Plant Physiology and Metabolism

Module 1
Introduction to Plant Physiology and Metabolism
Academic Script

Introduction:

Plant physiology and metabolism deals with the main metabolic processes of plant
which regulates its physiological conditions. It includes the study of such topics
in plant biology as the structure and function of leaves, stems and roots, water and
sugar conductivity, and the reproductive organs of plants. Plant physiology is a
subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning, or physiology of plants.
Closely related fields include plant morphology (structure of plants),
plant ecology (interactions with the environment), phytochemistry (biochemistry of
plants), cell biology, genetics, biophysics and molecular biology.

Fundamental processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, plant nutrition, plant

hormone functions, tropisms, photoperiodism, photomorphogenesis, circadian
rhythms, environmental stress physiology,
seed germination, dormancy and stomata function and transpiration, both parts of
plant water relations, are studied by plant physiologists.

The field of plant physiology includes the study of all the internal activities of
plants—those chemical and physical processes associated with life as they occur
in plants. This includes study at many levels of scale of size and time. At the
smallest scale are molecular interactions of photosynthesis and internal diffusion of
water, minerals, and nutrients. At the largest scale are the processes of
plant development, seasonality, dormancy, and reproductive control. Major
subdisciplines of plant physiology include phytochemistry (the study of
the biochemistry of plants) and plant responses to various stresses. The scope of
plant physiology as a discipline may be divided into several major areas of
research.
Fig 1: Areas of plant physiology

The major areas are as follows which are covered here:

• Unit 1--(Plant-water relations)

• Unit 2: (Mineral Nutrition)

• Unit 3: (Translocation in phloem)

• Unit 4: (Photosynthesis)

• Unit 5: (Respiration)

• Unit 6: (Enzymes)

• Unit 7: (Nitrogen Metabolism)

• Unit 8: (Plant Growth Regulators)

• Unit 9: (Plant response to light and temperature)

Unit 1: Plant Water relations
Plant–water relations concern how plants control the hydration of their cells,
including the collection of water from the soil, its transport within the plant and its
loss by evaporation from the leaves. Flow of water through plant and soil over
macroscopic distances is driven by gradients in hydrostatic pressure.

Fig 2:Plant-water relations

It includes the following points

• Importance of water and pathway of water absorption, water potential, its
components and significance

• Transpiration mechanism and significance and factors affecting transpiration,

measurement

• Root pressure and Guttation and its significance.

Importance of water and pathway of water absorption, water potential, its

components and significance-
• To study the importance of water in plants

• To emphasize on the physical and chemical properties of water.

• To understand the physical forces that influence water movement at the cell
level.
 • To correlate the physical forces with water potential

• To know the cells and tissues responsible for absorption and movement of
water within the plant

Transpiration: Transpiration mechanism and significance and factors

affecting transpiration, measurement
• To understand transpiration and its types.

• To understand the significance of transpiration.

• To study the factors affecting the transpiration

• To know about stomata and the mechanism that regulate its opening and
closing.

• Understanding the different processes for the measurement of rate of

transpiration.

Root pressure and Guttation and its significance

• Root pressure is the transverse osmotic pressure within the cells of
a root system that causes sap to rise through a plant stem to the leaves.

• At night in some plants, root pressure causes guttation or exudation of drops

of xylem sap from the tips or edges of leaves.

• Guttation is the exudation of drops of xylem sap on the tips or edges of

leaves of some vascular plants, such as grasses, and a number of fungi.

Unit 2: (Mineral Nutrition)

Roots absorb mineral nutrients in the form of their salts dissolved in soil water. The
study of absorption of inorganic mineral elements and their assimilation by plants is
called mineral nutrition. In agriculture, the addition of mineral elements to soil to
improve plant growth dates back to more than 2000 years.
It includes the following topics-
• Macro-elements: source, function and deficiency symptoms
 • Micro-elements: Source, function and deficiency symptoms

• Transport of ions across the cell membrane. Ion channels, active and passive
ion transport, pump and carrier

Macro-elements: source, function and deficiency symptoms

• To know the different Macro Elements.

• Macro elements include C,H, O, P, K, N, S, Ca and Mg.

• To know about their sources-mostly obtained from soil and water

• To have a brief idea about their sources and deficiency symptoms.

Fig 3: Macroelements

Micro-elements: Source, function and deficiency symptoms

• To know the different Micro Elements-
iron (Fe), boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), m
olybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni)

• To know about their sources.

• To have a brief idea about their sources and deficiency symptoms.

Transport of ions across the cell membrane: Ion channels, active and passive
ion transport, pump and carrier
• The kinetics of passive and facilitated diffusion

• Different types of ligand gated channel

• The types and action of transporters, channels, carrier proteins

• Different types of pumps and active transport proteins as sodium potassium

ATPase

• The physiological functions of pumps

Unit 3: (Translocation in phloem)

Phloem s the living tissue in vascular plants that transports the soluble organic
compounds made during photosynthesis and known as photosynthates, in
particular the sugar sucrose, to parts of the plant where needed. This transport
process is called translocation.
• Phloem translocation: Different theories including pressure flow

• Composition of phloem sap, girdling experiments, phloem loading and

unloading.
 Fig 4: Translocation in phloem

Phloem translocation: Different theories including pressure flow

Phloem translocation: Conduction of food materials through phloem tissue:
• To know about the different phloem tissue.

• To know the function of phloem elements.

• To know about the theories involved in translocation of food.

Composition of phloem sap: including girdling experiments phloem loading

and unloading.
• Direction of translocation—downward, upward, radial

• Path of translocation-blocking of phloem

• Ringing or girdling experiment

 • Mechanism of translocation

Unit 4: (Photosynthesis)
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light
energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms'
activities.
It includes the following topics
• Photosynthesis: Definition, site and chlorophyll

• Photochemistry and accessory pigments

• Concept of photosystems, reaction centre and CPP

• Non-cyclic photophosphorylation, OEC and Quinone cycle

• Electron transport and ATP production

• Details of C3 pathway

• C1, C2 (Photorespiration), C4 and CAM

Introduction to Photosynthesis: Definition, site and chlorophyll

• Chlorophyll makes plants green. It's basically a group of green pigments used
by organisms that convert sunlight into energy via photosynthesis. ... Without
this energy, plants would be unable to initiate the process of photosynthesis,
which converts water and carbon dioxide into starches that plants can use for
food.

Photochemistry and accessory pigments

• To understand the mechanism of photosynthesis.

• Nature of electron donors in photosynthesis.

• Pigments, types of pigments.

• Main and Accessory pigment.

 • Photochemistry of pigments.

Concept of photosystems, reaction centre and CPP (cyclic

photophosphorylation)
• Concept of two system photosystems

• Parts of photosystem

• Reaction centers and its Light Harvesting Complex

• Role of LHC in state transition

• Cyclic photophosphorylation

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation, OEC (oxygen evolving complex) and

Quinone cycle
• Z scheme of photosynthesis.

• Mechanism of OEC complex-oxygen evolving complex

• Quinone cycle occurring in photosynthesis

• The flow of electrons occurring in Z scheme

• Non-cyclic electron flow

Fig 5: Cyclic and non-cyclic photophsphorylation

Details of C3 pathway
• The C3 pathway completes in three steps: carboxylation, reduction, and
regeneration.

• C3 plants reduce into the CO2 directly in the chloroplast. With the help of
ribulosebiphosphate carboxylase (RuBPcase), the two molecules of 3-carbon
acid or 3-phosphoglyceric acid are produced

C1, C2 (Photorespiration), C4 and CAM

• A respiratory process in many higher plants by which they take up oxygen in
the light and give out some carbon dioxide, contrary to the general pattern of
photosynthesis.

• The assimilation of carbon dioxide from the sunlight, for the process of
photosynthesis and then converting it to glucose (energy)
synthesizing different product is the key difference between the three. So
during the CO2 fixation, when the photosynthetic plants produce 3-
phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) or 3- carbon acid as the first product is called C3
pathway.

• But when the photosynthetic plant, prior going to the C3 pathway, produces
oxaloacetic acid (OAA) or 4 -carbon compound as their first stable product is
called as C4 or Hatch and Slack pathway. But when the plants absorb the
energy of the sunlight at the day time and use this energy for the assimilation
or fixing the carbon dioxide at night time is called as crassulacean acid
metabolism or CAM.

Unit 5 (Respiration)
The process of respiration in plants involves using the sugars produced during
photosynthesis plus oxygen to produce energy for plant growth. In many
ways, respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis. In the natural
environment, plants produce their own food to survive.
• Anaerobic Respiration

• Glycolysis and its significance

• TCA cycle and ETS

• PPP and Glyoxalate pathway

• Alternative respiratory pathways

Anerobic respiration:
• How does anaerobic respiration work

• To characterize application and importance of anaerobic respiration

• To know the ecological importance of anaerobic respiration

Glycolysis and its significance:

• To know the 10 sequential reactions of glycolysis

• To know the biological and clinical significance of glycolysis.

• To know the regulation of glycolysis

TCA cycle and ETS (electron transport system):

• To know the location, significance, regulation and inhibitors of TCA cycle

• To know the reactions steps of TCA (Tricarboxylic acid) cycle

• To know Chemiosmotic mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation

• To know the complexes involved in electron transport chain or system

 Fig 6: TCA cycle

PPP (pentose phosphate pathway) and Glyoxalate pathway:

• Pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and TCA
cycle for oxidation of glucose.
• It is a shunt of glycolysis

• Sequence significance and outcome of the pathway

• The glyoxylate cycle, a variation of the TCA cycle, is an anabolic pathway

occurring in plants, bacteria, protists, and fungi.

• The glyoxylate cycle centers on the conversion of acetyl-CoA to succinate for

the synthesis of carbohydrates

Alternative respiratory pathways:

It includes the branching of metabolic pathways. Some are minor pathways using
different oxidases.
Unit 6: (Enzyme)
Plant enzymes regulate the plant metabolism. The structure of the enzymes
dictates the biological functions of enzymes.
• Classification and Biological significance of enzyme

• Structure and Properties of enzymes

• Different mechanism of enzyme catalysis

• Different mechanism of enzyme inhibition and kinetics

• Allosteric Enzymes: Principle and Mechanism

Classification, Biological significance and assay of enzyme:

• To know the classification and nomenclature of the enzyme

• To know the general significance, biological role, medical and industrial

importance of enzyme

• To know the enzyme units, control of enzyme activity assays and regulation

Structure and properties of enzyme:

• To know the structure of enzyme

• To know the general characteristics of enzyme

• To characterize general and physico-chemical nature of enzyme

• To characterize structure and function relationship of enzyme

Different mechanism of enzyme catalysis and purification:

• To know the factors controlling enzyme catalysis

• To know the different types and mechanisms of enzyme catalysis

• To know the enzyme purification and extraction processes

Different mechanism of enzyme inhibition and kinetics

 • To know general mechanism, dynamics and reaction kinetics of enzyme

• To know the different types, mechanism and kinetics of enzyme inhibition

• To know the aspects of single and bi-substrate reaction .

Allosteric Enzymes: Principle and Mechanism:

• To know the enzyme regulation by allosteric control, covalent modification
and protein processing, stimulation and inhibition by control proteins

• To know the enzyme regulation by genetic control

• To know the principle, kinetics , properties, models, mechanism and example

of allosteric enzyme .

Fig 7: Mechanism of enzyme action

Unit 7: (Nitrogen Metabolism)

Nitrogen metabolism is not only one of the basic processes of plant physiology, but
also one of the important parts of global chemical cycle. Plant nitrogen assimilation
directly takes part in the synthesis and conversion of amino acid through the
reduction of nitrate
• Biological nitrogen fixation overview

• Molecular mechanism: nif gene, nod gene

 • Nitrate and ammonia assimilation

• Role of Microbes in N,P,K utilization

Biological nitrogen fixation overview

Mechanism of Biological Nitrogen Fixation:
• To understand the mechanism of nitrogenase action.

• To know about the nod factors, nod genes and their role in nodule formation.

• To know about the nif genes and their function.

Molecular mechanism: nif gene, nod gene:

• Symbiotic nitrogen fixation genes in the broadest sense can be divided into
nod, nif, and fix genes.

Fix genes represent a very heterogeneous class including, e.g., genes involved in
development and metabolism of bacteroids.
Nitrate and ammonia assimilation
• To understand the mechanism of nitrogen and ammonia assimilation in
plants.

• To explain the mechanism of nitrate assimilation in different microbes.

• To illustrate the mechanism of ammonia assimilation in different bacteria and

actinomycetes.
 Fig 8: Nitrate assimilation

Role of Microbes in N,P,K utilization

The microorganisms living in it are part of nutrient recycling especially carbon,
nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. These microbes decompose soil, improve its
structure which subsequently increases water infiltration and water holding capacity
of the soil, and thus very essential for agriculture
Unit 8: (Plant Growth Regulators)
Plant growth regulators function as chemical messengers for intercellular
communication. There are currently five recognized groups of plant hormones:
auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid (ABA) and ethylene. They work
together coordinating the growth and development of cells.
• Auxin: classification, bioassay and function

• Gibberellin: classification, bioassay and function

• Cytokinin: classification, bioassay and function

 • Abscicic acid

• Ethylene

• Practical applications of phytohormones

Fig 9: Plant growth regulators

Auxin: classification, bioassay and function

• To know the chemical nature of auxins and their classification.

• To know the developments of the bioassays of auxin.

• To know the different physiological functions of auxin and its major

commercial applications.

Gibberellin: classification, bioassay and function

• Gibberellins are a family of terpenoid compounds, made up of isoprene units

• Gibberellins Stimulate Stem Growth in Dwarf and Rosette Plants, sex

determination, fruit production

• Biosynthetic pathway

• factors that modulate the active gibberellin level

• Bioassay and applications

Cytokinin: classification, bioassay and function

• Natural and synthetic cytokinin-induction of crown gall
 • Degradation of cytokinin in vivo

• Cytokinin functioning as promoting shoot growth, chloroplast development

• Bioassay and various uses

Abscicic acid:
• ABA is synthesized in the plastid and cytoplasm and is derived from
zeaxanthin, a plant pigment

• ABA accumulation and homeostasis are tightly controlled

• ABA movement – between organs and cells

• ABA response are also regulated by other hormones

• Uses and Bioassay of ABA

Ethylene:
• Ethylene serves as a hormone in plants. It acts at trace levels throughout the
life of the plant by stimulating or regulating the ripening of fruit, the opening of
flowers, and the abscission (or shedding) of leaves

• Its uses and bioassays

Practical applications of phytohormone:

• There are many areas in agriculture, horticulture, pomiculture, moriculture,
etc., where phytohormones can be used in successful cultivation to obtain
greater yield. The high percentage of germination of sown seeds in the field
has a bearing on the output.

• Tissue culture, somatic cell hybridization, Plantlets from Callus

Introduction of recombinant DNA into protoplast

Unit 9: (Plant response to light and temperature):

Some external factors that regulate the growth of plants are light intensity, day
length, gravity, and temperature. Light, obviously affects the plants ability to grow
because light is needed for photosynthesis. Temperature affects the rate of
enzyme reactions
• Photoperiodism: Introduction, LDP,SDP and DNP

• Phytochromes and molecular mechanism of interconversion

• Photomorphogenesis and its application

• Vernalization

Photoperiodism:
• Photo’ means ‘light’ and ‘period’ means ‘length of time’. It is the reaction of
plants and animals to the length of day and night.

• Most flowering plants have the ability to sense changes in season (i.e. the
length of day and night) and flower at the right time. To do this, they make
use of photoreceptor (light-sensitive) proteins called ‘phytochrome’.

• Plants need exposure to light for a ‘critical duration’. This duration is different
for different plants. Based on this critical duration, plants can fall into the
following three categories:

• Long day plants

• Short day plants

• Day neutral plants

Fig 10. Photoperiodism

Phytochromes and molecular mechanism of interconversion

• Phytochromes are red (R)/far-red (FR) light photoreceptors that play
fundamental roles in photoperception of the light environment and the
subsequent adaptation of plant growth and development

• The Discovery and Action Modes of Phytochromes, general structure

• Role in seed germination

• Chromophores and Two Reversible Forms of Phytochromes

• The Phytochrome Gene Family

Photomorphogenesis and its application:

• Plants use phytochrome to detect and respond to red and far-red
wavelengths. Phytochromes are signaling proteins that
promote photomorphogenesis in response to red light and far-red light.
• If it absorbs red light it will change conformation to the biologically active Pfr
form

• Application--Developmental stages affected-seed germination, seedling

development, photoperiosism

Vernalization:
• Vernalization is the induction of a plant's flowering process by exposure to the
prolonged cold of winter, or by an artificial equivalent.

• After vernalization, plants have acquired the ability to flower, but they may
require additional seasonal cues or weeks of growth before they will actually
flower.

• This is sometimes used to refer to herbal (non-woody) plants requiring a cold

dormancy to produce new shoots and leaves but this usage is discouraged

So all the topics discussed here gives a brief idea about plant physiology and
metabolisms.