LABORATORY MANUAL

18MEL77 DESIGN LAB

AY 2021-2022

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Adjacent to Bangalore Baptist Hospital
Hebbal, Bengaluru-560024
 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechanical Engineering

LABORATORY CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ____________________________________

bearing USN _____________________________of _______________semester

and __________________section has satisfactorily completed the course of

experiments in DESIGN LAB, code 18MEL77 prescribed by the Visvesvaraya

Technological University, Belagavi of this Institute for the Academic year 2021 -

2022.

MARKS

Maximum Marks Marks Obtained

Signature of the Faculty In-Charge Head of the Department

 PREFACE

Mechanical Design is the process by which resources is converted into useful mechanical
forms, or the mechanisms so as to obtain useful output from the machines in the desired form
as per the customer needs. The Design Laboratory contributes to educate the undergraduate
students of 7th semester B.E, VTU Belagavi in the field of Mechanical Engineering.

The objectives of this laboratory are to impart practical knowledge on analysis of mechanisms
for the specified type of motion in a machine. It also focuses on practical study of static and
dynamic forces for balancing of rotating masses. With the study of vibrations and degrees of
freedom for mechanical systems, undamped longitudinal and torsional vibrations can be well
understood. Stress and strain analysis of several materials is understood using photoelasticity
and strain rosettes. Pressure distribution of journal bearing is also understood.

Demonstration exercises are provided to understand machine kinematics and dynamics such as
governors, gyroscopes, balancing machines and universal vibration facilities. Various
experiments are made to calibrate photoelastic materials using photoelasticity.

Harish H
 Vision
To be a Centre of Excellence in Mechanical Engineering education and interdisciplinary
research to confront real world societal problems with professional ethics.

Mission of the Department

M1 - To promote the frontiers of pedagogy amongst students and develop new paradigms in
research.

M2 - To develop products, processes, and technologies for the benefit of the society in
collaboration with industry and commerce.

M3 - To mold young minds and build a comprehensive personality by nurturing strong

professionals with human ethics through interaction with the alumni, experts from academia /
industry, research organizations, higher study institutions and area experts
 PO's
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
PEO's and PSO's

PEO1: Apply fundamental Basic Science and Computer aided technology to solve problems
encountered in all streams of Mechanical Engineering and beyond like Robotics, Nano science
and Computational Fluid Dynamics.

PEO2: Demonstrate professionalism and accountability by applying their technical skills and
knowledge; across the spectrum of scientific disciplines in Additive Manufacturing, Digital
Mechatronics thereby supporting local and global societies.

PEO3: Work ethically both as an individual and as a team member, eventually becoming
leaders in various domains such as entrepreneurship, education, and administration.

PSO1: Apply concepts and principles from Applied Mechanics to design, develop and evaluate
Mechanical component or systems including Robotics drives for a specified purpose using
computational tools.

PSO2: Create Mechanical systems using energy conversion edifices governing laws of
Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer and Fluid Power and Computation Fluid Dynamics along with
their embedded controllers as per requirements and specifications.

PSO3: Utilizing the knowledge and learning of materials and manufacturing and Nano
sciences to design, plan and monitor production operations in an industry emphasizing
Additive Manufacturing, Digital Mechatronics, Total Quality, Managerial aspects in
improvement of life cycle of a product / system keeping environmental considerations
Lab Layout
 DO's and DONT's

DO’s

 Ensure your presence in the laboratory 5 minutes before the commencement of lab.
 Lab uniform and shoes should be worn while working on the laboratory experiments.
 Identity card must be brought whenever you are coming for lab sessions.
 One should own all the necessary stationaries, calculator, observation and record note books
etc., individually while coming for lab sessions.
 Before starting laboratory experiments follow all written and verbal instructions carefully.
 Please follow instructions precisely as instructed by your instructor.
 Experiments should be performed only in batches as allocated by the faculty in-charge.
 Perform only those experiments authorised by the instructor / in-charge.
 Documentation of readings / results should be made then and there in the observation note
book.
 Once the readings / results are approved by the in-charge, the same has to be recorded in the
record note book.
 Every experiment has to be signed by the in-charge before commencement of the next lab
session.
 Follow 5S (Sort, Set in order, Shine, Standardize, Sustain) wherever it is applicable in the
laboratory.
 Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the laboratory.
 Strict discipline has to be maintained during the laboratory hours.

DONT’s
 Borrow stationary, calculator, note books etc.,
 Wear identity cards, bracelets, wrist watches etc., while performing the experiments.
 Switch ON the experimental setup, unless it is verified & approved by your supervisor.
 Leave the experiments unattended while in progress.
 Crowd around the equipment or experimental setup.
 Leave machinery / equipment switched ON once after observations are made.
 Wear neck ties or loose turn clothing of any kind.
 Use mobile phones inside the lab.
 Eat or drink inside the lab.
 Syllabus

DESIGN LAB
Subject Code : 18MEL77 CIE :40
Teaching Hours /Week (L: T:P): 0:2:2 SEE:60
Credits : 02 Exam Hours :03

PART-A

(1) Determination of natural frequency, logarithmic decrement, damping ratio and damping
coefficient in a single degree of freedom vibrating systems (longitudinal and torsional).
(2) Balancing of rotating masses

(3) Determination of critical speed of a rotating shaft

(4) Determination of equilibrium speed, sensitiveness, power and effort of Porter/Proell
/Hartnel Governor.

PART-B

(5) Determination of Fringe constant of Photo-elastic material using.

a) Circular disc subjected to diametral compression.
b) Pure bending specimen (four-point bending.
(6) Determination of stress concentration using Photo-elasticity for simple components like
plate with a hole under tension or bending, circular disk with circular hole under
compression, 2D Crane hook
(7) Determination of Pressure distribution in Journal bearing
(8) Determination of Principal Stresses and strains in a member subjected to combined
loading using Strain
(9) Rosettes. Determination of stresses in Curved beam using strain gauge.

Conduct of Practical Examination:

1. All laboratory experiments are to be included for practical examination.
2. Breakup of marks and the instructions printed on the cover page of answer script to be
strictly adhered by the examiners.
3. Students can pick one experiment from the questions lot prepared by the examiners.

Scheme of Examination:
One question from Part A: 40 marks
One question from Part B: 40 Marks
Viva voce: 20 Marks
Total: 100 Marks
 CO's and CLO's

18MEL77 DESIGN LAB

COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

Compute the natural frequency of the free and forced vibration of single
CO1
degree freedom systems, critical speed of shafts.

CO2 Carry out balancing of rotating masses.

CO3 Analyse the governor characteristics.

CO4 Determine stresses in disk, beams, plates and hook using photo elastic bench.

CO5 Determination of Pressure distribution in Journal bearing

Analyse the stress and strains using strain gauges in compression and bending
CO6
test and stress distribution in curved beams.

COURSE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

To understand the concepts of natural frequency, logarithmic decrement,
1. damping and damping
ratio.

2. To understand the techniques of balancing of rotating masses.

3. To verify the concept of the critical speed of a rotating shaft.

4. To illustrate the concept of stress concentration using Photo elasticity.

To appreciate the equilibrium speed, sensitiveness, power and effort of a

5.
Governor
To illustrate the principles of pressure development in an oil film of a
6.
hydrodynamic journal bearing

Lab In-charge HoD/Mechanical

 CO's and PO’S Mapping

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

CO 1 2 “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“

CO 2 1 2 “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“

CO 3 2 “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“

CO 4 1 “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“

CO 5 2 “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“

CO 6 2 “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ “-“ 1 “-“ “-“

AVG
1.6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
VALUE
 List of Experiments

Experiment Description Page

No. No.
1 Spring Mass System Un-damped Free Longitudinal Vibrations 1-4
2 Balancing of Rotation Masses 5-8
3 Whrling of Shafts 9-13
4 Performance of Porter Governor 14-17
5 Photoelasticity (Circular Disc) 18-28
6 Determination of Stress Concentration Factor 29-32
7 Photoelasticity (Pure Bending) 33-37
8 Calibration of Photoelastic Material Under Tensile Load 38-41
9 Journal Bearing 42-46
10 Strain Rosettes (Rectangular Rosette) 47-50
Viva Questions
Blooms Level 1-Remembering 51

Blooms Level 2-Understanding 52

Blooms Level 3-Applying 52

Blooms Level 4-Analysing 53
Blooms Level 5-Evaluating 54

Blooms Level 6-Creating 54

 LAB PERFORMANCE EVALUATION SHEET
Department of
:……………………………………………………………………………………………
Name of the Student
:………………………………………………………….USN:…………………………
Lab:………………………………………………………Course
Code:…………………….Sem:…………….
CIE-I (Max. Marks : 20)
Sl. Exp. Name of the Total Signature
Date 1 2 3 4
No. No. Experiment/Model Marks Staff Student
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Average Marks
1.
Conduction / Writing the Program (08 Marks)
2.
Specimen Calculation / Execution (04 Marks)
3.
Results and Plotting the Graph (03 Marks)
4.
Record Writing (05 Marks)
CIE-II (Max. Marks: 20)
Viva -
Procedure Results and
Date of Conduction voce Total Staff
and write up Graph
Lab CIE (05 Marks) (05 Marks Signature
(06 Marks) (04 Marks)
Marks)

Marks Obtained
CIE – I CIE – II
Student Staff
Record and Performance Lab Test and Viva Total
Signature Signature
(20 Marks) (20 Marks)

HoD/Mechanical
Design Lab 18MEL77

Experiment No.: 01 Date:

SPRING MASS SYSTEM

UNDAMPED FREE LONGITUDINAL VIBRATIONS

AIM:
To study the longitudinal vibration of the spring mass system and to determine the natural
frequency.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Stop Watch, Measuring Scale, Weights.

THEORY:-
Components in a vibrating system have three properties of interest. They are: mass
(weight), elasticity (springiness) and damping (dissipation). Most physical objects have all
three properties, but in many cases one or two of those properties are relatively insignificant
and can be ignored (for example, the damping of a block of steel, or in some cases, the mass
of a spring). The property of mass (weight) causes an object to resist acceleration. It also
enables an object to store energy, in the form of velocity (kinetic) or height (potential).
The property of elasticity enables an object to store energy in the form of deflection. A
common example is a spring, but any piece of metal has the property of elasticity. The size of
the deflection depends on the size of the applied force and the dimensions and properties of
the piece of metal. The amount of deflection caused by a specific force determines the "spring
rate" of the metal piece. The property of damping enables an object to DISSIPATE energy,
usually by conversion of kinetic (motion) energy into heat energy.
The resonant frequency of an object (or system) is the frequency at which the amplitude of
vibration is maximum. Increase in mass property or decrease the elasticity property of a
system, the resonant frequency will decrease according to the relationship:

√ (1)

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Design Lab 18MEL77

According to energy method:

''
Differential equation for SHM: x nx 0

Comparing (1) and (2) we get: √

Where "k" is the spring rate/spring stiffness and "m" is the mass value.

√ √

Time period, T=

Natural Frequency: = = √

Undammed vibration: If the vibratory system has no damper system i.e. if there is no reduction
in amplitude over every cycle of operation then such a vibration is known as undamped
vibration. Figure 1.1 shows simple spring mass system.

Free vibration: when no external force acts on the body after giving it an initial displacement,
then the body is said to be under free vibration.

Longitudinal vibration: when the particles of the system vibrate parallel to the axis of the
system then the vibration is known as longitudinal vibration.

Fig.1.1: Spring mass system

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Design Lab 18MEL77

PROCEDURE:
1. Hook the spring whose natural frequency has to be determined.
2. Determine the length of the spring at no load condition (no extra mass on hanger).
3. Add weights and measure the corresponding deflection of the spring.
4. For oscillations, stretch the spring for some distance and leave.
5. Note down the time taken for say 5, 10 or 15 oscillations.
6. Determine the time period and natural frequency.
7. Plot the graph of Load Vs Deflection.
8. Repeat the Procedure for different weights.
9. Compare the experimental values with theoretical valves and find the percentage error.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Motor speed N = 6rpm
Drum diameter d = 72 mm
Mass m = 5 kg

OBSERVATION:-
1 Mass of hanger, mh
2 Initial Length of Spring, L

TABULAR COLUMN:-
Table: 1.1: Error estimation of spring mass system

Mass Final Time taken for 10

Sl. Deflection Stiffness Texp Fexp Fth %
attached Length oscillations
No. ꝭ= L1-L(m) K (N/m) (seconds) (Hz) (Hz) error
(kg) L1(m) (seconds)

FORMULAE USED
1.

deflection
2. Experimental time period, Texp = t/n(seconds)
Where t = time for n oscillations(seconds)

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Design Lab 18MEL77

n = number of oscillations

3. Experimental frequency, Fexp = 1/Texp(Hz)

4.Theoretical time period, Tth=2πf sec

Where M = mass of the body suspended from the spring (mh + Mass attached) (kg)
5. Theoretical Frequency, Fth = 1/Tth (Hz)

CALCULATIONS

GRAPH:
Draw load vs deflection graph

RESULTS:

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

CONCLUSION: The natural Frequency of system is calculated experimentally and comparedwith

theoretically.

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Design Lab 18MEL77

Experiment No.:02 Date:

Balancing of Rotation Masses

Aim: To determine the position of counter balancing weights in the rotating mass system.

THEORY:-

The apparatus basically consists of a steel shaft mounted in ball bearings in a stiff rectangular
main frame. As set of four blocks of different weights are provided and may be clamped in any
position on the shaft; they can also be easily detached from the shaft. A disc carrying a circular
protractor scale is fitted to one side of the rectangular frame, shaft carries a disc and rim of this
disc is grooved to take a light string provided with two cylindrical metal containers of exactly the
same weight.

A scale is fitted to the lower member of the main frame and when used in conjunction with the
circular protractor scale, allows the exact longitudinal and angular position of each adjustable
block to be determined. The shaft is driven by a 230 volts single phase 50 cycles electric motor,
mounted under the main frame, through a round section rubber belt.

For static Balancing of individual weights the main frame is rigidly attached to support frame by
nut and bolts and in this position the motor driving belt is removed.

For dynamic balancing of the rotating mass system the main frame is suspended from the
support frame by two short links such that the main frame and the supporting frame are in the
same plane.

Procedure:
Static Balancing:
For finding out 'mr' during static balancing proceed as follows: -

1. Remove the belt and attach the main frame to support frame rigidly and right angles as
shown in figure.

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Design Lab 18MEL77

2. Screw the Combined hook to the pulley with groove (thus pulley is different than the belt pulley)
3. Attach the cord-ends of the pans to the above hook.
4. Attach block No.1 to the shaft at any convenient position.
5. Put steel balls in one of the pans to make the block horizontal.
6. Number of ‘N’ balls gives the ‘mr’ value of block 1.
7. Repeat the procedure for other three blocks.

Dynamic Balancing:

It is necessary to level the machine before the experiment. Using the values of ‘mr’ obtained as
above, if the angular positions and planes of rotation of two or possibly three of the blocks are
known, the student can calculate the position of the other block/blocks for the balance of the
complete system. From the calculations, the student finally clamps all the blocks into the shaft in
their appropriate positions. Replace the motor belt, transfer the main frame to its hanging position
and then by running the motor up to certain speed to verify the calculations are correct and the
blocks are perfectly balanced. If, by chance the student goes wrong in his calculations, then the
fact that the blocks are not dynamically balanced is at once revealed by the vibration of the
suspended assembly.

1. Determine the weight of each block.

2. A force polygon is to be drawn to determine the angular positions of block-3 and 4.
3. To calculate the longitudinal positions of block-3 and 4, let the distance from block-1 be m
and l respectively.
4. Plot the couple polygon and determine the unknown distances.
5. After knowing the distances and the angular positions, fix the blocks to those positions
and check whether the shaft vibrates or not by running it.

To statically and dynamically balance a four plane rotating mass system, block-2 is to be
positioned at 600 anticlockwise and 150mm along the shaft from block-1. Determine the angular
and longitudinal positions of block -3 and 4 for perfect balance.

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Design Lab 18MEL77

Tabular column:
Table: 2.1: Balancing weights in the rotating mass system

Couple polygon,
Block Force polygon, Distance from the reference
‘mrl’ in gm
No. ‘mr’ in gm-mm plane, ‘l’ in mm
mm2
1

. •
COM81N D
• II e
I

, HOOi<..,

Fig.2.1: Static Balancing Apparatus, ' . • •

Weight
right angle
j ,,,,,-gauqe

Fig.2.2: Dynamic Balancing Apparatus

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Design Lab 18MEL77

I
•

-
r
N>o
Fig. 2.3 Force Polygon

\
\

Fig. 2.4 Couple Polygon

RESULTS:

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

CONCLUSION:
Static and dynamic balancing of shaft is successfully made using static and dynamic balancing of
machine.

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Design lab Manual 18MEL77

Experiment No.:03 Date:

WHRLING OF SHAFTS
AIM
To determine the critical speed or whirling speed of a rotating shaft and to verify the value
theoretically

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Whirling of shaft apparatus (rigid frame with motor, supportingends), Shaft, Tachometer,
Vernier caliper, Measuring scale.

THEORY:
When a shaft rotates, it may well go into transverse oscillations. If the shaft is out of balance,
the resulting centrifugal force will induce the shaft to vibrate. When the shaft rotates at a speed
equal to the natural frequency of transverse oscillations, this vibration becomes large and
shows up as a whirling of the shaft. The angular velocity of the shaft at which this occurs is
called a critical speed or whirling speed. It also occurs at multiples of the resonant speed. At a
critical speed, the shaft deflection becomes excessive and may cause permanent deformation
or structural damage. This can be very damaging to heavy rotary machines such as turbine
generator sets and the system must be carefully balanced to reduce this effect and designed to
have a natural frequency different to the speed of rotation. When starting or stopping such
machinery, the critical speeds must be avoided to prevent damage to the bearings and turbine
blades.

Machine components at a standstill may behave very differently when they are moving, even
at relatively low speeds. A solid shaft able to support a hundred times its own weight plus the
weight of the components mounted on it may, when rotating at certain speeds, bend and
cause buckling and failure. However if the speed is rapidly increased before such deleterious
effects occur then the shaft is seen to restabilize and run true again until at another specific
speeda double bow is produced.

Whirling is usually associated with fast-rotating shafts. When a shaft rotates it is subjected to
radial or centrifugal forces, which cause the shaft to deflect from its rest position. These

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Design lab Manual 18MEL77

centrifugal forces are unavoidable, since material in homogeneities and assembly.

Difficulties ensure that the center of gravity of the shaft or its attached masses cannot coincide
with the axis of rotation. Drunkenly first investigated the centrifugal forces involved and
determined that the only restabilizing or restoring force was that due to the elastic properties or
stiffness of the shaft. Hence, he was able to deduce the speed at which the shaft would suffer an
infinite deflection due to whirling. Figure 3.1 shows the schematic representation of whirling of
shaft system.

When the speed of rotation is increased the centrifugal force also increases and so does the
restoring force. Below the critical speeds, the restoring forces increase with increasing shaft
deflection faster than the centrifugal forces, so the deflection is held in check. At the critical
speeds, the restoring forces increase at the same rate as the unbalance forces, so they cancel each
other out. Shaft deflection is unchecked and the shaft behaves as though it is very flexible. Above
the critical speeds the unbalance forces hold sway, and the shaft rotates about the center of mass of
the assembly (which is very close to the center of the shaft).

Fig. 3.1: Schematic diagram of whirling of shaft

Consider a shaft of negligible mass carrying a rotor as shown below figure 3.2 (a).Point G is the
cg of the rotor, point S is on the shaft axis and point O is on the axis of rotation. Figure 3.2 (b)
shown the position of G when the shaft is rotating.

Fig. 3.2 (a) Shaft is stationary (b) Shaft is rotating

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Design lab Manual 18MEL77

Let m=Mass of rotor=W\g

e=Eccentricity
y=Additional deflection due to centrifugal force.
Ծ= Static deflection under the load
ω=Angular speed of rotor

W=Weight of rotor =mg

K=Stiffness of shaft

PROCEDURE:

1. Choose the required size of the shaft.

2. Mount the shaft ends on the frame to obtain the desired condition.
3. Start the motor; Increase the speed by varying voltage.
4. The amplitude of vibrations in lateral direction starts and mode shape is observed.
5. When the first mode appears the corresponding speed is measured using Tachometer.
6. To observe second mode shape the speed is increased further.
7. When the second mode appears the corresponding speed is again measured using Tachometer.
8. The theoretical and experimental frequencies are determined and tabulated.

FORMULAE USED:

1. Moment of Inertia, I = m4

Where d = diameter of the shaft

2. Weight of the shaft, W = A x L x x g (N)

Where A = Area of the shaft

L = length of the shaft

3. Angular speed (ω)=2

Where i = modes (i = 1,2,3, ------ )

a. Fixed-Fixed: K1 = 3.56 & K2 = 8.82

b. Fixed-Free: K1 = 2.46& K2= 7.96

4. Theoretical critical speed, Nth = 60 (rpm)

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OBSERVATIONS:

1. End condition =
2. Shaft Material =
3. Diameter of the shaft, d =
4. Length of the Shaft, L =
5. Density of the Shaft material, =
6. shaft material, E =

TABULAR COLUMN:

Table 3.1: Error estimation of critical speed in whirling of shaft

Sl. Experimental Critical Angular speed, Theoretical critical

Mode % error
No. speed, Nexp (rpm) (rad/sec) speed, Nth (rpm)

CALCULATIONS:

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RESULTS:

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

CONCLUSION:
The speed of the shaft for different modes is determined and verified theoretically.

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Design lab Manual 18MEL77

Experiment No.04 Date:

PERFORMANCE OF PORTER GOVERNOR

AIM
To determine the controlling force and sensitivity of the porter governor

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Porter governor, Tachometer, Dimmer set

THEORY:

The function of governor is to increase the supply of working fluid going to the prime-
mover when the load on the prime-mover increases and to decrease the supply when the load
decreases so as to keep the speed of the prime-mover almost at constant speed at different
loads.
When there is change in load, variation in speed also takes place then governor
operates a regulatory control and adjusts the fuel supply to maintain the mean speed
nearly constant.
Therefore, the governor automatically regulates through linkages, the energy supply to the
engine as demanded by variation of load so that the engine speed is maintained nearly
constant.The governors may, broadly, be classified as
1. Centrifugal governors, and
2. Inertia governors.

PORTER GOVERNOR: -

Is a modification of a watt”s governor with central load attached to the sleeve as shown in
Figure 4.1(a). The load moves up and down the central spindle. This additional downward
force increases the speed of revolution required to enable the balls to rise to any predetermined
level. Figure 4.1 (b) represents the force diagram of each ball of portergovernor.

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Design lab Manual 18MEL77

Fig. 4.1: (a) Porter governor (b) Force representation

PROCEDURE:

1. The porter governor assembly is mounted over the spindle and the motor is started.
2. The speed is gradually increased to get sleeve displacement (say 20 mm).
3. The speed of the governor at corresponding displacement is measured using tachometer.
4. The procedure is repeated for different displacements.
5. The readings are noted and tabulated.

FORMULAE USED:
1. Radius of rotation,

2. Controlling force,

ω=
3. Frictional force,

4. Sensitivity

N=

N=

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Design lab Manual 18MEL77

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Radius of rotation at rest, r =

2. Length of vertical arm, x =
3. Length of horizontal arm, y =
4. Center load, M =
5. Mass of balls, m =

TABULAR COLUMN:

Table 4.1: Controlling and frictional force of porter governor

Sl. Speed, N Lift, h Radius, Controlling Frictional
No (rpm) (mm) rn (mm) force, Fc (N) force, Ff (N)

CALCULATIONS:

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Design lab Manual 18MEL77

RESULTS:

The frictional and controlling forces of

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

CONCLUSION:
The frictional force and sensitivity of the porter governor is determined.

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Design lab Manual 18MEL77

Experiment No.05 Date:

PHOTOELASTICITY (CIRCULAR DISC)

AIM:
To calibrate the given photo elastic material using circular disc under compression.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Circular disc of photo elastic material (Epoxy resin), universal loading frame, polar scope.

THEORY:
Photo elasticity is an experimental technique for stress and strain analysis that is particularly
useful for members having complicated geometry, complicated loading conditions, orboth. For
such cases, analytical methods (that is, strictly mathematical methods) may be cumbersome or
impossible, and analysis by an experimental approach maybe more appropriate.
While the virtues of experimental solution of static, elastic, two-dimensional problems are
now largely overshadowed by analytical methods, problems involving three-dimensional
geometry,multiple-component assemblies, dynamic loading and inelastic material behavior
are usually more amenable to experimental analysis.
The name photo elasticity reflects the nature of this experimental method: photo implies the
use of light rays and optical techniques, while elasticity depicts the study of stresses and
deformations in elastic bodies. Through the photo elastic-coating technique, its domain has
extended to inelastic bodies, too.

PHOTOELASTIC BEHAVIOR -The photo elastic method is based upon a unique property
of some transparent materials, in particular, certain plastics. Consider a model of some
structural part made from a photo elastic material. When the model is stressed and a ray of
light enters along one of the directions of principal stress, a remarkable thing happens. The
light is divided into two component waves, each with its plane of vibration (plane of
polarization) parallel to one of the remaining two principal planes (planes on which shear
stress is zero). Furthermore, the light travels along these two paths with different velocities,
which depend upon the magnitudesof the remaining two principal stresses in the material.
The incident light is resolved into components having planes of vibration parallel to the

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directions of the principal stresses s1 and s2. Since these waves traverse the body with
different velocities, the waves emerge with a new phase relationship, or relative retardation.2
specifically, the relative retardation is the difference between the number of wave cycles
experienced by thetwo rays traveling inside the body.
Isoclinics are the locus of the points in the specimen along which the principal stresses are in
the same direction. It is locus of the point at which the principal plane is inclined to the same
extent with respect to reference direction.
Isochromatics are the locus of the points along which the difference in the first and second
principal stress remains the same. Thus they are the lines which join the points with equal
maximum shear stress magnitude.
Plane polariscope
The setup consists of two linear polarizer and a light source. The light source can either emit
monochromatic light or white light depending upon the experiment. First the light is passed
through the first polarizer which converts the light into plane polarized light. The apparatus is
set up in such a way that this plane polarized light then passes through the stressed specimen.
This light then follows, at each point of the specimen, the direction of principal stress at that
point. The light is then made to pass through the analyzer and we finally get the fringe pattern.
The fringe pattern in a plane polariscope setup consists of both the isochromatics and
the isoclinics. The isoclinics change with the orientation of the polariscope while there is no
change inthe isochromatics.
Position of quarter wave plates at D-D using the spring loaded pin
Circular polariscope
In a circular polariscope setup two quarter-wave plates are added to the experimental setup of
the plane polariscope. The first quarter-wave plate is placed in between the polarizer and the
specimen and the second quarter-wave plate is placed between the specimen and the
analyzer. The effect of adding the quarter-wave plates is that we get circularly polarized light.
The basic advantage of a circular polariscope over a plane polariscope is that in a circular
polariscope setup we only get the isochromatics and not the isoclinics. This eliminates the
problem of differentiating between the isoclinics and the isochromatics.
Photoelastic method of stress analysis is based on optical fringe patterns formed when a
transparent model of a member is loaded in the pressure of polarized light. An analysis of

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these fringe patterns yield the stress in the model which are then related to the prototype.

In circular polariscope there are four possible arrangements as given below table 5.1
Table 5.1: Quarter wave plate arrangement configuration
Arrangement Quarter wave plate Polarizer & analyzer Field
A Crossed Crossed Dark
B Crossed Parallel Light
C Parallel Crossed Light
D Parallel Parallel Dark
Only A and B arrangements are recommended.
A little consideration of optical effects produced by different optical elements will show that:
a) Plane polariscope arrangement is suitable for obtaining isoclinics.
b) Circular polariscope arrangement is suitable for obtaining Isochromatics. With dark field
arrangement (A),the order of Isochromatics will correspond to a retardation of intergral
order of wavelength: i.e by using circular polariscope arrangement corresponding
etc.
c) With light field arrangement, the order of Isochromatics fringes will correspond to
half).
Thus combining dark and light field arrangement we can get all points of the field nearest to ½
orders of fringes.
Effect of stressed model in circular polariscope (Dark field, arrangement A)
When a stressed photoelastic model is placed in the field of a circular polariscope with its
normal coincident with z-axis of the polariscope, optical effects differ somewhat from those
obtained in a plane polariscope. The use of a circular polariscope is more widely used than the
plane polariscope. To illustrate this effect, consider the stressed model in the circular
polariscope shown in the figure 5.1

Fig. 5.1: Circular polariscope

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Effects of a stressed model in a plane Polariscope

It has been established that the principal stress difference can be determined in a
two dimensional model if N is measured at each point in the model. Also, it was stated that
the optical axes of the model coincide with the principal stress directions. These two facts can
be effectively utilized once a method to measure the optical properties of a stressed model has
been established.
Consider first the case of the plane stressed model inserted into the field of a plane
polariscopewith its normal coincident with the axis of the polariscope, as illustrated in the
fig 5.2. Notethat the principal- stress direction at the point under consideration in the model
makes an angle with the axis of polarization of the polarizer.

Fig. 5.2: A stressed photoelastic model in plane polariscope

Circular disc under diametrical compression (Calibration model)

Fig. 5.3: Circular disc under diametrical compression

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Tarday’s Method
This method is used for measuring fractional order by compensation at any desired point. There
is every possibility that your point of interest may not be exactly on a integral fringe. In such
case fractional fringe order may be found out by this method.
Determination of principle stress difference at a point:
This can be found by using the relation
Nf

N=Fringe order at a point

f nge value
h= Thickness of photoelastic model

Fig.5.4: Lower and higher fringe order

PROCEUDRE:
1. Load the circular disc in universal loading frame, under diametrical compression as
shown in figure 5.5.
2. The distance of X & Y must be measured initially.
3. Apply light load on plain polariscope (D-D) arrangement.
4. Observe the isoclinic fringe pattern and note the isoclinic reading at the center of the
disc which is automatically zero.
5. test.
6. Load the specimen gradually and set to circular polariscope (M-M) position.
7. Use white light and Observe the isoclinic fringe pattern at the center of the disc.
8. This can be done by rotating the analyzer either clock wise or anticlock wise to
enable the coinciding at the center from lower or higher fringe order.
9. Determine the average fringe order.
10. Repeat the above procedure for different loads.

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OBSERVATION:-
a. Distance X
b. Distance Y
c. Diameter of the disc d

Fig.5.5: Experimental setup of disc under compression

TABULAR COLUMN:
Table 5.2: Determination of material fringe order
Load on
Fractional Fringe at Material Fringe
Load model in
center Order Average
applied Kg
= Kg/cm f
Lowest Higher Average
Kg/cm
load cell W .X Fringe Fringe Fringe
P=
Y Order Order Order
4
8
10
15

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FORMULA:

Material Fringe constant

8P
f in Kg/cm
DN

CALCULATIONS :

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RESULTS:
The material and model fringe value

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

CONCLUSIONS:-
Circular disc model is easy to prepare and easy to load. Hence it is suitable for calculation of
photoelastic model material. The avg. value of f calculated is in good arrangements with
values specified in the text for epoxy category.
OR

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The stress distribution along the horizontal diameter in a circular disc under compression is given by

Fig. 5.6: Stress distribution of circular disc under compression

Circular disc subjected to compressive load

x = 1 = 2P/ dh[(d2-4x2)/(d2+4x2)] 2
y = 2 = -2P/ dh[4d4/(d2+4x2)2-1]
At the center i.e. x=0
1 =2P/ dh and 2 = -6P/ dh
1 - 2 = 8P/ dh (1)
From stress optic law for Two dimensional stress system
1 - 2 = Nf/h (2)
Equating eqs (1) and (2)
Nf/h=8P/ dh
f = (8/ d) (P/N)
= (8/ d) ( P/ N) = N/mm/fringe (3)

By knowing the loads required for producing different number of fringes, a graph of P Vs N is
plotted and the slope of this linear graph gives ( P/ N) which is used to estimate fringe
constant (f). This is referred as Calibration.

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SPECIFICATIONS:
Diameter of the Specimen :d= mm
Thickness of the Specimen :h= mm
Distance from the fulcrum to the Applied load :Y= mm
Distance from fulcrum to the center of the specimen : X= mm
TABULAR COLUMN:
Table 5.3: Determination of material fringe constant using slope method
Fringe Material fringe
Sl. Load Effective Slope of line
Order constant
No applied (W) load (P) ( P/ N)
(N) (f )
Kg N N N/fringe N/mm/fringe

GRAPH: P v/s N (linear)

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:

Effective load P = W x Y/X = N (By taking moments)

Slope from graph = P/ N = N/fringe
Material fringe constant (f ) = (8/ d) ( P/ N) = /mm/fringe.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The material fringe value of the

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

CONCLUSION:
The material fringe value of a given photoelastic material is determined.

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Experiment No. 06 Date:

DETERMINATION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR

AIM: To determine the stress concentration for a circular disc with a circular hole at the
Center under diametral compression.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Circular Polariscope with Accessories (Photoelastic Bench),

Photoelastic model in the form of a circular disc with central hole, Weights varies
50gms to10kg.
THEORY: The stress distribution along the horizontal diameter in a circular disc under
compression as shown in figure 6.1.

Fig. 6.1: Stress distribution of circular disc under compression

Circular disc with central hole subjected to pure compression

x = 1 = 2P/ dh[(d2-4x2)/(d2+4x2)]2
y = 2 = -2P/ dh[4d4/(d2+4x2) 2-1]
At the center i.e.at x=0
1 =2P/ dh and 2 = -6P/ dh

1 - 2 = 8P/ dh ..................................... (1)

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For circular disc with central hole

1 - 2 = 8P/ (D-d)h..................................... (2)
From the stress optic law for Two dimensional stress system
1 - 2 = Nf/h ..................................... (2)

Equating eqs (1) and (2)

Nf/h=8P/ (D-d)h
f = [8/ (D-d)] [P/N]
= [8/ (D-d)] [ P/ N] N/mm/fringe ................ (3)

Estimating the fringe value is called Calibration.

EXPERIMENT SETUP: The arrangement of loading as shown in figure 6.2.
Circular disc with central hole subjected to diametral compression

Fig. 6.2: Experimental setup of circular disc with circular hole

PROCEDURE:
1. Hang a pan to the loading bar for placing weights for loading so as to make the lever
horizontal.
2. Place the model between the loading arm and the bottom surface of the frame.
3. Measure the distances from the fulcrum to the specimen (l1) and fulcrum to the load (l).
4. Observe for each fractional load placed on the pan, the specimen through the analyzer.
5. Determine the effective loads required for getting integral fringe orders (0,1,2,3.) at the
centre of the circular disk and tabulate.
6. Draw the graph between effective load Vs fringe pattern (linear graph)

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7. Calculate the slope of the line.

8. Calculate material fringe constant by using the equation (3)

OBSERVATION:
Diameter of the specimen: D= mm
Diameter of the hole: d= mm
Thickness of the specimen: h= mm

Distance from the fulcrum to the Applied load: Y= mm

Distance from fulcrum to the center of the specimen: X= mm
TABULAR COLUMN:
Table 6.1: Determination of material fringe constant
Load
Effective Slope of line Material fringe
Sl. Fringe applied
load (P) ( P/ N) constant (f )
No order (N) (W)
Kg N N N/fringe N/mm/fringe

GRAPH: P v/s N

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:
Effective load P = W x Y/X = N (By taking moments)
Slope from graph P/ N = N/fringe
Material fringe constant f = [8/ (D-d)] [ P/ N] N/mm/fringe.
Nominal stress nom = P/(D-d) h = N/mm2
Maximum induced stress max =Nf/h = N/mm2
Stress concentration factor K = max / nom =

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TABULAR COLUMN:
Table 6.2: Determination of stress concentration
Sl Fringe Nominal Max induced Stress
Load
No No stress ( nom) stress ( max) concentration (K )
1
2
3
4

RESULTS:
The material

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

CONCLUSION:
The material fringe value and stress concentration factor for a given photoelastic material is
determined

Note: Colour Code to determine the fringes

Table 6.3: Colour code
Colour Fringe No. (Approx.)
Black/Brown 0
Blue 1
Rose red 2
Green(light) Fringe No. 3
Orange red 3

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Experiment No. 07 Date:

PHOTOELASTICITY (PURE BENDING)

AIM:
To calibrate photo-elastic material model by using a beam subjected to pure bending (four point
bending).
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Universal loading frame, polariscope, beam model prepared out of photoelastic material.
THEORY:
Photoelasticity is an experimental technique for stress and strain analysis that is particularly
useful for members having complicated geometry, complicated loading conditions, or both.
For such cases, analytical methods (that is, strictly mathematical methods) may be
cumbersome or impossible, and analysis by an experimental approach maybe more
appropriate.
While the virtues of experimental solution of static, elastic, two-dimensional problems are
now largely overshadowed by analytical methods, problems involving three-dimensional
geometry, multiple-component assemblies, dynamic loading and inelastic material behavior
are usually more amenable to experimental analysis.
Isoclinics are the locus of the points in the specimen along which the principal stresses are in
the same direction. It is locus of the point at which the principal plane is inclined to the same
extent with respect to reference direction.
Isochromatics are the locus of the points along which the difference in the first and second
principal stress remains the same. Thus they are the lines which join the points with equal
maximum shear stress magnitude.

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Fig. 7.1: Beam in 4-point bending

EXPERIMENT SETUP:
The arrangement of loading as shown in figure 7.2.

Fig. 7.2: Stressed model of a circular polariscope

PROCEDURE:
1. Hang a pan to the loading bar for placing weights for loading so as to make the lever
horizontal.

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2. Place the model between the loading arm and the bottom surface of the frame.
3. Measure the distances from the fulcrum to the specimen (l1 (l).
4. Observe for each fractional loads placed on the pan, the specimen through the analyzer.
5. Determine the effective loads required for getting integral fringe orders (0,1,2,3..) at the
centre of the circular disk and tabulate.
6. Draw the graph between effective load Vs fringe pattern (linear graph)
7. Calculate the slope of the line.
8. Calculate material fringe constant by using the equation (4)

OBSERVATION:
Width of the specimen :d = mm
Thickness of the specimen :h = mm
Distance from the fulcrum to the Applied load :Y = mm
Distance from fulcrum to the centre of the specimen :X = mm
Eccentricity (Distance between pt. of loading and supports) :e or L = mm

FORMULA USED:
The Bending stress in the rectangular specimen can be calculated by the formula using figure
7.3.

Fig. 7.3: Bending stress rectangular specimen

M
b y
I
Where Mb= Constant Bending moment =
y = Distance the outer most fiber from the neutral axis =
I = Moment of inertia about neutral axis =
3Pe
b
(1)
hd 2

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From stress optic law: ( 1 - 2) = Nf/h (2)

But 2 = 0 on the free boundary surface and 1 = b: b = Nf/h (3)
3Pe Nf
Equating equations (1) and (3):
hd2 h

TABULAR COLUMN:
Table 7.1: Determination of material fringe constant
Load applied Effective Slope of line Material fringe
Sl. Fringe order
(W) load (P) ( P/ N) constant (f )
No (N)
Kg N N N/fringe N/mm/fringe
1
2
3
4
5

GRAPH: P v/s N (linear)

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SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:

Effective load P = W x Y/X = N (By taking moments)

Slope from graph P/ N = N/fringe

RESULTS:

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

CONCLUSION:
a) Model of beam subjected to pure bending can be effectively used to calibrate the
photoelastic material
b) There is no need to change load from an value of load given a set of readings
c) Average f is calculated which is in close agreements with volume specified for
epoxy resins

Note:
We know that from theory of bending
M f MY
f
I Y I

MY
But
I
Nf
Also w.k.t
b

Nf MY
b I

MYb
f
IN

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Experiment No. 8 Date:

CALIBRATION OF PHOTOELASTIC MATERIAL UNDER TENSILE

LOAD

AIM:
To calibrate the Photoelastic material under tensile load.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Circular Polariscope with Accessories (Photoelastic Bench), Photoelastic model

(tensile specimen), Weights.
THEORY:

Fig.8.1: Tensile specimen of photoelastic model

The axial stress in the specimen(at the center) is given by

= P/bh
The specimen is in a plane state of stress with
1 = P/bh and 2 =0
1 - 2 = P/bh .......................... (1)
From stress optic law for Two dimensional stress system
1 - 2 = Nf/h ....................... (2)
Equating eqs (1) and (2)

Fringe value for a plate with a hole

Nf/h=P/bh
f = (1/b) * (P/N) N/mm/fringe (3)

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Estimating the fringe constant (f) is referred as Calibration.

PROCEDURE:
1. Hang a pan to the loading bar for placing weights for loading so as to make the
leverhorizontal.
2. Place the model between the loading arm and the bottom surface of the frame.
3. Measure the distances from the fulcrum to the specimen (l1 (l).
4. Observe for each fractional loads placed on the pan, the specimen through the analyzer.
5. Determine the effective loads required for getting integral fringe orders (0,1,2,3..) at
thecenter of the circular disk and tabulate.
6. Draw the graph between effective load vs fringe pattern(linear graph)
7. Calculate the slope of the line.
8. Calculate material fringe constant by using the equation(3)
EXPERIMENT SETUP: The arrangement of loading as shown in figure 8.2.

Fig.8.2: Experimental setup of photoelastic tensile specimen

OBSERVATION:
Width of the specimen :b= mm
Diameter of the hole :d= mm
Thickness of the specimen :h= mm
Distance from the fulcrum to the Applied load :Y= mm
Distance from fulcrum to the center of the : X= mm
specimen

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TABULAR COLUMN:
Table 8.1: Determination of material fringe constant
Load applied Effective Slope Material fringe
Sl. Fringe
(W) load (P) ( P/ N) constant (f )
No order (N)
Kgf N N N/fringe N/mm/fringe

GRAPH: P v/s N

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:

Effective load P = W x l/l1 = N (By taking moments)

Slope from graph = P/ N = N/fringe
1 P
Material fringe constant f N/mm/fringe.
b d N

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TABULAR COLUMN:
Table 8.2: Determination of material fringe constant
Sl Fringe Nominal Max induced Stress concentration
Load
No No stress ( nom) stress ( max) (K )
1
2
3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

CONCLUSION:
The material fringe value of the given photoelastic material is determined and graph of load
versus material fringe number is plotted and said to be linear.

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Experiment No. 9 Date:

JOURNAL BEARING
AIM:

To study the pressure distribution in a Journal bearing.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Journal bearing setup, Tachometer, weights and lubricating oil.

THEORY:

A Journal bearing supports a shaft and permits rotary motion. This cause wear of surfaces
due to friction between the contact surfaces and heat is generated, resulting in loss of
power. To minimize this, lubricating oil is introduced in the clearance between the journal
and bearing. Pressure developed in the oil film due to viscous force while the journal is
rotating and this separates the contact surfaces (lift the journal). The study of pressure
distribution and variables associated with the bearing and can be used for design purposes.
The operating characteristics such as load carrying capacity and coefficient of friction of a
full journal bearing will be discussed.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
It consists of a Journal and bearing assembly connected to a D.C. motor the motor is fixed on a
rigid support. The bearing carries a hook on which weights can be placed. Lubricating oil (SAE
40) is supplied to the bearing through the tubes from the oil tank, which is placed above the
bearing. The bearing has 16 tapping, 12 for radial and 5 (including one radial tap, which is
also in axial direction) for axial pressure distribution. These tapping are connected to flexible
tubes, which are supported vertically. These tubes form manometers for reading the pressure.
Each of the tubes is provided with an adjacent scale for measuring the head of the oil.

PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the oil tank with lubricating oil (SAE 40).
2. Drain out the air bubbles from all the manometer tubes on the manometer board as
well as from the inlet tubes.
3. Open the inlet valve, after some time note down the initial manometer reading.
4. Check and ensure that the dimmer stat is at zero position.

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5. Rotate the dimmer stat knob gradually till the desired speed is reached.
6. Run the setup at this speed, till the oil levels in all the manometer tubes are in steady state.
7. Note down the pressure of oil in all the manometer tubes and tabulate them.
8. Bring down the speed to zero and switch off the motor and the main supply.
9. The difference in manometer pressure at each tapping is plotted.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Diameter of the journal d= mm = m
Inside diameter of bearing D= mm = m
Bearing width l= mm = m
Speed of the journal N= rpm
Speed of the journal n =N/60 = rps
Lubricating Oil used = SAE 40
Viscosity of the oil around 400 = 150 x 10-3
Self-weight of the bearing W1 = 3.0 kg
Load on the shaft after applying a load wa W2 = W1+Wa
TABULAR COLUMN (RADIAL DIRECTION):
Table 9.1: Determination of pressure in radial direction
Absolute pressure head
Pressure developed
while running the motor.
Supply p = pa-ps (Cm )
Sl Tube Position of pa (Cm)
head
N No the tap With
Ps(Cm ) With Self With Self With Load
o Additional
Weight Weight W2
Load
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09

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10
11
12

TABULAR COLUMN (AXIAL DIRECTION)

Table 9.2: Determination of pressure in axial direction
Absolute pressure head while running Pressure developed
the motor. pa (Cm ) p = pa-ps(Cm )
Sl No Tube No Supply head ps(Cm)
With Self With Load
With Self Weight With Additional Load
Weight W2

01

02

03

04

05

Graph: Graph to be plotted for pressure distribution (Cm) in radial direction at intervals of 30 0.Graph to
be drawn for pressure in axial direction (tube No v/s Pressure (p))

STEPS FOR PLOTTING THE GRAPH:

1. Select a suitable scale to plot the pressure distribution curve
2. With the initial pressure head as the radius draw a circle.
3. Divide the circle in to 8 equal divisions to represent the location of the pressure
tapping on the bearing along the circumference.
4. Draw radial lines from the center of the circle along these 12 points, starting from the tube 1.
5. Mark the pressure heads along these radial lines corresponding to the tapping.
6. Join these points with a smooth curve.
7. Mark the direction of rotation of the journal as shown in the figure 9.1.

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Fig 9.1: Pressure distribution curve in radial direction

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:
Load w
Unit Load or Pressure p = = N/m2
Projected Area ld
c D d
Diametral Clearance =
d d
2
Petroffs equation for Coefficient of friction: 2

Table 9.3: Pressure and co-efficient of friction wrt different loads

Load Pressure (p) Coefficient of friction
(N) N/m2

W1

W2

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

The co-

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

CONCLUSION: Pressure developed in bearing is measured in axial and radial direction and
drawn the pressure distribution diagram.

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Experiment No. 10 Date:

STRAIN ROSETTES

RECTANGULAR ROSETTE
AIM: To determine Principal stresses and strains induced at a point on the surface of the
specimen when it is subjected to combined Bending moment & torque.

APPARATUS USED: Experimental setup, which includes strain gauges, mounted on the
specimen, weights and strain indicator.

THEORY: Electrical resistance strain gauges are widely used because of its negligible
mass, their Small size and faithful response to rapidly fluctuating strains. As the output is
electrical, remote observation is possible. The output can be displayed, recorded or processed
as required.

Electrical resistance strain gauges are widely used in

1. Experimental study of stresses in transports vehicles, Aircraft, Ships, Automobiles

andTrucks.
2. Experimental analysis of stresses in structures and machines, Apartment buildings,
Pressure vessels, Bridges, Dams, Transmission towers, Steam and Gas turbines.
3. Experimental verification of theoretical analysis
4. Assist failure analysis.
5. As a sensing element in Transducers for measurement of force, load, pressure,
displacementand Torque.

Strain gauges are very sensitive to temperature. The error in strain measurement due to
temperature variation can be reduced to a minimum either through the use of suitable
compensate gauge or By using self-compensated gauges.

Strain gauges can be used for the measurement of strains on the free surface of any member.
In electrical strain resistance gauge a change in length or strain produces a change in
resistance. It is necessary to measure 3 strains at a point (x , y, XY) to completely define either

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the strain or stress field. To determine Principal strains and the direction of 1 relative to the X-
axis. It is necessary to employ multiple element strain gauges and they can be arranged in
combination to get three-element rectangular rosette or three-element delta rosette four-
element rectangular rosette etc.
For Three element rectangular rosette with gauges A, B and C with angle of ɵA, ɵB and ɵC
respectively, the strains induced are

A = xcos2ɵA + ysin
2
ɵA + γ XYcosɵA sinɵA (1)
B = xcos2ɵ B + ysin
2
ɵ B + γ XYcosɵ B sinɵ B (1)
C = xcos2ɵ C + ysin
2
ɵ C + γ XYcosɵ C sinɵ C (1)

At a point on the member, the strain gauge B is mounted along the axis of the shaft and the
straingauges A and C are mounted 450 the strain gauge B clock wise and anti-clock wise
respectively.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the strain gauges A, B and C to the channels 1, 2 & 3 of strain indicator.
2. Set the gauge factor to the desired value on the indicator.
3. Set initial reading on the indicator to zero.
4. Apply the load (increments of 500gms) at a distance of l.
5. Note down the readings for three strain gauges A, B and C and find the direction
ofPrincipal stresses and strains.

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TABULAR COLUMN:
Table 10.1: Determination of shear stress and shear strain of rectangular rossette
Max Max
Strain Principal Principal Max
Shear Shear
Load Principal Shear
Sl Load Indicator Strains Stresses
Stress Stress
(F) (MPa) Angles Strain
No (Kgf) Reading (MPa) (MPa)
(N) (Exp)
(Exp) (The)
A B C 1 2 1 2 1 2 max max max

01
02
03
04
05

SPECIFICATIONS:

Material of the shaft :

Youngs modulus :E=
Modulus of rigidity ratio :G=
Outside diameter of the shaft : do =
Inside diameter of the shaft : di =
Arm length for bending : lb =
Arm length for twisting :l=
Resistance of each strain gauge : RG = 350
Gauge factor : Sa=

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS (EXPERIMENTAL):

Principal Strains: A C
1 B A C C A
2
A C 1
2 2 B A C C A

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Design lab Manual 18MEL77
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

CONCLUSION: Magnitude and direction of Principal stresses and strains of the given member
at a point are calculated by using the rectangular strain rosette at that point.

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Viva QUESTIONS
Blooms Level 1-Remembering
1. What do you mean by the term vibration?
2. Can you define damped vibrations?
3. What is an undamped vibration?
4. How is damped vibration different from undamped vibration?
5. Can you recall few examples of damped vibrations?
6. Why vibration occurs?
7. Can you define degrees of freedom?
8. What are the different types of vibrations?
9. Define stiffness.
10. What is logarithmic decrement?
11. What do you mean by damping ratio?
12. What do you mean by damping co-efficient?
13. How the term governor is defined?
14. What do you mean by power of the governor?
15. What do you mean by whirling of shaft?
16. Define critical speed of the shaft.
17. What do you mean by 1N-m?
18. What do you mean by couple?
19. Define bearing.
20. What do you mean by viscosity?
21. What is lubrication?
22. What is journal?
23. What do you mean by polarization?
24. What is material fringe constant?
25. Define principal stresses and principal strains.
26. What do you mean by tensor?
27. Define stress concentration factor.
28. How many types of methods are there to solve any engineering problem? Name them.
29. What do you mean by gauge factor?

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Blooms Level 2-Understanding

1. How would you classify vibrations?

2. How would you compare longitudinal vibrations with torsional vibrations?
3. State in your own words about degrees of freedom with respect to vibrations.
4. How is damped vibration different from undamped vibration?
5. What is the unit of stiffness?
6. How would you compare critical damping with normal damping?
7. How do you classify governors?
8. How power of the governor is different from the effort of the governor?
9. How the whirling of shaft takes place?
10. What is the importance of eccentricity in whirling of shaft experiment?
11. How do you classify balancing of rotating shaft?
12. What is purpose of balancing the machines?
13. Distinguish between static and dynamic force?
14. How would you classify lubrication?
15. What are the methods of lubrication?
16. What are the properties of good lubricant?
17. What is SAE 1040?
18. What do you mean by calibration?
19. Define Bearing characteristic number and bearing modulus for Journal bearing.
20. What is meant by Hydrodynamic lubrication?
21. How would you differentiate nominal and true stress?
22. Distinguish between plane and circular polariscope?
23. How polariscope is classified?
24. What is a strain gauge? Mention different types of strain gauge.

Blooms Level 3-Applying

1. What examples can you give with respect to single and multi-degrees of freedom?
2. How would you arrive at mathematical expression of spring mass damper system?

3. What approach would you like to use to arrive at mathematical expression of two spring
mass system?
4. How would you apply what you learned to develop a comfort seating system in an

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automobile vehicle (car)?

5. Where you can apply torsional vibrations practically?
6. Where you can apply the concept of whirling of shaft in practical usage?
7. Mention few practicality of applying torque in daily usage.
8. How to apply force polygon in static balancing?
9. How you would like to classify bearings? Give examples for each.
10. List the applications of journal bearing.
11. What are the applications of photoelasticity?
12. What is the use of quarter wave plate?
13. Is a stress is a first order tensor? Justify the statement.
14. List the reasons to cause the stress concentration factor.
15. What is the use of strain rosette?
16. Mention the methods to minimize the stress concentration.
Blooms Level 4-Analysing

1. How would you categorize dampers?

2. Can you distinguish natural frequency and damped frequency?
3. What is the function of Porter governor?
4. Can you distinguish between centrifugal force and controlling force?
5. What is the advantage of aligning the shaft?
6. What is the importance of modes which are generated by whirling of shaft?
7. What is the significance of couple polygon?
8. Is pressure and stress are same? Justify with examples.
9.
ratio?
10.
Modulus?
11. How to analyse stressed model using photoelasticity?
12. With suitable examples analyse zero order, first order and second order tensor.

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Blooms Level 5-Evaluating

1. Based on what you know, how would you explain the derivation of mathematical
expression of single degree of freedom?
2. Would it be better if damping is provided in all automobile vehicles? Justify.
3. Does a mode (mode shape) play a significance role in determination of natural
frequency? Justify the statement.
4. Based on what you know, how would you derive co-efficient of friction for journal
loading?
5. Based on what you know, explain strain energy stored in spring with mathematical
expression?
6. Would it better to evaluate photoelastic models using dark or bright fringes using circular
polariscope? Explain.
Blooms Level 6-Creating

1. What way would you design the best spring mass system to minimize vibrations in an
automobile?
2. Can you propose an alternative method for controlling the speed of a machine?
3. Is it possible to propose an alternative method for producing the modes? Justify.
4. Stress analysis of bolts can be proposed using photoelasticity. Justify the statement.

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