SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

Human bodies are equipped with sexual organs (gonads) that are used for sexual
reproduction. The male gonads are called testes (singular testis) while the female gonads are
called ovaries. The female and male gonads occur on separate bodies and are part of the
reproductive system.
DIAGRAMS

FUNCTIONS OF PART OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Testes (singular testis): These are a pair of structures that produce spermatozoa (sperm) and
secrete the hormone called testosterone. They are found in a sac of skin called the scrotum
located outside the lower abdomen. The scrotum holds the testicles outside the body to keep
them at a temperature slightly lower lower than that of the body for more effective production
of spermatozoa.
Epididymis: This is made of coiled tubes where sperms are stored
Sperm duct (vas deferens): This is the tube that carries spermatozoa from the epididymis to
the urethra.
Urethra: This is the tube that carries semen from the sperm duct and urine from the bladder.
Penis: This is an erectile organ that is used to deposit semen into the vagina during sexual
intercourse. The semen is deposited into the vagina by a process called ejaculation.
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Ovaries: These are a pair of gonads responsible for formation of eggs and for secretion of
oestrogen and progesterone.
Oviduct: This is the tube through which the ovum travels from the ovary to the uterus. It is
also the sight where fertilization occurs.
Uterus: This is the site for implantation and development of the foetus.
Cervix: This connects the vagina to the uterus and forms part of the birth canal .It is the point
where semen is deposited during sexual intercourse. The cervix also secretes fluids that
lubricate the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Vagina: This is the part where an erect penis is inserted during sexual intercourse: It also
forms part of the birth canal:
SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS
During sexual development, the human being first develop the primary sexual characteristics
which include the sexual organs and the reproductive systems. To complete its sexual
development, the human body must develop secondary sexual characteristics. These are
characteristics that a human body develops after reaching puberty They makes the body
more adapted to carry out reproduction and are influenced by hormones .In males, their
development is influenced by the hormones called testosterone which is secreted by the
testicles. In female, their development is influenced by the hormone called oestrogen which is
secreted by the Ovaries.

Male secondary sexual characteristics Female secondary sexual characteristics

Sperm production Menstrual cycle commences
Enlargement of testicles and penis Enlargement of breast
Development of pubic hair, beards, hair on Development of pubic hair and hair in the
the chest and ain armpits armpits
Deepening of voice Enlargement of vagina
The body becomes more muscular Skin becomes more tender and supple

The Menstrual Cycle

This is a cycle of about 28 days during which a woman experiences ovulation and
menstruation, one after the other. Ovulation is the release of an ovum from the ovary.
Menstruation is the shedding of the uterus lining together with some blood through the vagina
which occurs when an ovum does not get fertilized. It lasts three to five days. Ovulation and
menstruation occur approximately 14 days (two weeks) after each other.
The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and the
ovaries. The hormones from the pituitary gland (follicle stimulating hormone and
luteinising hormone) act on the ovaries while those from the ovaries (oestrogen and
progesterone) act on the lining of the uterus (endometrium). The roles of these hormones are
summarized below:
(i) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is secreted by the pituitary gland and causes
ripening of the eggs in the ovaries by stimulating the development of Graafian follicles
around them.
(ii) Oestrogen is secreted by the Graafian follicle in the ovary. It builds up the lining of the
uterus, inhibits further secretion of follicle stimulating hormone and stimulates secretion of
luteinising hormone.
(iii) Luteinising Hormone (LH) is secreted by the pituitary gland. It stimulates ovulation and
the development of the corpus luteum (yellow body) from the remains of the Graafian
follicle.
(iv) Progesterone is secreted by the corpus luteum in the ovaries. It maintains the growth of
the uterus lining and increases blood supply to it in readiness for implantation in case
fertilization occurs. It also inhibits secretion of FSH and LH by the pituitary gland. However,
the corpus luteum gets progressively smaller until it completely degenerates and there is no
more progesterone being secreted. When this happens, lining of the uterus breaks down and
the pituitary gland starts secreting FSH to begin the cycle all over again. On the other hand, if
the egg gets fertilized, the corpus luteum takes longer to degenerate until the placenta has
developed in the uterus.
Events of the Menstrual Cycle

EVENTS OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE.

Day 1 to day 5-
 The endometrium (lining of the uterus) breaks down and is shed from the body.
This is called menstruation.
  Meiosis occurs in the ovary to produce a new egg surrounded by the Graafian
follicle.
Day 6 to day 13-
 Oestrogen is produced by the Graafian follicle. Oestrogen also stimulates the
endometrium to thicken again. One Graafian follicle with one egg develops.
 Oestrogen stimulates the production of LH (leuteinising hormone)
Day 14-
 The surge of LH stimulates ovulation.
 The egg enters the funnel of the Fallopian tube. It can be fertilised for the next 48
hours.
Day 15 to day 26-
 The corpus luteum (yellow body) develops from the remains of the Graafian follicle.
This produce progesterone and some oestrogen. The progesterone causes the
endometrium to continue to thicken. It also prevents new eggs from forming.
 The egg that was released at day 14 will die if it is not fertilised.
 If fertilisation did not take place the corpus luteum begins to degenerate.
Day 26 to day 28-
 Oestrogen and progesterone levels decline.
 The endometrium begins to break down.
 Day one of the cycle begins.
Fertilization, Implantation and Foetal Development
Fertilization is the fusion of the nucleus of a male gamete with the nucleus of a female
gamete to form a single cell called a zygote. It normally occurs in the oviduct. After
fertilization, the zygote travels through the oviduct towards the uterus and divides repeatedly
by mitosis to form an embryo. Upon reaching the uterus, the embryo undergoes
implantation.
Implantation is the process by which by which an embryo gets attached to the wall of the
uterus (about 11 or 12 days after fertilization). As the embryo develops, it forms temporal
organ known as the placenta. As soon as vital organs begin developing, the embryo‟s name
changes to foetus. This occurs 6 to 8 weeks after fertilization.

FERTILISATION (EVENTS OF FERTILISATION)

 After insemination the sperm will move up the Fallopian tubes.
 If ovulation has occurred and an egg is present the egg will release a chemical that
attracts the sperm. This is called chemotaxis.
  The sperm that reaches the egg will use an enzyme in its acrosomes to make an
opening in the membrane of the egg.
 Once one sperm enters the egg (only the head enters) the egg forms a membrane that
prevents other sperm from entering.
 The nucleus of the egg fuses with the nucleus of the egg. A diploid zygote forms.
 Fertilisation may take place during days 11-16 of the menstrual cycle.
IMPLANTATION
About 6-9 days after fertilisation the fertilised egg becomes embedded into the lining of the
uterus. The zygote has now become an embryo. A membrane called the amnion develops
around the embryo. This membrane will secrete amnion fluid which surrounds and protects
the embryo.
TEN WEEKs OLD FOETUS

The Placenta: The placenta performs the roles normally performed by the intestines, kidneys
and lungs in adult
human being. These include absorption of food, excretion and gaseous exchange,
respectively. The functions of the placenta are summarized as follows:

1. Attaching the foetus to the uterus of the mother

2. Protecting the foetus from the mother‟s immune system, mother‟s blood pressure and
pathogens. It does this by forming a barrier that prevents mixing of the blood of the mother
and the blood of the foetus.
3. Exchange of materials between foetus and mother by the process of diffusion. Dissolved
food and oxygen diffuse from the mother‟s blood to the blood of the foetus while carbon
dioxide and urea diffuse from the blood of the foetus to the mother‟s blood. The placenta has
finger-like projections called villi that increase the surface area for exchange of substances.
4. Secretion of hormones. It secretes progesterone to maintain the thickness of the uterus
lining during pregnancy. It also secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) which
prolongs the activity of the corpus luteum. The presence of HCG in the urine of a woman is a
sign that she is pregnant.
Besides the useful materials that cross the placenta from the mother‟s blood to the blood of
the foetus, some harmful substances that are made of small molecules also manage to cross
the placenta and affect the baby negatively. These substances include carbon monoxide
from cigarette smoke, drugs such as alcohol and viruses. Carbon monoxide combines with
haemoglobin irreversibly, thereby reducing the amount of oxygen available to the cells of the
foetus. This leads to low birth weights. Alcohol makes a baby be born with a condition called
foetal alcoholic syndrome (FAS) which is characterized by mental retardation and
deformation of the baby.
Umbilical Cord: The umbilical cord contains blood vessels (umbilical artery and umbilical
vein) that transport blood between the foetus and the placenta. The umbilical artery carries
blood rich in metabolic wastes (mainly carbon dioxide and urea) from the foetus to the
placenta while the umbilical vein carries blood rich in dissolved food and oxygen from the
placenta to the foetus.
Amnion and Amniotic Fluid: The amnion is the membrane responsible for enclosing the
amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid protects the foetus from mechanical shocks, drying up and
also maintains a constant temperature around the environment of the foetus.
NB: The mucus plug blocks the cervical canal to keep away foreign substances from the
uterus during pregnancy.

Gestation Period and Birth

Gestation period refers to the period of time between fertilization and birth. In human beings,
the gestation period lasts for about nine months for a boy child and about eight months for a
girl child. The process of birth is made of three main stages, namely dilation, delivery and
afterbirth. Dilation is the first major stage of birth and involves widening of the cervix in
readiness for expulsion of the baby from the uterus. Before dilation, a woman experiences
intermittent contractions of the uterus which are called labour pains. Labour pains are
initiated by a hormone called oxytocin, which is secreted by the pituitary gland. After
dilation, the amnion bursts to release amniotic fluid. This is called the breaking of the
waters. The second major stage is delivery which is the expulsion of the baby from the
uterus. This is brought about by strong contractions of the uterus, coupled with voluntary
contractions of the abdominal muscles by the woman. During a normal delivery, the head of
the baby comes out first. If the legs come out first, the birth is called a breach. The third and
final stage of birth is the expulsion of the placenta from the uterus through the vagina. This is
called the after-birth.
Birth Control (Family Planning)
This involves limiting the number of children and spacing their births so as to get the
following benefits:
 Give the mother time to recover from the effects of giving birth before she can have
another child.
 Ensuring each child receives enough nutrition, shelter, clothing, education and
attention.
The methods of birth control are also called contraceptive methods because they are used to
prevent conception (fertilization and implantation). Contraceptive methods are divided into
two groups, namely natural methods and artificial methods. Natural methods include the
withdrawal method (coitus interruptus) and the rhythm (safe period) method. The main
advantage of natural methods is that they cost no money. Otherwise, they are unreliable and
require a lot of discipline. Artificial methods include barrier methods (condom, diaphragm
and intra-uterine device), chemical methods (spermicides and hormones such as those found
in the oral contraceptive pill) and surgical methods (vasectomy and tubal ligation or
laparatomy)
Withdrawal Method: This is the removal of the penis from the vagina just before
ejaculation. It is an unreliable method because the fluids that a man releases before
ejaculation contain traces of spermatozoa that may still fertilize an ovum.
Rhythm Method: This is a contraceptive method where a couple only copulates during the
safe period of the menstrual cycle when fertilization is less likely to occur. This method is
also unreliable because the length of the menstrual cycle is modified by factors such as type
of diet, stress and physical exercise.
Condoms: A condom is a thin latex sheath that is fitted around an erect penis or inserted into
the vagina before intercourse so as to keep semen from being deposited directly into the
vagina. It is the only contraceptive method that prevents the transmission of sexually
transmitted infections (STI‟s) such as syphilis, gonorrhoea and AIDS. However, if expired or
not properly used, they can break or leak. Some people complain that they reduce enjoyment
of sex and cannot be used spontaneously.
Diaphragm (cap): This is a thin latex cap fitted over the cervix before intercourse so as to
block spermatozoa from entering the uterus. It is more reliable if used in conjunction with
spermicides. Initially, the diaphragm must be fitted by a doctor.
Intra-uterine Device (IUD): This is a device made of plastic and copper wire that is inserted
into the uterus to prevent implantation by irritating the lining of the uterus. The device can
only be fitted by experts and it may cause discomfort if wrongly placed.
Spermicides: These are chemical substances that are applied inside the vagina before sexual
intercourse in order to kill spermatozoa. They are normally used together with the diaphragm.
Hormones: Hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone are administered in the form of
pills or injections to prevent ovulation and implantation. They are only reliable if taken
according to prescription and may have side effects such as interfering with the pattern of the
menstrual cycle, nausea and weight gain.
Vasectomy: This is the cutting and tying of sperm ducts to block passage of spermatozoa
from the testicles. The man is still able to engage in sexual intercourse but ejaculates seminal
fluids that have no spermatozoa. The method is highly reliable but may be irreversible.
Tubal Ligation (Laparatomy): Oviducts are cut and tied to prevent passage of eggs from
the ovaries to the uterus. This method is also highly reliable and usually irreversible.