

P H OTO G R A P H

Mantle and Core

The different layers of the Earth—the core, the
mantle, and the crust—constantly interact with
each other. The deepest layer of Earth, the
core, is composed almost entirely of liquid
nickel and iron. It is the hottest layer of Earth,
reaching temperatures of 7,000 degress
Celsius (13,000 degrees Fahrenheit).

I L L U S T R AT I O N B Y C H U C K C A RT E R

P H OTO G R A P H PDF P H OTO G R A P H P H OTO G R A P H P H OTO G R A P H VIDE

A RT I C L E VO C A B U L A RY

Earth’s core is the very hot, very dense center of our planet. The ball-
shaped core lies beneath the cool, brittle crust and the mostly solid mantle.
The core is found about 2,900 kilometers (1,802 miles) below Earth’s surface,
and has a radius of about 3,485 kilometers (2,165 miles).

Planet Earth is older than the core. When Earth was formed about 4.5 billion
years ago, it was a uniform ball of hot rock. Radioactive decay and leftover
heat from planetary formation (the collision, accretion, and compression of
space rocks) caused the ball to get even hotter. Eventually, after about 500
million years, our young planet’s temperature heated to the melting point
of iron—about 1,538° Celsius (2,800° Fahrenheit). This pivotal moment in
Earth’s history is called the iron catastrophe.

The iron catastrophe allowed greater, more rapid movement of Earth’s

molten, rocky material. Relatively buoyant material, such as silicates, water,
and even air, stayed close to the planet’s exterior. These materials became
the early mantle and crust. Droplets of iron, nickel, and other heavy metals
gravitated to the center of Earth, becoming the early core. This important
process is called planetary differentiation.

Earth’s core is the furnace of the geothermal gradient. The geothermal

gradient measures the increase of heat and pressure in Earth’s interior. The
geothermal gradient is about 25° Celsius per kilometer of depth (1°
Fahrenheit per 70 feet). The primary contributors to heat in the core are the
decay of radioactive elements, leftover heat from planetary formation, and
heat released as the liquid outer core solidifies near its boundary with the
inner core.

Unlike the mineral-rich crust and mantle, the core isSaved

made by
almost entirely of
metal—specifically, iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni). The shorthand
395 educatorsused for the

core’s iron-nickel alloys is simply the elements’ chemical symbols—NiFe.

Elements that dissolve in iron, called siderophiles, are also found in the core.
Because these elements are found much more rarely on Earth’s crust, many
siderophiles are classified as “precious metals.” Siderophile elements
include gold, platinum, and cobalt.

Another key element in Earth’s core is sulfur—in fact 90 percent of the sulfur
on Earth is found in the core. The confirmed discovery of such vast amounts
of sulfur helped explain a geologic mystery: If the core was primarily NiFe,
why wasn’t it heavier? Geoscientists speculated that lighter elements such
as oxygen or silicon might have been present. The abundance of sulfur,
another relatively light element, explained the conundrum.

Although we know that the core is the hottest part of our planet, its precise
temperatures are difficult to determine. The fluctuating temperatures in
the core depend on pressure, Earth's rotation, and the varying composition
of core elements. In general, temperatures range from about 4,400° Celsius
(7,952° Fahrenheit) to about 6,000° Celsius (10,800° Fahrenheit).

The core is made of two layers: the outer core, which borders the mantle,
and the inner core. The boundary separating these regions is called the
Bullen discontinuity.

Outer Core

The outer core, about 2,200 kilometers (1,367 miles) thick, is mostly
composed of liquid iron and nickel. The NiFe alloy of the outer core is very
hot, between 4,500° and 5,500° Celsius (8,132° and 9,932° Fahrenheit).

The liquid metal of the outer core has very low viscosity, meaning it is easily
deformed and malleable. It is the site of violent convection. The churning
metal of the outer core creates and sustains Earth’s magnetic field.

The hottest part of the core is actually the Bullen discontinuity, where
temperatures reach 6,000° Celsius (10,800° Fahrenheit)—as hot as the
surface of the sun.

Inner Core

The inner core is a hot, dense ball of (mostly) iron. It has a radius of about
1,220 kilometers (758 miles). Temperature in the inner core is about 5,200°
Celsius (9,392° Fahrenheit). The pressure is nearly 3.6 million
atmosphere (atm).

The temperature of the inner core is far above the melting point of iron.
However, unlike the outer core, the inner core is not liquid or even molten.
The inner core’s intense pressure—the entire rest of the planet and its
atmosphere—prevents the iron from melting. The pressure and density are
simply too great for the iron atoms to move into a liquid state. Because of
this unusual set of circumstances, some geophysicists prefer to interpret the
inner core not as a solid, but as a plasma behaving as a solid.

The liquid outer core separates the inner core from the rest of Earth, and as
a result, the inner core rotates a little differently than the rest of the planet.
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It rotates eastward, like the surface, but it’s a little 395
faster, making an extra
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rotation about every 1,000 years.

Geoscientists think that the iron crystals in the inner core are arranged in an
“hcp” (hexagonal close-packed) pattern. The crystals align north-south,
along with Earth’s axis of rotation and magnetic field.

The orientation of the crystal structure means that seismic waves—the most
reliable way to study the core—travel faster when going north-south than
when going east-west. Seismic waves travel four seconds faster pole-to-
pole than through the Equator.

Growth in the Inner Core

As the entire Earth slowly cools, the inner core grows by about a millimeter
every year. The inner core grows as bits of the liquid outer core solidify or
crystallize. Another word for this is “freezing,” although it’s important to
remember that iron’s freezing point is more than 1,000° Celsius (1,832°
Fahrenheit).

The growth of the inner core is not uniform. It occurs in lumps and bunches,
and is influenced by activity in the mantle.

Growth is more concentrated around subduction zones—regions where

tectonic plates are slipping from the lithosphere into the mantle, thousands
of kilometers above the core. Subducted plates draw heat from the core
and cool the surrounding area, causing increased instances of solidification.

Growth is less concentrated around “superplumes” or LLSVPs. These

ballooning masses of superheated mantle rock likely influence “hot spot”
volcanism in the lithosphere, and contribute to a more liquid outer core.

The core will never “freeze over.” The crystallization process is very slow,
and the constant radioactive decay of Earth’s interior slows it even further.
Scientists estimate it would take about 91 billion years for the core to
completely solidify—but the sun will burn out in a fraction of that time
(about 5 billion years).

Core Hemispheres

Just like the lithosphere, the inner core is divided into eastern and western
hemispheres. These hemispheres don’t melt evenly, and have distinct
crystalline structures.

The western hemisphere seems to be crystallizing more quickly than the

eastern hemisphere. In fact, the eastern hemisphere of the inner core may
actually be melting.

Inner Inner Core

Geoscientists recently discovered that the inner core itself has a core—the
inner inner core. This strange feature differs from the inner core in much the
same way the inner core differs from the outer core. Scientists think that a
radical geologic change about 500 million years ago caused this inner inner
core to develop.

The crystals of the inner inner core are oriented east-west

Saved by
instead of north-
south. This orientation is not aligned with either Earth’s rotational axis or
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magnetic field. Scientists think the iron crystals may even have a completely
different structure (not hcp), or exist at a different phase.

Magnetism

Earth’s magnetic field is created in the swirling outer core. Magnetism in the
outer core is about 50 times stronger than it is on the surface.

It might be easy to think that Earth’s magnetism is caused by the big ball of
solid iron in the middle. But in the inner core, the temperature is so high the
magnetism of iron is altered. Once this temperature, called the Curie point,
is reached, the atoms of a substance can no longer align to a magnetic
point.

Dynamo Theory

Some geoscientists describe the outer core as Earth’s “geodynamo.” For a

planet to have a geodynamo, it must rotate, it must have a fluid medium in
its interior, the fluid must be able to conduct electricity, and it must have an
internal energy supply that drives convection in the liquid.

Variations in rotation, conductivity, and heat impact the magnetic field of a

geodynamo. Mars, for instance, has a totally solid core and a weak magnetic
field. Venus has a liquid core, but rotates too slowly to churn significant
convection currents. It, too, has a weak magnetic field. Jupiter, on the other
hand, has a liquid core that is constantly swirling due to the planet’s rapid
rotation.

Earth is the “Goldilocks” geodynamo. It rotates steadily, at a brisk 1,675

kilometers per hour (1,040 miles per hour) at the Equator. Coriolis forces, an
artifact of Earth’s rotation, cause convection currents to be spiral. The liquid
iron in the outer core is an excellent electrical conductor, and creates the
electrical currents that drive the magnetic field.

The energy supply that drives convection in the outer core is provided as
droplets of liquid iron freeze onto the solid inner core. Solidification
releases heat energy. This heat, in turn, makes the remaining liquid iron
more buoyant. Warmer liquids spiral upward, while cooler solids spiral
downward under intense pressure: convection.

Earth’s Magnetic Field

Earth’s magnetic field is crucial to life on our planet. It protects the planet
from the charged particles of the solar wind. Without the shield of the
magnetic field, the solar wind would strip Earth’s atmosphere of the
ozone layer that protects life from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Although Earth’s magnetic field is generally stable, it fluctuates constantly.
As the liquid outer core moves, for instance, it can change the location of
the magnetic North and South Poles. The magnetic North Pole moves up to
64 kilometers (40 miles) every year.

Fluctuations in the core can cause Earth’s magnetic field to change even
more dramatically. Geomagnetic pole reversals, for Saved
instance,
by
happen about
every 200,000 to 300,000 years. Geomagnetic pole reversals are just what
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they sound like: a change in the planet’s magnetic poles, so that the
magnetic North and South Poles are reversed. These “pole flips” are not
catastrophic—scientists have noted no real changes in plant or animal life,
glacial activity, or volcanic eruptions during previous geomagnetic pole
reversals.

Studying the Core

Geoscientists cannot study the core directly. All information about the core
has come from sophisticated reading of seismic data, analysis of meteorites,
lab experiments with temperature and pressure, and computer modeling.

Most core research has been conducted by measuring seismic waves, the
shock waves released by earthquakes at or near the surface. The velocity
and frequency of seismic body waves changes with pressure, temperature,
and rock composition.

In fact, seismic waves helped geoscientists identify the structure of the core
itself. In the late 19th century, scientists noted a “shadow zone” deep in the
planet, where a type of body wave called an s-wave either stopped entirely
or was altered. S-waves are unable to transmit through fluids or gases. The
sudden “shadow” where s-waves disappeared indicated that Earth had a
liquid layer.

In the 20th century, geoscientists discovered an increase in the velocity of

p-waves, another type of body wave, at about 5,150 kilometers (3,200 miles)
below the surface. The increase in velocity corresponded to a change from
a liquid or molten medium to a solid. This proved the existence of a solid
inner core.

Meteorites, space rocks that crash to Earth, also provide clues about Earth’s
core. Most meteorites are fragments of asteroids, rocky bodies that orbit
the sun between Mars and Jupiter. Asteroids formed about the same time,
and from about the same material, as Earth. By studying iron-rich chondrite
meteorites, geoscientists can get a peek into the early formation of our
solar system and Earth’s early core.

In the lab, the most valuable tool for studying forces and reactions at the
core is the diamond anvil cell. Diamond anvil cells use the hardest substance
on Earth (diamonds) to simulate the incredibly high pressure at the core.
The device uses an x-ray laser to simulate the core’s temperature. The laser
is beamed through two diamonds squeezing a sample between them.

Complex computer modeling has also allowed scientists to study the core.
In the 1990s, for instance, modeling beautifully illustrated the geodynamo—
complete with pole flips.