decision making

Decision making is the process by which a choice is made between options or ways to
resolve different life situations in different contexts: at work, family, sentimental or business
level (using quantitative methodologies provided by the administration). Decision making
basically consists of choosing an option among those available, in order to resolve a current or
potential problem (even when a latent conflict is not evident).
In basic terms according to Hellriegel and Slocum (2004) it is the “process of defining
problems, collecting data, generating alternatives and selecting a course of action.”
For its part, Stoner (2003) defines decision making as “the process of identifying and solving a
course of action to solve a specific problem.”
Decision making at the individual level is characterized by the fact that a person uses their
reasoning and thinking to choose a solution to a problem that arises in life; That is, if a person
has a problem, they must be able to solve it individually by making decisions for that specific
reason.
In decision making, the choice of a path to follow is important, so in an earlier state alternatives
for action must be evaluated. If the latter are not present, there will be no decision. To make a
decision, whatever its nature, it is necessary to know, understand, and analyze a problem, in
order to be able to solve it. In some cases, because they are so simple and everyday, this
process is carried out implicitly and is solved very quickly, but there are other cases in which
the consequences of a bad or good choice can have repercussions on life and if it is in a work
context in the success or failure of the organization, for which it is necessary to carry out a
more structured process that can provide more security and information to solve the problem.

Importance of making decisions

Decisions can be classified taking into account different aspects, such as the frequency with
which they occur. They are classified according to the circumstances that these decisions face,
whatever the situation to decide and how to decide.
Programmed decisions
They are those that are taken frequently, that is, they are repetitive and it becomes a routine to
take them; as the type of problems that solves and occur with a certain regularity since there is
a well-established solution method and therefore the steps to address this type of problems are
already known, for this reason, they are also called structured decisions . The person who
makes this type of decision does not have the need to design any solution, but is simply
governed by the one that has been followed previously.
Programmed decisions are made in accordance with policies, procedures or rules, written or
unwritten, that facilitate decision making in recurring situations because they limit or exclude
other options.
For example, managers rarely have to worry about the salary range of a newly hired employee
because, as a rule, organizations have one salary and salary scale for all positions. There are
routine procedures to treat routine problems.
Programmed decisions are used to address recurrent problems. Whether complex or simple. If
a problem is recurring and if its component elements can be defined, predicted, and analyzed,
then it may be a candidate for a programmed decision. For example, decisions regarding how
much of a given product to carry in inventory may involve searching for many data and
forecasts, but a careful analysis of the elements of the problem can produce a series of
routine, programmed decisions. In the case of Nike, buying television advertising time is a
programmed decision.
To a certain extent, programmed decisions limit our freedom, because the person has less
space to decide what to do. However, the real purpose of programmed decisions is to free us.
The policies, rules, or procedures we use to make programmed decisions save us time,
allowing us to devote attention to other more important activities. For example, deciding how to
handle individual customer complaints would be very expensive and time-consuming, while a
policy that says “14 days will be allowed for changes to any purchase” makes things much
simpler. This will give the customer service representative more time to resolve thornier issues.
Unprogrammed decisions
Also called unstructured , they are decisions that are made in the face of problems or
situations that arise infrequently, or those that require a specific solution model or process, for
example: “Launching a new product on the market”, in this type. decision making, it is
necessary to follow a decision-making model to generate a specific solution for this specific
problem.
Non-programmed decisions address infrequent or exceptional problems. If a problem has not
occurred frequently enough to be covered by a policy or is so important that it deserves special
treatment, it should be handled as an unprogrammed decision. Problems such as allocating an
organization's resources, what to do with a failed production line, how to improve community
relations – in fact, the most important problems the manager will face – will typically require
unprogrammed decisions.

Generalities and fundamental aspects

Before delving into the process and other elements of decision-making, let's
look at some aspects, which will not only serve as support to continue the
study, but will also be very useful for a deep understanding of the topic.

In a general sense, a decision is a choice faced with certain alternatives,

where in many cases we are left with doubt, that is, whether or not we
made the most correct decision.

We will present the definition of decision making as follows:

“It is a process where the best actions are identified, evaluated and
selected, based on the evaluated alternatives, to solve the problems or
difficulties presented or to take advantage of the opportunities.”

As we see in the definition, we do not always face the same situation,

sometimes we must resolve problems or difficulties presented in the
organizational activity, which requires us to restore the situation to its
original or previous position, in other cases the decision must give us the
possibility to allow us to take advantage of opportunities to exceed
programmed objectives.

These aspects, problems or difficulties, and opportunities, require precise

identification since they are not only different by definition (as we saw in
the previous paragraph), but they also provide a different scope.

Sometimes it is easier to identify a problem than an opportunity, arriving at

the former through criteria provided by third parties, whether they are
clients or employees of the organization, due to non-compliance with work
plans or in relation to previous periods.

In this regard Pounds, W. (1969) cited in Stonner, J.F. (2004) expresses the
following.
“The problem identification process is usually informal and intuitive. There
are four situations that generally indicate to managers the existence of
possible problems: when there is a departure from past experience, when
there is a deviation from the established plan, when other people present
problems to the manager and when competitors perform better than the
organization of the administrator in question.

If the identification of problems is important, which is sometimes not a

simple situation, it is more important to take advantage of opportunities,
due to the scope of the latter.

According to Peter Drucker (1993) in Managing for Results, there are a group
of realities in organizations, among which the following stand out:

“Results come from exploiting opportunities, not solving problems.”

“To obtain results, resources must be matched to opportunities, not to

problems.”

“Focus resources on critical opportunities”

Decision-making characteristics

Not all problems arise under similar situations, so in some cases the
decisions made must be structured and in others unstructured. Let's see
what each one consists of and how to approach them.

We know that problems can be simple or complex, of greater or lesser

importance, repetitive or isolated in their occurrence.

Taking into account the above, when problems are recurring, whether
simple or complex, and we are in a position to have control over their
composition, being able to project ourselves with foresight and certainty,
we can develop procedures, policies, rules that allow us to make quick and
safe decisions. In this case we are facing a structured decision making.
On the contrary, the problem presented is not recurring or its complexity,
importance or implication is such that it does not allow the use of previously
prepared means, so specific reasoning must be made for it, we are facing an
unstructured decision making.

Elements to observe for correct decision making

When making decisions we pursue an objective, so it is not about deciding

“at all costs and at all costs”, as is sometimes expressed, but rather that
the decision allows us to achieve an expected result, and that it is rational
and logical according to samples. needs. To do this we must observe certain
elements, some of the most significant of which we will present below:

• All problems or situations are not, nor do they have the same magnitude,
urgency or other characteristic, so we must prioritize the solution of those
that at a given moment are appropriate for the moment we are in.

• Do not try to solve all the problems on your own, but analyze and carry out
a correct decentralization towards our collaborators, as well as elevate to
our superiors what is not within our power to solve, that is, the
responsibility of other areas. , although be careful with the latter and raise
only what is strictly necessary, since if this is not fulfilled our image before
superiors would be affected, and we could show signs of incompetence or
accommodation.

• Obtain as much information as possible about the problem or difficulty and

about the opportunity and make the most of it. Do not limit ourselves, inform
ourselves in different ways, as much as possible.

• Act without haste, but as quickly as possible since an unnecessary loss of

time could constitute a failure to take advantage of an opportunity or a
failure to solve a problem or difficulty.

• Our approach should not be only towards solving the problem or taking
advantage of the opportunity, but rather trying to analyze the consequences
on the parts or the whole in question.
• Security in the decision and in the results to be obtained is essential, so
we must take into account the risks and the level of certainty, or not, that
we can achieve.

Decision-making process

The decision-making process consists of several steps or stages, which are:

• Definition and identification of the problems to be solved or opportunities

to take advantage of.
• Diagnosis and analysis of the causes.
• Determination of possible alternatives.
• Analysis and evaluation of the alternatives found.
• Selection of the best alternative.
• Implementation and execution of the actions to be taken.
• Monitoring and control of the process.

Definition and identification of problems to solve or opportunities to take

advantage of

This initial step is extremely important, since if we do not define and

identify the problem to be solved, or the opportunity to take advantage of,
we would be working on an erroneous basis and all subsequent actions will
be distorted, not allowing us to achieve the necessary results. It is essential
not to confuse the problem itself with the symptoms it causes, an issue that
occurs frequently.

Another aspect is the decomposition of the problem into elements since in

most cases this is complex.

Diagnosis and analysis of the causes

Once the problem has been identified and defined, it is necessary to carry
out an effective diagnosis that allows us to carry out an adequate analysis
of the causes that cause it, to determine the objectives that must be
pursued with the decision, which must allow us to reach a satisfactory
solution.

Determination of possible alternatives

The determination of alternatives should not be limited, the more there are,
the more likely it is to find the right one. We express this since on many
occasions when one or two alternatives are found (sometimes even one) the
tendency is to stop the search for the right ones. We say this because, as
we will see later, we even found alternatives that could provide a solution to
what we need, but for certain reasons their application is not feasible.

Analysis and evaluation of the alternatives found

The group of alternatives found must undergo a rigorous analysis and

evaluation since not all of those found meet the requirements to be applied
with the necessary effectiveness.

For its analysis and evaluation we must see if there are possibilities for its
application in terms of time, available resources, financial possibilities,
personnel to carry it out, if it meets the proposed objectives, what risks or
consequences it could bring to the different areas of the organization or for
it as a whole.

Selection of the best alternative

With all the elements provided previously, as well as others depending on

the organization in question, we must select the alternative that most fully
meets the proposed objectives.

Aspects that must be taken into account for this are: whether the solution it
allows is partial or total, level of risks, flexibility in the face of changes,
level of certainty in the solution, cost-benefit relationship and others
depending on the situation.

Implementation and execution of the actions to be taken

Once the alternative to be used has been selected, it is necessary to
develop a plan that includes all the fundamental aspects for solving the
problem or taking advantage of the opportunity. This plan must contain the
necessary actions correctly programmed, their cost, definition of the people
who must comply with it, and execution period.
Monitoring and control of the process.

The preparation of the plan and the good will of the makers and executors is
not enough; we must provide adequate monitoring and control of the
process not only to verify its correct execution and the disposition and state
of mind of the executors, but to make corrections in the necessary cases.

In the decision-making process there are two elements of great importance

on which great attention must be paid, these are: the quality of decision-
making and the acceptance of the decision by those who must execute the
actions.

There are various criteria as to which of the two should take precedence,
with a non-negligible group that considers quality should take precedence.

In the opinion of this author, both aspects are transcendental and very
important, so priority attention must be given to both, since the effective
development of a decision depends largely on the acceptance of the people
who must execute them, not only of its quality, however if under certain
special situations it is essential to prioritize one over the other, this must be
done without ceasing to give adequate attention to each of the mentioned
aspects.

Aspects that influence decision making

We carefully study the steps to follow in making decisions, however in all

cases it is not necessary, nor are they carried out in detail as we saw, only
in cases of high complexity and importance are these faithfully followed.
Human beings have resources and abilities that, accompanied by their
intuition and experience, allow them to make appropriate decisions in a
much shorter time and with satisfactory results.

However, some researchers have raised aspects of interest related to the

topic, such as Herbert Simon who, as expressed in Stonner, J. F.
Administration exposed the term limited rationality to point out that:

“Real-life decision makers must contend with incomplete information about

the nature of problems and their possible solutions, a lack of time or money
to gather more complete information, distorted perceptions, the inability to
remember large amounts of information, and the limits of their own
intelligence.”

Also exposed in Stonner, researchers Tversky and Kahneman delved into

the previous theory by suggesting that people make decisions based on
empirical aspects, that is, practice and experience, using elementary rules
or procedures to identify and determine solutions. Proposing this, three
empirical processes for decision making:

“People often judge the possibility of an event by contrasting it with their

memories. [...] it is easier to remember events whose occurrence is
frequent. Therefore, the events that are more available in memory are
thought to have a greater chance of occurring in the future. "[......] human
memory is also affected by how recently something has happened."

“People tend to weigh the possibility of an event by comparing it to a

preexisting category.”

“People don't jump to conclusions out of thin air. Generally, decisions start
from an initial value [......] and then adjustments are made to that value in
order to reach a final decision.”

The application of these aspects (limited rationality and decisions based on

empirical evidence) are essential in saving time in decision-making, but
certain subjective judgments and the appearance of distorting elements are
not excluded.
Techniques and methods for decision making

Decision making can be done individually or in a group. In what has been

discussed so far the focus has been related to the individual, so we will
address some methods and essential aspects of group decision making.

The most used methods for making group decisions are by majority and by
consensus.

The majority method is essentially used when the time we have is short or
when the importance of the problem is not great, it consists of the decision
adopted representing the criteria of the majority of the group. It is fast,
although sometimes it can present some disadvantages when the minority
does not feel committed to the decision made as it has other criteria than
the one taken, so adequate treatment and convincing of these people is
necessary to obtain their understanding of the agreement adopted. , the
latter is very important for achieving the expected results.

Consensus consumes more time in its development, being frequently used

for important decisions, it assumes that all members of the group agree and
assume the final decision as their own. It has certain characteristics such
as: its use achieves high participation, hence the level of commitment of all
group members; It requires high communication, where everyone who
wishes to intervene does so, and it is beneficial for everyone to express
themselves, and above all with respect for all opinions.

There are several techniques for making group decisions, the most used
being brain storming and interaction, each with its specificities that we will
detail below.

In both cases there are a group of general principles for use such as:

• The objective of the meeting must be clearly conceived and must be within
the control of the group members.
• The group during the meeting must be guided and directed by someone
who motivates and guides them appropriately (a facilitator), who must have
experience and mastery of the technique they are going to use.

• The facilitator must stimulate the generation of ideas, with spontaneity

and without restrictions.

• All group members can freely express their criteria, which should not be
criticized or refuted.

• The ideas raised are accepted and not debated.

• The ideas presented must be collected on banners, blackboards or other

means that allow visualization by everyone.

• Ideas are collected in a depersonalized way and with phrases that clearly
express their content.

Brain storm.

Together with the previous general principles, this technique has the
following characteristics:

• Its greatest performance is in small groups.

• It is of great use and importance for carrying out diagnoses, that is,
collecting information about difficulties, problems or others.

• During the meeting the group members express their ideas related to the
topic in question, the essential thing is that there are many ideas, they are
not discussed when they are presented by the participants even if someone
does not agree.

Interaction technique

It has advantages over the previous technique when the members of the
group are from different specialties.
• As in the “brainstorming” the criteria are issued and recorded, but in this
case they are enriched or expanded; this is done with the consensus of the
group.

• Once all the ideas have been collected, they are reduced taking into
account those that are part of others, or that there are repetitions which are
eliminated.

• Once the list has been reduced, the ideas are weighted by their
importance, establishing priorities according to the group's criteria.

Group decision making has advantages, but also disadvantages, so it should

be used depending on the existing situation and not at all costs.

It allows, among other aspects: to solve problems in the form of cooperation

between group members; that the members express themselves with
complete freedom of expression; that a rational and beneficial agreement
can be reached in the end for the group or organization as a whole; It is not
to satisfy all individual desires; It is not to impose ideas of any member of
the group or of people of higher occupational category.

Special situations in decision making

Our era is marked by the rapid development of technology or by profound

economic changes, which is why sometimes special situations arise,
decisions of very high complexity or importance, little-known topics, the
intervention of a large number of variables, situations of great uncertainty.
or turbulent changes, among others, so the heads of the organizations are
not in a position to make the appropriate decision, this requires the
application of a more scientific approach using specialists with capabilities
and skills in mathematics, systems to be used on computers, not ruling out
that these people use their intuition and other subjective aspects.

The joint work of these specialists with the heads of the organization should
not be carried out arbitrarily but through a process that guarantees correct
execution and results in decision-making.
The process must guarantee: the identification of the problem, the
preparation of representations or models about the events or work
processes with difficulties, preparation of a prototype, determination of the
solution that is considered most appropriate and subsequently the
implementation, monitoring and control.

For these special situations, certain techniques are used depending on the
needs and specific requirements.

Summary

We study how in a large number of situations in our existence, individually

or in groups, and when faced with dissimilar situations in family, social or
work life, we face moments in which we must make some choice.

A decision is a choice faced with certain alternatives, where in many cases

we are left wondering whether or not we made the most correct decision.

We saw that we are not always faced with the same situation, sometimes
we must resolve problems or difficulties that arise, which requires us to
restore the situation to its original or previous position, and how the
decision on other occasions must give us the possibility of taking advantage
of opportunities to exceed scheduled objectives.

In the same way, problems do not arise under similar situations, so in

recurring problems, whether simple or complex, and if we are in a position
to have control over their composition and be able to project ourselves with
foresight and certainty, we can develop procedures, policies, rules that
allow decisions to be made, then we are faced with structured decision
making.

On the contrary, if the problem presented is not recurring or its complexity,

importance or implication does not allow the use of previously prepared
means, we are facing unstructured decision making.
The elements that were presented must be taken into account and carefully
studied for correct decision-making.

The decision-making process consists of several steps or stages that we

reiterate:

• Definition and identification of the problems to be solved or opportunities

to take advantage of.
• Diagnosis and analysis of the causes.
• Determination of possible alternatives.
• Analysis and evaluation of the alternatives found.
• Selection of the best alternative.
• Implementation and execution of the actions to be taken.
• Monitoring and control of the process.

In relation to the quality of the decision, as well as its acceptance, let us

remember that both are transcendental and very important, so prioritized
attention must be given to both.

Decision making can be done individually or in a group, the most used

methods for group decision making are by majority and by consensus.

The majority method is essentially used when the time we have is short or
when the importance of the problem is not great.

Consensus consumes more time in its development, being frequently used

for important decisions, it assumes that all members of the group agree and
assume the final decision as their own.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT

 Thought is the activity and creation of the mind; It is everything that is brought into
existence through the activity of the intellect. The term is commonly used as a generic
form that defines all the products that the mind can generate including the rational
activities of the intellect or the abstractions of the imagination; Everything that is mental in
nature is considered thought, whether abstract, rational, creative, artistic, etc.
Developing thinking means activating general and specific mental processes within the
human brain, to develop or demonstrate fundamental abilities, area abilities and specific
abilities, using strategies, methods and techniques during the teaching-learning process.
with the purpose of achieving significant, functional, productive and quality learning, and
serving the person in their daily and/or professional life, that is, they can be used and
generalized in different situations.
What happens with cognitive development at school?
The foundations of Piaget and Vygotsky
These two authors highlight the structures that children develop in preparation for learning
during childhood.
For Piaget, the most important cognitive achievement of late childhood is concrete
operational thinking, by which children can reason logically about things and events.
Vygotsky believed that Piaget's attention to such thinking was a great progress, as
promoted by the schools of that time.
Logical principles.
The place of logic in the development of concrete operational thinking during childhood; It
considers three logical structures that Piaget describes: classification, identity and
reversibility.
The classification of objects, ideas and people.
Classification is the process of organizing things into groups, according to some property
they have in common.
Classification leads to the related concept of class inclusion, the idea that an object can
belong to more than one class. Until school age, few children really understand inclusion in
a class.
Once children understand the relationship between a category and its subcategory, they
can then understand the wide variety of relationships. They understand that the categories
or subcategories may be any of the following:
· Hierarchical.
· Superimposed.
· Separated.
A child who can apply logical principles in a coherent and reasoned manner is better
equipped to analyze problems.
Identity and reversibility.
Identity is the idea that certain characteristics of an object remain the same even when
other characteristics change. Children who understand identity understand that superficial
changes do not alter the underlying substance or quantity of that object.
Reversibility , the idea that sometimes a thing that has been changed can return to its
original state.
Both identity and reversibility are important to understanding mathematics.
Logical principles also apply to daily social encounters.
Logic and culture.
Piaget's idea that children during childhood gradually understand and apply logical ideas
that they did not understand before. Older children make mistakes that younger children
do not, again showing that school-age children apply their new logic even when it leads
them down the wrong path.
Vygotsky's emphasis on the influence of the sociocultural context of learning is completed
by Piaget's ideas. Vygotsky, powerfully influenced by the people around them.
In Zimbabwe, for example, children's understanding of the logical concept of classification
was found to be influenced not only by their age but also by the characteristics of their
schooling and the socioeconomic status of their family.
The information processing.
To understand cognition arises from the theory of information processing. People have a
mechanism similar to that of the computer when they capture information, then apply
mental processes that are executed in three functions: search for specific items of
information when they need them, analyze situations using specific problem-solving
strategies that generally serve to find the correct solutions and express the best solution in
a format that another person can understand.
Many children ages 7 to 11 not only learn quickly in school but also outperform their
elders. Other children at that age abuse them in their homes. Having experiences that few
adults want to have.
Older school-aged children use their minds much more effectively.
The memory.
The sensory register is the first component of the information processing system. It
stores the incoming stimulus information for only a short moment after it is received, to
allow it to be processed. Sensations are held for a moment while the person selects some
sensations that become perceptions. The first step of information processing is quite good
in early childhood and continues to improve slightly until age 10. Most sensations that
reach the sensory register are lost or discarded, but significant information is transferred to
working memory for later analysis.
Working memory is where mental activity takes place. It is always running, constantly
filled with new information, so thoughts and memories are usually not retained for long.
Most of them are discarded, while a few are transferred to long-term memory. Working
memory is one of the components that clearly improves in childhood.
Long-term memory is almost unlimited until the end of childhood. Collaborates in
organized reactions to stimuli. What is crucial here is not only storage but also retrieval,
unless something destroys it (e.g. A stroke. )
The speed of processing.
Older children are much quicker thinkers than younger children. Speed directly increases
mental capacity, because thinking speeds up and allows more thoughts to be maintained
and processed in the conscious mind at the same time. At school, greater processing
power means you can respond to a teacher's question with several relevant ideas while
observing your classmates.
The speed of thought continues to increase. In adulthood, it begins to decline slowly. But
progress actually seems more a matter of learning from experience than simple
maturation. There is NO evidence that the brain literally grows more in childhood.
As people use their intellectual abilities, many processes that at first require hard mental
work later become automatic.
The knowledge base.
Children know much more in the school years than in the preschool years. The more they
know and remember, the more they learn. That is, having a broad knowledge base .
Further research highlights that connections between small pieces of information improve
as the knowledge base expands.
Control processes.
The mechanisms that coordinate memory, processing speed and knowledge are control
processes. These processes include selective attention, emotional regulation, and
metacognition. When someone wants to concentrate on only a part of all the material in
the sensory register. Control processes assume a role.
The prefrontal cortex, where the brain regulates and coordinates emotions and thoughts.
An executive function precisely because it controls the other parts. The underlying problem
of children with AD/HD is reduced ability to control impulses and are easily distracted.
Selective attention.
One of the most important control processes is the ability to focus one's thinking on what is
important. Kindergarten children are very easily distracted. In contrast, fifth graders work
independently. They could also be silent following a demonstration.
Towards the end of childhood, schoolwork becomes more difficult and takes longer to
complete, but teachers trust that students persist in the effort, waiting and thinking.
Selective attention, that is, the ability to ignore distractions and focus on relevant
information. Focusing on what should be remembered and ignoring what should be
forgotten are also important elements of selective attention.

Improved control.
Controlling mental processes begins during the preschool years, as children show signs of
emotional regulation. These processes are powerfully influenced by responses within the
family and by the cultural values of the children.

Metacognition.
Metacognition means “thinking about thinking,” the ability to evaluate a cognitive task to
determine the best way to do it and then monitor and adjust one's performance on that
task. In this way, as they progress through third childhood, children can improve control
over their knowledge, changing their ideas if necessary.
Around 8 or 9 years old, they must identify the tasks that involve greater difficulty, they
become more precise and more efficient when they study. In short, older children
approach cognitive tasks in a more strategic and analytical way.

This is all part of metacognition, including control processes and memory strategies.

Development of John Dewey's thought:

During his stay in the United States, Dewey was deeply interested in the reform of
educational theory and practice. He contrasted his educational principles in the
experimental laboratory school, called the Dewey School, established at the University of
Chicago in 1896. The educational principles proposed learning through activities of
different kinds rather than through established curricular content and were opposed to
authoritarian methods. Dewey believed that what was offered by the educational system of
his time did not provide citizens with adequate preparation for life in a democratic society.
He also considered that education should not be merely a preparation for the future life,
but should provide and have full meaning in its very development and realization. His work
and writings significantly influenced the profound changes experienced in pedagogy in the
United States at the beginning of the 20th century, manifested in the change of emphasis
from the institutional and bureaucratized to the personal reality of the student. He criticized
education that emphasized both the relaxed fun of students, simply keeping them
entertained, as well as the exclusive orientation towards the professional world.
As a philosopher, Dewey emphasized everything practical, striving to demonstrate how
philosophical ideas could act in the affairs of daily life. Its logical and philosophical
approach was one of permanent change, adapting to specific needs and circumstances.
The thought process in his philosophy is a means of planning action and overcoming
obstacles between what there is and what is projected. Truth is an idea that has
penetrated practical experience. Dewey followed the American philosopher and
psychologist William James, founder of the philosophical movement of pragmatism;
Dewey's own philosophy, also called instrumentalism or experimentalism, derives from
James's pragmatism.
Features of the development of John Dewey's thought:
In order to characterize John Dewey's thought, we must first go back to his academic and
cultural heritage.
For Fabrizio Ravaglioli, Dewey inherits things from European culture that have managed to
filter into the United States, but not only from the English mother culture, utilitarian and
empiricist, but also presents a strong influence of French and especially German
elements.
According to Ravaglioli, "Dewey's cultural biography reflects at least the genesis of
Deweyan theory and particularizes some things."
Authors such as Darwin, Huxley, Comte, Hegel, James and Mead can be recorded as
great influences on his thinking.
Towards the end of the century the relationship between Dewey and James is more
intense, James' psychology reveals the biological matrices of human behavior. Dewey
tries to link Darwin with Hegel, a Hegel verified by empirical research.
For Ravaglioli, within American pragmatic culture, perhaps one of the most pertinent
definitions is "instrumentalism", this is a biological doctrine that incorporates the
experimental procedures of the physical sciences.
Dewey notices the continuity between means and ends and proposes a theory of valuation
of the appreciation of situations, inspired by instrumentalism and based on social science.
Dewey's table of values includes, in addition to democracy and science, action, work,
socialized individuality, the group, and is contrasted with the behavior of the wealthy class
dedicated to conspicuous consumption.
The education
Education is a necessity of life, as it ensures cultural transmission; In complex societies it
has specialized in formal instruction, and at the same time it notes as one of its purposes
that of maintaining contact with direct experience, establishing the continuity of theory with
practice. It is the nexus of the experience of participation with the activities aimed at the
acquisition of cultural symbols that gives modern education its particular social function.
Deywen's idea of education is similar to Durkheim's. It coincides with the socialization
process and recognizes the historical differentiation of the practice of education.
But with respect to the sociology of education, Dewey separates himself from Durkheim
and Weber for the author, the sociology of education is interested in the description of
educational situations and their evolution.
Dewey wants to achieve a balance between indirect education and formal education.
Dewey is convinced that only the democratic society, in which he lived, is capable of fully
realizing education, understood as a social process and function. "Democracy is more than
just a form of government." It ratifies the perfect correspondence of the democratic society
with the nature of the educational process.
The science of education
Dewey tries to avoid the rigid, formalist concept of science.
For the author, because of the close relationship between theory and practice, educational
action cannot be removed from the concept, otherwise erroneous, as has been seen, of
pure science. For Dewey, education maintains an experimental, risky pragmatic aspect. At
the moment of action it is an art.
For Dewey it is impossible to build the science of education on "derived techniques."
For the author, the scientific character of a science of education is the denial of a pure
science, understood metaphysically as a reflection of a section of the real, and the
affirmation of the pragmatic, instrumental nature of scientific knowledge, ending with
exclude the existence of a specific and predetermined content of the science of education.
No discipline can completely describe the educational phenomenon.
Educational science reconstructs the whole, using the available information. "The sciences
are the sources of the science of education."
Democracy
For Dewey, the two elements of our criterion are directed towards democracy. The former
means not only more numerous and more varied points of shared interest in common, but
also knowledge of mutual interests as a factor in social control. The second means not
only a freer interaction between social groups, but also a change in social habits, their
continuous readjustment facing the new situations produced by varied exchange. These
two ranges are precisely those that characterize a democratically constituted society.
A society is democratic to the extent that it facilitates the participation in its goods of all its
members on equal terms and that it ensures the flexible readjustment of its institutions
through the interaction of the different associated forms of life. Such a society must have a
type of education that gives individuals a personal interest in the relations and control of
society and the spiritual habits that produce social changes without introducing disorder.

Learning to learn, teaching to think, teaching to learn and even learning to teach, are
phrases that currently circulate in different educational contexts. The school, as an
educational institution, performs many and varied functions; but in an effort of synthesis we
could say that it is to teach how to think (creatively, critically, autonomously). But to do so,
in this changing and dynamic system, we must allow our students to become aware that
the learning process does not only involve the incorporation of a series of
contents/information that makes us competent in a certain subject, but also the
incorporation of new Learning that we already have previously will provide us with a
structure of thought and the ability to respond to certain social and personal situations.