Name of Faculty : Prof.

L N Gahalod
Designation : Associate Professor
Department : Electronics & Communication
Subject : Analog Circuits (EC-405)
Unit :I
Topic : Oscillator

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 UNIT – I
Feedback Amplifier and Oscillators
1.8 Oscillator:
Any circuit that generates an alternating signal is called oscillator. To generate ac signal,
the circuit is supplied energy from a dc source. The oscillators have variety of
applications. In some application we need signal of low frequencies, in other of very high
frequencies. For example, to test the performance of a stereo amplifier, we need an
oscillator of variable frequency in audio range (20Hz – 20kHz), which is called audio
frequency generator. Generation of high frequency is essential in all communication
system. For example in radio and television broadcasting, the transmitter radiates the
signal using a carrier of very high frequency. Some applications of communication
system with their frequency band is given below.

550 kHz – 22 MHz Radio broadcasting

88 MHz – 108 MHz for FM radio
1 GHz – 4 GHz for DTH, TV and satellite Communication

Figure 1.18: Block diagram of Oscillator

Figure 1.18 shows that oscillator is an electronics source of alternating current or voltage
having sine, square or saw tooth waves. Oscillator is a circuit which generates an ac
source without requiring any externally applied input signal. It is a circuit which converts
dc energy into ac energy at very high frequency.

1.9 Comparison between Amplifier and Oscillator:

Comparision between an amplifier and an oscillator is explained in table 2.

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 Amplifier Oscillator
1. An amplifier produces an output 1. An oscillator produce an output
signal whose waveform is similar to signal without any input signal
input signal.
2. Amplifier is an energy convertor; 2. Oscillator does not require an
the process of energy conversion is external signal to maintain energy
controlled by the input signal. conversion process.
3. If there is no input signal, there is 3. It keeps producing an output signal
no energy conversion and hence if the source is removed out.
there is no output.
4. Frequency of the output signal is
determined by the passive
components used in the oscillator.

1.10 Classification of Oscillator:

Electronic oscillator may be broadly divided into following two group:

(i) Sinusoidal or harmonic oscillator which produce an output having sine

waveforms as shown in figure 1.19.

Figure 1.19 Sinusoidal wave

(ii) Non-Sinusoidal or relaxation oscillator they produce an output which has

square, saw tooth, triangular waveforms etc.

Figure 1.19 Non-Sinusoidal waves

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 Oscillator may further classified based on their construction into following category:

(i) Tuned circuits or LC oscillators such as Hartley, Colpitts and clapp oscillator.

(ii) R-C oscillators such as R-C phase shift and Wien bridge oscillator.

(iii) Negative resistance oscillators such as tunnel diode oscillator and UJT relaxation
oscillator.

(iv) Crystal oscillator.

(v) Multivibrators such as astable, monostable and bistable multivibrator.

Oscillator may also be classified based on frequency of oscillation as:

(i) Audio frequency oscillator : up to 20kHz.

(ii) Radio frequency oscillator : 20kHz to 30MHz.

(iii) Very high frequency oscillator : 30MHz to 300MHz

(iv) Ultra high frequency oscillator : 300MHz to 3GHz

(v) Microwave frequency oscillator : above 3GHz

1.11 Tank Circuit or Tuned Circuit:

Figure 1.20 Working of Tank Circuit

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 Tank circuit is also known as frequency determining network, it is design with a
capacitor and an inductor connected in parallel. As shown in fig. 1.20(a) energy is
introduced into this circuit by connecting the capacitor to a DC voltage source. The
capacitor is charged by DC source and there is a voltage across it. We say that energy is
stored in the capacitor in the form of electro-static energy.
When the switch S is thrown to position 2, current start flowing in the circuit. The
capacitor now starts discharging through inductor. Since the inductor has the property of
opposing any change in current, the current build up slowly. Maximum current flows in
the circuit when the capacitor is fully discharge. At this instant, electro-static energy is
converted into electro-magnetic energy around the coil as shown in fig. 1.20(b).
Once the capacitor is fully discharged, the magnetic field begins to collapse. The back
emf in the inductor keeps the current flowing in the same direction. The capacitor starts
charging, but with opposite polarity this time as shown in fig 1.20(c). As the charge
builds up across the capacitor, the current decreases and the magnetic field decrease.
Once again all the energy in the form of electro-static energy.
The capacitor now begins to discharge again. This time current flows in the opposite
direction. Fig. 1.20(d) shows the capacitor fully discharged, and maximum current
flowing in the circuit. Again all the energy is in form of electro-magnetic energy. The
interchange of ‘Oscillation’ of energy between L and C is repeated again and again. Since
some energy is lost during interchange, the amplitude of each half cycle goes on
decreasing. Hence we get damped oscillation as shown in figure 1.21.

Figure 1.21 Damped Oscillations

The oscillation of LC tank circuit can be maintained at a constant level. For this we have
to supply a pulse of energy at the right time in each cycle. The resulting undamped
oscillations are called sustained oscillation.

Figure 1.21 Sustained Oscillations

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1.11.1 Frequency of Oscillation: Frequency of oscillation is also known as resonant frequency
of tank circuit it can be determine as.

At resonance both inductive and capacitive reactance are equal.

𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 (1)

1
2𝜋𝑓𝑜 𝐿 = (2)
2𝜋𝑓𝑜 𝐶

1
𝑓𝑜2 =
4𝜋𝐿𝐶

1
It gives 𝑓𝑜 = (3)
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

where L – Inductance of inductor (in Henry)

C – Capacitance of capacitor (in Farad)
𝑓𝑜 − Frequency of oscillation (in Hertz)

1.11.2 Barkhausen Criterion:

Figure 1.22 Barkhusen Criterion

An oscillator generates AC output signal without any input AC signal. A part of output is
feedback to the input positively. This feedback signal is the only input to the internal
amplifier. To find necessary condition for the sustained oscillations, positive feedback is
required.
The overall gain of positive feedback amplifier is given by
𝑉𝑜 𝐴
𝐴𝑓 = =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1−𝐴𝛽

Since Vin = 0

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 1-A𝛽=0
Or A𝜷=1 (4)

Hence the essential conditions for maintaining oscillation are:

(a) The magnitude of loop gain must be unity Aβ = 1.

(b) The total phase shift around the closed loop is 0̊ or 360̊.

1.12 General form of an Oscillator:

Figure 1.23 General form of oscillator

Figure 1.23 shows the general form of the oscillator. Any of the active devices such as
Vacuum tube, Transistor, FET and Op-Amp may be used in the amplifier section. Z1, Z2
and Z3 are reactive elements constituting the feedback tank circuit, which determine the
frequency of oscillation.

Frequency of oscillation of the LC oscillator is given by:

1
𝑓𝑜 = (5)
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Z1 and Z2 serves as voltage divider for output voltage and feedback signal. Therefore, the
voltage across Z1 is the feedback signal. The feedback fraction is given by:
𝑍1
𝛽= (6)
𝑍2

1.13 Hartley Oscillator

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 Figure 1.24 Hartley oscillator

Construction

By comparing general form of oscillator with figure1.24 Z1and Z2 are inductors and Z3 is
a capacitor. Resistor R1, R2 and RE provides necessary dc bias to the transistor. CE is a
bypass capacitor. CC1 and CC2 are coupling capacitors. The feedback network consisting
of inductors L1, L2 and a capacitor C determines the frequency of oscillation.

Working

When the supply voltage +VCC is switched ON, a transient current is produced in tank
circuit and consequently, damped oscillation are set up in the circuit. The oscillatory
current in the tank circuit produces ac voltages across L1 and L2. As terminal 3 is at
ground potential, voltage developed at terminal 1is positive and it is at terminal 2 is
negative with respect to ground. Thus the phase difference between the terminal 1 and 2
is 180̊. In the CE mode the transistor provides a phase difference of 180̊. Therefore the
total phase shift is 360̊. Thus the necessary condition for sustained oscillation is satisfied.
If the feedback is adjusted so that the loop gain Aβ = 1, the circuit acts as an oscillator.

The frequency of oscillation is given by:

𝟏
𝒇𝒐 = (7)
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝒆𝒒 𝑪

where Leq = L1 + L2
Since the output voltage appears across L2 and the feedback voltage across L1, the
feedback fraction is given by:

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 𝑍1 𝑋𝐿1 𝐿1
𝛽= = = (8)
𝑍2 𝑋𝐿2 𝐿2

1.14 Colpitts Oscillator

Figure 1.25 Colpitts oscillator

Construction

By comparing general form of oscillator with figure1.25 Z1and Z2 are capacitors and Z3 is
an inductor. Resistor R1, R2 and RE provides necessary dc bias to the transistor. CE is a
bypass capacitor. CC1 and CC2 are coupling capacitors. The feedback network consisting
of capacitors C1, C2 and an inductor L determines the frequency of oscillation.

Working

When the supply voltage +VCC is switched ON, a transient current is produced in tank
circuit and consequently, damped oscillation are set up in the circuit. The oscillatory
current in the tank circuit produces ac voltages across C1 and C2. As terminal 3 is at
ground potential, voltage developed at terminal 1is positive and it is at terminal 2 is
negative with respect to ground. Thus the phase difference between the terminal 1 and 2
is 180̊. In the CE mode the transistor provides a phase difference of 180̊. Therefore the
total phase shift is 360̊. Thus the necessary condition for sustained oscillation is satisfied.
If the feedback is adjusted so that the loop gain Aβ = 1, the circuit acts as an oscillator.
Since the output voltage appears across C2 and the feedback voltage across C1, the
feedback fraction is given by
𝑍1 𝑋𝐶1 𝐶2
𝛽= = = (9)
𝑍2 𝑋𝐶2 𝐶1

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 The frequency of oscillation is given by:
𝟏
𝒇𝒐 = (10)
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪𝒆𝒒

𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
Where 𝑪𝒆𝒒 =
𝑪𝟏 +𝑪𝟐

1.15 RC Oscillators
All the oscillators using tuned LC circuit operates on high frequencies. At low frequency,
inductors and capacitors required for the time circuit would be very bulky. RC oscillators
found to be more suitable. Two important RC oscillators are:-

(i) RC Phase shift oscillator and

(ii) Wien bridge oscillator

1.15.1 RC Phase Shift Oscillator

Figure 1.26 RC Phase Shift Oscillator

In RC phase shift oscillator as shown in figure 1.26 the required phase shift of 180̊ in the
feedback loop from output to input is obtained by using R and C components instead of
tank circuit. As shown in figure RC phase shift oscillator uses cascade connection of high
pass filter. This oscillator is designed by three RC section followed by a common emitter
amplifier. The phase difference Φ for each section is given by:

1
∅ = tan−1 ( ) (11)
𝜔𝐶𝑅

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 Each RC network provides a phase difference of Φ which is between 0 – 90̊. If R is
adjusted such that Φ becomes 60̊. If the value of R and C are so chosen that, for the given
frequency fo, the phase shift of each RC section is 60̊. Thus such a RC ladder network
produces a total phase shift of 180̊ between the input and output voltage for given
frequency. The other 180̊ phase shift is provided by transistor in common emitter mode.
In this way the total phase shift in loop is 360̊ or 0̊. Thereby satisfying the Barkhausen
criterion for oscillation.

The frequency of oscillation is given by:

𝟏
𝒇𝒐 = (12)
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪√𝟔

At this frequency it is found that feedback factor of network is

𝟏
|𝜷| = (13)
𝟐𝟗

In order that ‫׀‬Aβ‫ ׀‬shall not be less than unity, it is require that the amplifier gain ‫׀‬A‫ ׀‬must
be more than 29 for sustained oscillation.

Frequency of RC Phase Shift Oscillator

Figure 1.26 RC Cascaded Network

Applying KVL to various loops we get,

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 Replacing jω by s and writing the equations in matrix form,

by applying Cramer’s rule, I3 is given as

now

Feedback factor is

Replacing s by jω

Dividing numerator and denominator by –jω3R3C3 and replacing 1/ωRC by α we get

To have phase shift of 180̊, the imaginary part in the denominator must be zero.

hence α(6-α2) = 0

Which gives α2 = 6

Or

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 Thus the frequency of oscillation is

𝟏
𝒇𝒐 =
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪√𝟔

At this frequency

𝟏
Or |𝜷| =
𝟐𝟗

Now to have oscillation |𝐴𝛽| ≥ 1

|𝐴||𝛽| ≥ 1
1 1
|𝐴| ≥ ≥ 1
|𝛽|
29

Thus |𝑨| ≥ 𝟐𝟗

1.15.2 Wien Bridge Oscillator

Construction

It is one of the most popular type of oscillator used in audio frequency range. This type of
oscillator is simple in design, compact in size, and remarkable stable in its frequency
output. Furthermore, its output is relatively free from distortion and its frequency can be
varied easily. Frequency output of typical Wien bridge oscillator is only about 1MHz.
Lead Lag network produce signal of 0̊ phase shift, which satisfy the Barkhausen criterion.

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 Figure 1.27 Wien Bridge Oscillator

Feedback ratio of lead lag network is 1/3. Hence to satisfy the condition of unity loop
gain, gain of amplifier must be at least 3. To achieve the required gain we can use two
common emitter transistor amplifier or an operational amplifier in non-inverting mode.

Working

As shown in the figure 1.27, it is a two stage amplifier with an RC bridge circuit. By
adding Wien bridge feedback network, the oscillator becomes sensitive to a signal of only
one particular frequency. This particular frequency is that at which Wien bridge is
balanced and for which the phase shift is 0̊. The feedback network is employed in the
circuit to increase frequency stability. When we switch on the +Vcc supply, a resonating
𝟏
current of frequency flows in the bridge circuit. The current is amplified to achieve
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪
the Barkhausen criterion. Since transistor amplifier in CE mode gives 180̊ phase shift,
and the phase shift of bridge circuit is 0̊, hence to feedback positive signal to bridge
circuit 180̊ phase shift is required which is provided by another transistor in CE mode.
And finally we get sinusoidal signal of stable frequency.

Frequency of oscillation can also be determined by the bridge circuit of oscillator. Bridge
is balanced only when

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 Separating real and imaginary parts

Which gives

If R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C then

(14)

And

If R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C then

(15)

1.16 Crystal Oscillator

Most communications and digital applications require the use of oscillators with
extremely stable output. Crystal oscillators are invented to overcome the output

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 fluctuation experienced by conventional oscillators. Some crystals found in nature exhibit
the piezoelectric effect. When an ac voltage is applied across them, they vibrate at the
frequency of the applied voltage. Conversely, if they are mechanically pressed, they
generate an ac voltage. The main substances that produce this piezoelectric effect are
Quartz, Rochelle salts, and Tourmaline.

Rochelle salts have greatest piezoelectric activity, for a given ac voltage, they vibrate
more than quartz or tourmaline. They are used in microphones, headsets and
loudspeakers.

Tourmaline shows the least piezoelectric activity but is a strongest of the three. It is most
expensive and used at very high frequencies.

Quartz is a compromise between the piezoelectric activity of Rochelle salts and the
strength of tourmaline. It is inexpensive and easily available in nature. It is most widely
used for RF oscillators and filters.

The natural shape of a quartz crystal is a hexagonal prism with pyramids at the ends. To
get a useable crystal out of this it is sliced in a rectangular slab form of thickness t. For
use in electronic circuits, the slab is mounted between two metal plates. The fundamental
frequency of a crystal is given by
𝟏
𝒇= (16)
𝒕

where t is thickness of crystal.

1.16.1 AC Equivalent Circuit of Crystal

Figure 1.28 AC Equivalent Circuit of Crystal

When the mounted crystal is not vibrating, it is equivalent to a capacitance Cm, because it
has two metal plates separated by dielectric, Cm is known as mounting capacitance. When
the crystal is vibrating, it acts like a tuned circuit. Figure shows the ac equivalent circuit
of a crystal vibrating at or near its fundamental frequency. Typical values are L is henrys,
Cs in fractions of a Pico farad, R in hundreds of ohms and Cm in Pico farads. The Q of the

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 circuit is very high, compared with L-C tank circuit. Because of very high Q, a crystal
leads to oscillators with very stable frequency values.

The crystal can have two resonant frequencies as shown in figure 1.29.

(i) series resonance frequency

(ii) parallel resonance (or anti-resonance) frequency

Figure 1.29 Resonant frequency

Series resonance frequency f1 occurs when XL = XC. At this frequency, crystal offers
very low impedance to the external circuit where Z = R. it is given by:

(17)

Parallel resonance (or anti-resonance) frequency f2 occurs when reactance of the

series leg equals the reactance of Cm. At this frequency, crystal offers very high
impedance to the external circuit. It is given by

(18)
𝑪𝒎 𝑪𝒔
Where 𝑪𝒑 =
𝑪𝒎 +𝑪𝒔

1.16.2 Pierce Crystal Oscillator

The Colpitts oscillator can be modified by using the crystal to behave as an inductor. The
circuit is called Pierce crystal oscillator. The crystal behaves as an inductor for a
frequency slightly higher than the series resonance frequency. As only inductor gets

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 replaced by the crystal, which behaves as an inductor, the basic working principle of
Pierce crystal oscillator is same as that of Colpitts oscillator.

Figure 1.30 Pierce Crystal Oscillator

As shown in figure 1.30, Resistors R1, R2, and RE provide a voltage-divider stabilized dc
bias circuit. Capacitor CE provides ac bypass of the emitter resistor to avoid degeneration.
The RFC coil provides dc collector load and also prevents any ac signal entering from the
dc supply. The coupling capacitor CC has negligible reactance at circuit operating
frequency but blocks any dc flow between collector and base. The resulting frequency is
set by the series resonant frequency of the crystal. Crystal oscillator provides good
frequency stability, and there no effect of change in supply voltage, temperature transistor
parameters etc.

Tutorials
1. In the Hartley oscillator L2 = 0.4mH and C = .004µF. If the frequency of oscillation is
120kHz, find the value of L1. Neglect the value of mutual inductance. (.04mH)
2. In a transistorized Hartley oscillator, the two inductors are 2mH and 20µH, while
frequency is to be changed from 950kHz to 2050kHz. Calculate the range over which
capacitor is to be varied. (2.98pF – 13.89pF)
3. In a Hartley oscillator, the value of capacitor in the tuned circuit is 500pF and the two
section of coil have inductances 12µH and 38µH. Find the frequency of oscillation
and the feedback factor β. (1MHz, .316)
4. In a Hartley oscillator, L2 =15mH and C = 50pF. Calculate L1 for a frequency of
168kHz. The mutual inductance between L1 and L2 is 5µH. Also find the required
feedback factor for the oscillation. (2.945mH, 0.196)

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 5. In the Colpitts oscillator, C1 = 0.2µF and C2 = 0.02µF. If the frequency of oscillation
is10kHz, find the value of the inductor. Also find the required feedback for
oscillation. (13.932mH, 0.1)
6. A Colpitts oscillator is designed with C2 = 100pF and C1 = 7500pF. The inductance is
variable. Determine the range of inductor the frequency of oscillation is to vary
between 950kHz to 2050kHz. (61µH-284µH)
7. In an RC phase shift oscillator, if R1 = R2 = R3 = 200kΩ and C1 = C2 = C3 = 100pF.
Find the frequency of oscillation (3.248kHz)
8. In an RC phase shift oscillator, if its frequency of oscillation is 955Hz and R1 = R2 =
R3 = 680kΩ, find the value of capacitor used. (100pF)
9. In a Wien bridge oscillator, if the value of R is 100kΩ, and frequency of oscillation is
10kHz. Find the value of capacitor. (159pF)
10. The frequency sensitive arm of the Wien bridge oscillator uses C1 = C2 = 0.001µF
and R1 = 10kΩ while R2 is kept variable. The frequency is to be varied from 10kHz to
50kHz, by varying R2. Find the minimum and maximum value of R2.
(1.013kΩ, 25.33kΩ)
11. A crystal has following parameters:- L = 0.4H, C = 0.085pF and Cm = 1pF with R =
5kΩ. find
(i) Series resonant frequency
(ii) Parallel resonant frequency
(iii) Q factor of coil. (856kHz, 899kHz, 430.27)
12. A crystal has L = 2H, C = 0.01pF, and R = 2kΩ. Its mounting capacitance is 2pF.
calculate its series and parallel resonating frequency. (1.125MHz, 1.128MHz)

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