Chapter 3: Mobile Radio Propagation

Large-Scale Path Loss

UG Program
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Overview
• Radio wave propagation
• Free space propagation
• Power and electric field
• Propagation mechanisms

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 2

Radio Wave Propagation
• The radio channel places a fundamental limitation on the
performance of wireless communication systems
• The path between transmitter and receiver is either
• Simple line-of-sight or
• Severely obstructed by buildings, mountains, and foliage

• Unlike wired channels that are stationary and predictable,

radio channels are extremely random and time varying
• Even the speed of motion impacts how rapidly the signal level
fades as a mobile terminal moves in space

• Modeling is difficult in mobile radio system and is typically

done in a statistical fashion or based on measurements for
specific system

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 3

Radio Wave Propagation …
• Electromagnetic (EM) wave propagation mechanisms can
generally be attributed to reflection, diffraction, and
scattering
• E.g., in urban areas there is no direct line-of-sight path between
transmitter and receiver and high rise buildings cause sever
diffraction loss

• Due to multiple reflections from various objects, EM waves

travel along different paths of varying lengths
• The interaction between those waves causes multipath fading at a
specific location

• Strength of the wave decreases as the distance between

the transmitter and receiver increases

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Radio Wave Propagation …
• Propagation models
• Large-scale path loss model
• Small-scale fading model

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Large-Scale Path Loss Model
• Predicts the average received signal strength at a given
distance from the transmitter
• Useful in estimating the coverage area of an antenna
• Characterize signal strength over large transmitter-receiver
(T-R) separation distance
• Several hundreds or thousands of meters

• Typically, the local average received power is computed by

averaging signal measurements over a measurement track
of 5λ to 40λ
• For cellular system in 1~2 GHz, this corresponds to movements of
1~10m

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Small-Scale Fading Model
• Focus on signal strength variation in close spatial proximity
to a particular location
• Characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received signal
strength over
• Very short travel distances (a few wavelengths) or
• Short time durations (in the order of seconds)

• The received power may vary by 30-40 dB when the

receiver is moved by fraction of a wavelength
• This is because the received signal is a sum of many contributions
(with random phases) coming from different directions

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Example: Small and Large-Scale Fading
• Signal variations in an indoor radio communication system
• Signal fades rapidly as the receiver moves
• By more than 20 dBm
• However, the local
average signal
decays much more
slowly with distance
(smoothed line)
• Depends on terrain
and obstructions

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 8

Overview
• Radio wave propagation
• Free space propagation
• Power and electric field
• Propagation mechanisms

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 9

Free Space Propagation Model
• Predicts received signal strength when the transmitter and
receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path
between them
• E.g., Satellite communication and microwave line-of-sight radio links
• Free space model predicts the received power decay as a function of
the T-R separation distance raised to some power (i.e., a power law
function)

• The power received by the receiver antenna at a distance d

is given by the Friis free space equation
2
   1 (3.1)
Pr ( d ) = Pt Gt Gr  
 4d  L

• Where Pt: transmitted power; Pr: received power; Gt, Gr: antenna
gains; L: system loss factor; : wavelength in meters

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 10

Free Space Propagation …
• System loss factor L is not related to propagation
• Results from line attenuation, filter losses, antenna losses
• L  1 (L=1 indicates no loss in the system)

• The gain of an antenna

4Ae
G= (3.2)
 2

• where Ae: the effective aperture related to the physical size of

antenna
• The wavelength is related to the carrier frequency
c 2c
= = (3.3)
f c
• where f: the carrier frequency in Hertz
c: the carrier frequency in radians per second
c: the speed of light in meters/sec
• Higher frequency => higher gain for the same size antenna
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Free Space Propagation …
• Equation (3.1) implies that the received power decays with
distance at a rate of 20dB/decade or with square of T-R
separation
• Isotropic radiator
• An ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in
all direction
• Often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems
• Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP)=PtGt
Represents the maximum radiated power available from a
transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna gain, as compared
to an isotropic radiator
• Antenna gains are given in
• dBi : dB gain w.r.t. an isotropic source, which is (Gt=1)➔ 0 dB
• dBd : dB gain with respect to a half-wave dipole antenna

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Free Space Propagation …
• Path loss: Represents signal attenuation as a positive
quantity measured in dB
• Is defined as the difference in dB between the effective
transmitted and received power
• For free space
Pt  Gt Gr 2  (3.4)
PL( dB ) = 10 log = −10 log  2 
Pr  ( 4 ) 2
d 
• which is valid only in the far-field (or Fraunhoffer region) of
transmitting antenna region
2D 2
• That is, the far-field distance df =

• where D is the largest physical linear dimension of antenna

• Additionally, df must satisfy df >>D and df >> 

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Free Space Propagation …
• Equation (3.1) does not hold for d=0
• Hence, large-scale propagation models use a close-in
distance, d0, as a known received power reference point
• The received power Pr(d) at any distance d>d0 may be
related to Pr(d0) at d0
• The value Pr(d0) may be
• Predicted from Equation (3.1) or
• Measured in the radio environment by taking the average received
power at many points located at d0 from the transmitter

• d0 must be chosen such that

• It lies in the far-field region, that is, d0  df
• It is smaller than any practical distance used in the mobile
communication system
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Free Space Propagation …
• At a distance greater than d0
2
 d0  (3.5)
Pr (d ) = Pr (d 0 )  d  d0  d f
d 
• Pr changes by many orders of magnitude over a typical
coverage area of several kilometers
• Often measured in dBm or dBW

• In units of dBm, the received power is given by

 P (d )  d 
Pr (d ) dBm = 10 log  r 0  + 20 log 0  d  d0  d f (3.6)
 0.001W  d 
• where Pr(d0) in units of watts

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Free Space Propagation …
• For practical system using low-gain antennas in 1~2 GHz
region, d0 is typically chosen to be
• 1m in indoor environments
• 100 m or 1 km in outdoor environments

• Example: Find the far-field distance for a base station

antenna with maximum dimension of 1m and 900 MHz
operating frequency
• Solution: Given
• Largest dimension of antenna, D = 1m
• Operating frequency f = 900 MHz, =c/f = 1/3 = 0.33 m
• Far-field distance is obtained as
2(1) 2
df = = 6m
0.33

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Free Space Path Loss – Example
• If a transmitter produces 50 watts of power, express the
transmit power in units of
a) dBm, and
b) dBW
c) If 50 watts is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz
carrier frequency,
i. Find the received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100 m
from the antenna.
ii. What is Pr (10 km)?
• Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna

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Free Space Path Loss – Solution

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Power and Electric Field – Example 2
• For a BS, let Pt = 10 W, fc=900 MHz, Gt=2, Gr=1
• The MS is at a distance of 5 km
• What is the received power in dBm?

 Pt Gt Gr 2   10  2  1 (0.33) 2 
Pr ( d ) = 10 log  = 10 log 
 ( 4d )  ( 4 )  (5000)
2 2 2
 

Pr ( d = 5000m) = − 92.6dBW = −62.6dBm

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Power and Electric Field – Example 3
• For a BS, let Pt = 500 mW, fc=900 MHz, Gt=2, Gr=1
• The MS is at a distance of 10 km
• What is the received power in dBm?

 Pt Gt Gr 2   0.5  2  1 (0.33) 2 
Pr ( d ) = − 10 log  = 10 log 
 ( 4d )  ( 4 )  (10000)
2 2 2
 
Pr ( d = 10000m) = − 111.6dBW = −81.6dBm

• Can the mobile work at this power level?

• It depends on the receiver sensitivity of the MS
• Sensitivity is the minimum required power level for a GSM phone
to pick up the signal and work
• Typical GSM mobile station sensitivity < -100 dBm

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 20

Overview
• Radio wave propagation
• Free space propagation
• Power and electric field
• Propagation mechanisms

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 21

Power and Electric Field
• Power flux density, Pd, is defined as the amount of power that
travels through a given area
• Is a far-field concept and has unit of in watts/m2
• Assumes an ideal (point) radiator
• In free space
2
E
Pd = W / m2

• Where =120 = 377 is intrinsic
impedance of free space and |E| is the
radiating electric field
• Idea: An antenna “captures” some
of this power, depending on how
large the antenna is
• Called the effective antenna aperture,
Ae, with units m2
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Power and Electric Field …
• Received power at distance d is given by
  
2 2
 Gr   E
2
Pr (d ) = Pd Ae = Pd   = Ae = Pt Gt Gr  
 4    4d 
• This relates the electric field |E| to received power in watts
• The received power can also be written as
2
V 2 [Vant / 2]2 Vant
Pr (d ) = = = Watts
Rant Rant 4 Rant
• Where V is the rms voltage
induced at the input of a receiver
and Rant is the resistance of the
matched receiver

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 23

Power and Electric Field – Example 1
• Assume a receiver is located 10 km from a 50 W
transmitter. The carrier frequency is 900 MHz, free space
propagation is assumed, Gt = 1, and Gr = 2. Find
a) The power at the receiver
b) The magnitude of the E-field at the receiver antenna
c) The rms open circuit voltage at the antenna assuming that the
receiver antenna has a purely real impedance of 50  and is
matched to the receiver

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Power and Electric Field – Solution

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 25

Overview
• Introduction
• Free space propagation
• Power and electric field
• Propagation mechanisms
• Reflection and ground reflection model
• Diffraction
• Scattering
Reading assignment!!

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 26

Propagation Mechanisms
• In wireless com., multiple signals arrive at the receiver, but
with less power than indicated by the Friis equation
• The received power varies strongly (5-25 dB) even for small
changes in antenna position, center frequency, and time

• There is a large effect caused when the path length

increases by orders of magnitude
• This is due to reflection, diffraction, scattering, etc

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 27

Reflection
• Happens when EM wave impinges on an object which has
very large dimensions as compared to wavelength 
• E.g., the surface of the earth, building, walls, etc.

• When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges

upon another medium having different electrical properties
• Electric field intensity of the reflected and transmitted
waves are related to the incident wave by Fresnel reflection
coefficient, 
•  is a function of material properties, polarization, angle of
incidence, and frequency

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 28

Reflection …
• If the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric
• Part of the energy is transmitted into the secondary medium
• Part of the energy is reflected back into the first medium
• No loss of energy in absorption

• If the second medium is a perfect conductor

• All incident energy is reflected back into the first medium

• The electric waves can be represented as a sum of two

orthogonal polarization components
• E.g., vertical and horizontal, or left-hand and right-hand circular

• Incident and perpendicular planes

1. Incidence plane: Contains incident, reflected, & transmitted waves
2. Perpendicular plane: Normal to plane of incidence

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 29

 Reflection from Dielectrics
• EM wave incident at an angle i with the plane of the
boundary between two dielectric media

Reflection Coefficients

Er  sin  t − 1 sin  i
 = = 2 (E-field in plane of incident)
Ei  2 sin  t + 1 sin  i
Er  sin  i − 1 sin  t
⊥ = = 2 (E-field normal to plane of incident)
Ei  2 sin  i + 1 sin  t
Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 30
Reflection from Dielectrics …
• Snell’s Law: μ1ε1 sin(90 − θ i ) = μ 2 ε 2 sin(90 − θ t )
• Used to determine θt
Er = Ei
• Reflected and transmitted field are: E = (1 + ) E
t i

• Where  is either  or ⊥, depending on polarization

• Intrinsic impedance of the ith medium: i = i 

i

• I.e., ratio of electric to magnetic field for a uniform plane wave

• Parameters:  permittivity,  permeability, &  conductance

• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
i =  r

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 31

Parameters vs. Frequency

 is sensitive to operating frequency

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 32
Overview
• Introduction
• Free Space propagation
• Power and Electric Field
• Propagation mechanisms
• Reflection and ground reflection model
• Diffraction
• Scattering

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 33

 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model …
• Free space propagation model is inaccurate in practice
• LOS and reflection from the ground is also important

MS

Base Station

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Ground Reflection Model …
• How the MS receives signal from the BS?
• Reasonably accurate model for
• Height > 50 m (i.e., tall towers)
• BS and MS are separated by certain distance (several kilometers)

• Considers two paths: Direct LOS & ground reflected

• In most mobile communication systems
• T-R separation distance is at most a few tens of kilometers
• The earth may be assumed to be flat

• Energy at the receiver is the vector sum of direct, ELOS,

and ground reflected, Eg components
• Vector sum => phase difference
• Important parameters: ht, hr, distance d
Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 35
 Method of Image
• Using method of image, the path difference  is

2ht hr
 = d "−d ' = (ht + hr ) + d − (ht − hr ) + d 
2 2 2 2

d
• Approximation results
from Taylors series and
valid when d >> ht +hr

• Phase d/c , and time

delay d are given by
c 2
 = =
c 
and
 
d = =
c 2f c

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 36

Ground Reflection Model …
• : Path difference between LOS & ground reflected paths
• Idea:  is used to compute time delay d and phase difference 

• Assumptions
• d >> ht and hr ==> i = 0 = 0
• Perfect ground reflector do that  = -1 and Et = 0 (valid for i small)
• The reflected path travels longer than the direct path

• Total received E-field, ETOT, is

k
ETOT (d , t ) = E LOS (d ' , t ) + E g (d " , t ) 
d2
• Total received power, Pr is given by
2
hh  See the Proof!!!!!!
Pr = Pt Gt Gr  t 2r 
 d 

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 37

Ground Reflection Model …
• From the power formula
• The received power falls off with distance raised to the 4th power or
• At a rate of 40 dB per decade
• This is much more rapid path loss than in free space
• Good news: d increases => interference decrease, however the
LOS cease to be dominant
• The received power is independent of frequency
• Heights ht and hr can be used to control the received power
as the gains are usually fixed
• The path loss expressed in dB is
PL(dB ) = 40 log d − (10 log Gt + 10 log Gr + 20 log ht + 20 log hr )

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 38

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 39
Overview
• Introduction
• Free Space propagation
• Power and Electric Field
• Propagation mechanisms
• Reflection and ground reflection model
• Diffraction
• Scattering

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 40

Diffraction - Fresnel Zone Geometry
• Diffraction: occurs when radio path is obstructed (shadowed)
by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges)
• Received power decreases rapidly as a receiver moves deeper into
an obstructed region
• However, diffracted field still exists and often has sufficient strength
to produce a useful signal

• Diffraction explains how radio signals travel without LOS in

urban environment as well as curved surface of the earth
• Diffraction can be explained by Huygen’s principle
• All points on a wavefront (including bending) can be considered as
point sources for the production of secondary waves
• At each point, the wave field is effectively re-radiating in all directions

• The re-radiations enable EM waves to “bend” around objects

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 41
Knife-edge Diffraction
• Geometry when the TX and RX are not at the same height
and no LOS
• At the top, where diffraction is to occur, we have a sharp edge
• E.g., communication between microwave links or between BSs

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 42

Knife-edge Diffraction …
• Geometry where ht = hr and knife-edge obstructing the LOS

• Important parameters: d1, d2, ht, hr, and h

• d1, d2, distance along LOS path from TX or RX to obstruction
• h is screening height
• How much energy we get from a receiver having a knife-edge
geometry? Answered by Fresnel-Kirchoff parameter
Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 43
Diffraction Gain
• The Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter, , is given by
2(d1 + d 2 )  2
 =h and = 
d1d 2 2
•  is unitless, depends on geometry & frequency; : phase d/c
• The diffraction gain due to presence of knife-edge, as
compared to free-space E-field, is given by
• Gd(dB) = 0   -1
• Gd(dB) = 20log(0.5 - 0.62) -1    0
• Gd(dB) = 20log(0.5exp(-0.95)) 01
• Gd(dB) = 20log(0.4- (0.1184-(0.38-0.1)2) 1    2.4
• Gd(dB) = 20log(0.225/) 2.4  

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 44

Overview
• Introduction
• Free Space propagation
• Power and Electric Field
• Propagation mechanisms
• Reflection and ground reflection model
• Diffraction
• Scattering

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 45

Scattering
• Received signal in a mobile radio environment is often
greater than predicted by reflection and diffraction models
• Because when a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the
reflected energy is spread out (diffused) in all directions due to
scattering

• Scattering occurs when dimensions of objects in the

medium are smaller or comparable to  and when number
of obstacles per unit volume is large, e.g., millimeter waves
• Small objects, rough surfaces, foliage, street signs, lamp posts

• Scattering causes transmitted energy to be radiated in

many directions

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 46

Scattering …

• Scattering has two important effects

1. Rough surface scattering reduces power in the reflected wave

2. Scattering causes additional multipath to be received in directions

other than the specular direction (very useful phenomena)

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 47

 Summary: Reflection, Scattering and Diffraction
• At the receiver vector addition of direct, Building
reflected, and diffracted signals occurs

Reflected Signal
Direct Signal

ht
Diffracted
Signal hr

Transmitter

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 48

Summary: Reflection, Scattering and Diffraction
• As a MS moves through a coverage area, these 3
mechanisms have an impact on the instantaneous
received signal strength
• If a mobile has a clear LOS path to the BS, then diffraction
and scattering will not dominate the propagation
• If a mobile is at a street level without LOS, then diffraction
and scattering will probably dominate the propagation

Sem. II, 2021 Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 49