SkyWarrior Multiengine Guide

ATP / Multiengine Aircraft Introduction

The SkyWarrior Multiengine Aircraft Guide provides supplemental information to assist

you in learning the unique qualities associated with flying a multiengine airplane. This
Flight training manual has been developed to help Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) applicants
train as efficiently as possible. The information contained within this manual will help you
meet and exceed the required standards for successful completion of training for your ATP
certificate. Although the guide was designed for the ATP applicant, it will be of equal use to
applicants for the Commercial Airplane Multiengine Land (CMEL) certificate. All of the
material on multiengine aerodynamics, one-engine inoperative flight, and the airplane’s
systems is directly relevant to both certificates. In the section on procedures, where there
is a difference between the maneuvers required in the practical test standards (PTS) for the
ATP and CMEL, this will be clearly indicated. Where necessary, the different standards will
be presented side by side.

Prerequisites for ATP Training

To be eligible for this program you must:

 Hold a Current FAA Medical Certificate

 Be at Least 23 Years of Age, or 21 if applying based under the requirements of FAR
61.160
 Have Proof of FAA Eligibility based on one of the Following:
o FAA Commercial Pilot Certificate with Instrument Airplane Multiengine Land
Rating
o Military experience per FAR 61.73
 Have Passed the ATP Knowledge Test after completion of an Airline Transport Pilot
Certification Training Program specified in FAR 61.156.
 Be Instrument Current & Proficient. If not, you may require additional training to ensure
proficiency.
 Have Documented Flight Time per FAR 61.159 Requirements:
o 1,500 Hours Total Time:
 500 Hours Cross Country Time
 100 Hours Night Time
 75 Hours Instrument Time of Actual or Simulated Instrument Time:
 50 Hours must be in an Airplane
 250 Hours PIC Airplane, including 100 hours cross country time and 25
hours of night flying time
 50 Hours Airplane Multiengine Land
Refer to FAR 61.160 for aeronautical experience requirements for the airplane category
restricted privileges based on either military flying experience or graduating with a

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bachelor’s degree with a major in aviation from an institution of higher education that
has been issued a letter of authorization under FAR 61.169.

Based on these prerequisites, please bring the following with you when you arrive for training:

 Valid U.S. Passport or U.S. birth certificate and government-issued photo I.D.
 FAA Airman Certificate
 U.S. Military Pilots Taking Check ride Based on Military Experience:
o Documented Military Experience
 FAA Medical Certificate
 ATP Knowledge Test Score Report (Unexpired original only, not a copy. Name must
match airman certificate exactly.)
 All Logbooks
 Headset, View Limiting Device, Kneeboard. (For your convenience, SkyWarrior includes
complimentary headsets with training; however you are encouraged to have your own
set.)

This ATP course consists of 5 hours of ground instruction and 6 hours of flight instruction prior
to an end of course flight check lasting approximately two hours. Initially, you will spend
approximately a half hour with an instructor to explain the course, an overview of the check
ride, and recommended study strategies.

The ground and flight training can be tailored to the applicant; the basic schedule that we
follow is on pages 4 - 6. The practical test with a Designated Pilot Examiner is an evaluation of
you as a single pilot under IFR conditions, so it is very important that you be instrument
proficient prior to beginning this course. The ATP Practical Test Standards (PTS) show what will
be expected of you on your check ride. The ATP PTS can be purchased in hard copy at
SkyWarrior or can be downloaded from the FAA website at http://www.FAA.gov/. Look for it
under the Training and Testing tab.

All flight training will be conducted in a Piper PA-44-180 Seminole twin engine aircraft. To
optimize your training time, it is recommended that you do the following before arriving:

 Be familiar with NACO (formerly NOS) format approach charts.

 Review all the instrument approach procedures for KPNS (except the NDB 35) and
KCEW, as well as approach procedures incorporating either course reversal or missed
approach holding patterns at NUN, JKA, CEW, CQF, and 0R1
 Study the amplified procedures in sections 3 and 4 from the Seminole Information
Manual that is available on the SkyWarrior Web site under the resources tab.
 Study the systems information in the Seminole Information Manual in sections 2
(Aircraft Systems), and 8 (Aircraft Handling, Servicing, and Maintenance) and become
familiar with the ATP PTS ( Sections 1 and 2; Tasks and Procedures)

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 Review the normal and emergency checklists, committing the bold items to memory (to
be done as a flow, then verified with the checklist)
 Familiarize yourself with the basic operation of the Garmin GNS430W (see the
supplement in the back of this guide and/or our website for useful links
(http://www.skywarriorinc.com)
 Study the Single Engine Aerodynamics section of this guide to aid in your understanding
of One Engine Inoperative (OEI) operations and procedures

The day of your practical test, you will need to budget the full day. After reviewing your
paperwork (application, logbooks, etc.), the examiner will quiz you on three main areas:
Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM), aircraft performance, and aircraft systems. You should
also be well prepared to discuss the Special Emphasis Areas listed in the PTS.

The flight portion of the practical test will most probably consist of the following tasks, most of
which shall be flown using a view limiting device. The exact profile will be determined based on
runways and approaches in use the day of the Practical Test.

 Simulated Engine Failure on Takeoff (rejected takeoff)

 Instrument Takeoff (view limiting in place at or before climbing to 100 feet AGL)
 In-flight Engine Failure (above 3,000 feet AGL) with Full Feather, Secure, and Restart
 Steep Turns
 Approaches to stalls
o Flaps up
o Flaps 25 degrees
o Flaps 40 degrees
 Unusual Attitude Recoveries
 Vmc demo *(if limited to centerline thrust)
 Holding
 Two Precision Approaches (one with simulated single engine)
 Two Non-Precision Approaches (one with simulated single engine)
 Simulated Single Engine Missed Approach
 Circle to Land
 Rejected Landing
 Emergency Descent
 Simulated Engine Failure on Climb Out
 Normal Landing
 No Flap Landing
 Simulated Single Engine Landing

Also, one non-precision approach will include a course reversal procedure turn and one
approach will be flown with reference to backup or “fail down” instrumentation or navigation
display. Typically, DPEs require one approach to be flown without the moving map display of
the GPS, relying only on the course information provided by the HSI.
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ATP FLIGHT LESSONS

All flight lessons and the end of course check flight shall be scheduled for two hours. Beginning with
flight lesson 2 all maneuvers, with the exception of the visual landing pattern, shall be conducted with
instrument reference only.

Flight Lesson 1
Normal Procedures under Visual Reference and Instrument Reference

 Normal Takeoff VR
 Approach to Stalls VR
o Flaps up / Gear up (clean cruise configuration) – 15 – 30 degrees angle of bank
o Flaps 25° Gear down (takeoff or approach configuration)
o Flaps 40° / Gear down (landing configuration)
 Steep Turns VR – at least 45 degrees angle of bank
 Emergency Descent VR
 Two-Engine Approach IR
 Traffic Patterns VR
 Two-Engine Landings VR
 Rejected Landing VR

Flight Lesson 2
Engine Failures and One Engine Inoperative Procedures, Instrument Approach Procedures

 Simulated Engine Failure on Takeoff Roll (rejected takeoff) VR

 Simulated Engine Failure During Climb VR
 Approaches to Stalls IR
o Flaps up / Gear up
o Flaps 25° Gear down
o Flaps 40° / Gear down
 Steep Turns IR
 Unusual Attitude Recoveries IR
 Actual Engine Feather/Secure/Restart (above 3,000 feet AGL) IR
 Vmc Demonstration, if required due to restriction to centerline thrust IR
 Single-Engine Approach IR
 Single-Engine Missed Approach IR
 Two-Engine Approach IR
 Simulated Single-Engine Landing VR

Flight Lesson 3
Continued Practice on Normal and One Engine Inoperative Maneuvering and Approaches

 Rejected Takeoff VR
 Engine Failure During Climb VR

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 Approach to Stalls IR
o Flaps up / Gear up
o Flaps 25° Gear down
o Flaps 40° / Gear down
 Steep Turns IR
 Engine Shutdown/Feather/Restart (above 3.000 feet AGL) IR
 Holding IR
 Two-Engine Approach – Non-precision with Procedure Turn IR
 Single-Engine Approach – Precision with Failure of Attitude Indicator IR
 Single-Engine Missed Approach IR
 No-Flap Landing VR

Flight Lesson 4
End of Course Check with Chief Instructor, Assistant Chief, or Designated Check Instructor

 Rejected Takeoff VR
 Instrument Takeoff IR
 Steep Turns IR
 Approach to Stalls IR
 Unusual Attitudes Recoveries IR
 Engine Failure In-flight/Feather/Secure/Restart (above 3,000 feet AGL) IR
 Vmc Demonstration IR
 Emergency Descent IR
 Two-engine Precision Approach and Missed Approach IR
 Single-engine Non-precision Approach IR
 Single-engine Missed Approach to Holding Fix IR
 Holding IR
 Two-engine Precision Approach with Loss of Attitude Indicator IR
 Rejected Landing VR
 Full Flap Landing VR
 Simulated Engine Failure during Climb VR
 Simulated Single-engine Landing – no Flaps VR

Note: all maneuvers must be performed to the criteria established in the ATP PTS.

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GROUND LESSONS
The first ground lesson should be completed before the first flight lesson. The other ground lessons may
be completed before or after flights two and three, but must be completed prior to the end of course
check flight.

Ground Lesson 1

 Begin the IACRA application. This must be completed and submitted subsequent to the end of
course check flight and issuance of the graduation certificate
 Review of Single Engine Aerodynamics, Vmc and Critical Engine Determination, and V Speeds
 Checklists
 Maneuvers
 Instrument Approach Procedures
 Landing Pattern Procedures
 Garmin GNS430W familiarization and operation
 Pre-Flight Preparation and Aircraft Inspection
 Review of SkyWarrior Safety Procedures Handbook

Ground Lesson 2

 PA 44-180 Seminole Aircraft Systems

 Performance Charts
 Weight and Balance

Ground Lesson 3

 Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)

 Airworthiness (Aircraft Logbook Review)
- Required Documents
- Required Equipment
- Airworthiness Directives (ADs)
- Inspections
 100 Hour
 Annual
 ELT
 Altimeter
 VOR
 Transponder

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ENGINE OUT AERODYNAMICS

When operating a twin‐engine airplane with One Engine Inoperative (OEI), the penalties
for loss of an engine are twofold: performance and control. The most obvious problem
related to airplane performance is the loss of power (50%). This loss reduces climb
performance by 80 – 90% or more. The second problem affects aircraft control caused by
the remaining thrust, which is now asymmetrical. Attention to both of these factors is
crucial in maintaining safe OEI flight.

When an engine failure occurs in a multiengine aircraft, the resultant asymmetric thrust and
drag will cause the following effects on the aircraft’s axes of rotation:
Pitch Down (Lateral Axis)

Loss of accelerated slipstream over the horizontal stabilizer causes it to produce less negative
lift, causing the aircraft to pitch down. To compensate for the pitch down effect, additional back
pressure is required.

Roll Toward the Failed Engine (Longitudinal Axis)

The wing produces less lift on the side of the failed engine due to the loss of accelerated
slipstream. Reduced lift causes a roll toward the failed engine and requires additional aileron
deflection into the operating engine.

Yaw Toward the Failed Engine (Vertical Axis)

Loss of thrust and increased drag from the windmilling propeller cause the aircraft to yaw
toward the failed engine. This requires additional rudder pressure on the side of the operating
engine. The concept of “Dead foot, dead engine” can be used in determining the inoperative
engine.

Sideslip Versus Zero Sideslip

During flight with one engine inoperative, proper pilot technique is required to maximize
aircraft performance. An important technique is to establish a Zero Sideslip Condition.

Sideslip Condition (Undesirable)

When an engine failure occurs, thrust from the operating engine yaws the aircraft. To maintain
aircraft heading with the wings level, rudder must be applied toward the operating engine. This
rudder force results in the sideslip condition by moving the nose of the aircraft in a direction
resulting in the misalignment of the fuselage and the relative wind. This condition usually
allows the pilot to maintain aircraft heading; however, it produces a high drag condition that
significantly reduces aircraft performance.

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Zero Sideslip Condition (Best Performance)

The solution to maintaining aircraft heading and reducing drag to improve performance is the
Zero Sideslip Condition. When the aircraft is banked into the operating engine (usually 2˚-5˚),
the bank angle produces a horizontal component of lift. The horizontal lift component aids in
counteracting the turning moment of the operating engine, minimizing the rudder deflection
required to align the longitudinal axis of the aircraft to the relative wind. In addition to banking
into the operating engine, the appropriate amount of rudder required is indicated by the
inclinometer ball being “split” towards the operating engine side. The Zero Sideslip Condition
aligns the fuselage with the relative wind to minimize drag and must be flown for optimum
aircraft performance.

To take full advantage of the airplane’s capabilities, performance, and safety, multiengine pilots
must be well‐trained, knowledgeable, and proficient.

Engine Inoperative Climb Performance

Climb performance depends on the excess power needed to overcome drag. As mentioned
previously, when a multiengine airplane loses an engine, the airplane loses 50% of its available
power. This power loss results in a loss of approximately 80% of the aircraft’s excess power and
climb performance. Drag is a major factor relative to the amount of excess power available. An
increase in drag must be offset by additional power.

With an engine failure, this additional power is now subtracted from the excess power, making
it unavailable to aid the aircraft in climb. When an engine is lost, the pilot must maximize thrust
(full power) and minimize drag (flaps and gear up, prop feathered, etc.) in order to achieve
optimum single-engine climb performance.

Approximate Drag Factors per the Piper Seminole Information Manual expressed as a
reduction in the rate of climb otherwise obtainable
1. Flaps 25˚.................................. -240 FPM
2. Flaps 40˚.................................. -275 FPM
3. Windmilling Prop..................... -200 FPM
4. Gear Extended......................... -250 FPM

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TURNING TENDENCIES

The turning tendencies that affect single engine airplanes (i.e. torque and P‐factor) also affect
multiengine airplanes. Given that multiengine airplanes have more than one engine, and those
engines are located off the longitudinal axis of the airplane, these effects become more
noticeable, particularly when one engine becomes inoperative.

Twin‐engine airplanes where the propellers for each engine rotate in the same direction are
called conventional twins. In an effort to mitigate the effects of torque and P‐factor during OEI
operations, some aircraft manufacturers developed twin‐engine airplanes with counter-
rotating propellers. The effects of torque and p‐factor with counter‐rotating propellers will
cancel each other out, resulting in equal rudder pressure in the event of an engine failure,
regardless of which engine may become inoperative.

Conventional Twin

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Conventional Twin

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Counter-Rotating Propeller Equipped Aircraft

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WHEN AN ENGINE FAILS

Two motions happen when an engine fails: YAW and ROLL.

1. YAW‐ Asymmetrical thrust will cause a yawing moment around the C.G. towards
the inoperative engine.

2. ROLL – The yawing moment from above will cause the wing with the operating engine
to move faster through the air as the airplane yaws. This causes an increased velocity of air
over the wing with the operative engine, meaning more lift on that wing, resulting in a roll
towards the inoperative engine.

3. ROLL – Induced flow (accelerated slipstream) over the wing from the operating engine
and lack of induced flow (accelerated slipstream) over the inoperative engine causes
asymmetrical lift on the wings, resulting in a rolling moment around the C.G. towards the
inoperative engine.

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CRITICAL ENGINE
The critical engine is the engine that, if it were to fail, would most adversely affect the
performance or handling characteristics of the airplane.

On conventional twins (with propellers rotating to the right) the critical engine is the left
engine. On a twin engine airplane with counter-rotating propellers there is not a critical
engine since the yawing and rolling effects of losing one engine will be identical no matter
which engine fails.

There are four factors that determine if an engine is critical. A useful mnemonic device to
remember is PAST.

1. P‐Factor
2. Accelerated Slipstream
3. Spiraling Slipstream
4. Torque

P-Factor (Yaw)
In conventional aircraft, both propellers turn clockwise as viewed from the cockpit. At low
airspeeds and high angles of attack, the descending blade produces more thrust than the
ascending blade due to its increased angle of attack. Though both propellers produce the same
overall thrust, the descending blade on the right engine has a longer
arm from the CG (or greater leverage) than the descending blade on the
left engine. The left engine produces the thrust closest to center line.
The yaw produced by the loss of the left engine will be greater than the
yaw produced by the loss of the right engine, making the left engine
critical.

Accelerated Slipstream (Roll and Pitch)

P-Factor causes more thrust to be produced on the right side of the propeller. This yields a
center of lift that is closer to the aircraft's longitudinal axis on the left engine and further from
the longitudinal axis on the right engine and also results in less negative lift on the tail.

Because of this, the roll produced by the loss of the left engine
will be greater than the roll produced by the loss of the right engine, making the left engine
critical.

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Spiraling Slipstream (Yaw)

A spiraling slipstream from the left engine hits the vertical stabilizer from the left, helping to

counteract the yaw produced by the loss of the right engine. However,
with a left engine failure, slipstream from the right engine does not counteract the yaw toward
the dead engine because it spirals away from the tail, making the left engine critical.

Torque (Roll)

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Since the propellers rotate clockwise, the aircraft will tend to roll counterclockwise. When the
right engine is lost, the aircraft will roll to the right. The right rolling tendency, however, is
reduced by the torque created by the left engine. When the left engine is lost, the aircraft will
roll to the left, and the torque produced by the right engine will add to the left rolling tendency
requiring more aileron input, which increases drag, making the left engine critical.

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VMC – 14 CFR Part 23.149

Every multiengine airplane must go through a certification process which includes
calculating a VMC speed. VMC is NOT a fixed airspeed under all conditions. VMC is a fixed
airspeed only for the very specific set of circumstances under which it was determined
during aircraft certification by 14 CFR Part 23.149.

§23.149 Minimum Control Speed

VMC is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made
inoperative it is possible to:
1. Maintain directional control of the airplane with that engine still inoperative,
2. Maintain straight flight at the same speed with an angle of bank of not more than
5 degrees.

VMC must not exceed 1.2 VS1 at maximum takeoff weight.

VMC must be derived using the following conditions (SMACFLUM):

1. Standard Day (15 degrees Celsius, Altimeter 29.92” at Sea Level)
2. Most unfavorable weight
3. Aft Center of Gravity (Most unfavorable center of gravity position)
4. Critical engine inoperative and the propeller in the recommended takeoff position
5. Flaps Retracted
6. Landing Gear Retracted, Trimmed for Takeoff
7. Up to 5° Angle of Bank into the operative engine
8. Maximum Power on the operative engine

NOTE
VMC deals only with directional control, not performance.

Remember, published VMC and actual VMC are two different speeds. There are many factors
that can affect VMC speed. The aircraft manufacturer determines VMC using the above
criteria.

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RECOGNIZING AND RECOVERING AT VMC

To recognize that VMC has been reached, or is about to be reached, there are four
indications.

1. Loss of directional control – the rudder pedal is depressed to its fullest travel and
the airplane is still turning towards the inoperative engine.

2. Stall warning horn – a single‐engine stall could be just as dangerous as running out
of rudder authority and could even result in a spin.

3. Aerodynamic buffeting before the stall – same reason as the stall warning horn.

4. A rapid decay of control effectiveness – any further loss of control effectiveness

could result in loss of control of the airplane.

To recover at VMC, two actions must occur (simultaneously):

1. Reduce power on the operating engine – this will reduce the asymmetrical thrust
causing the loss of directional control.
2. Pitch down – Lowering the nose of the airplane will increase the forward airspeed
making the rudder more effective in regaining and maintaining directional control.

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VMC vs. STALL SPEED

As density altitude increases, VMC speed decreases because as density altitude increases,
engine power will decrease. The decrease in engine power results in less asymmetrical
thrust, meaning the yawing from a failed engine will be less at a high density altitude than
at a lower density altitude.

Stall speed is an indicated airspeed and will remain constant as altitude increases or
decreases.

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FACTORS AFFECTING VMC

Published VMC will almost always be different than actual VMC. There are a lot of factors that
can affect this speed, but there are a few important things to remember:

A decrease in VMC is desirable because the airplane can fly slower before losing
directional control.

Factors that cause VMC to decrease:

Moving the C.G. forward will make the rudder more effective.
 Large arm to rudder = Larger rudder moment = Rudder more effective.
 Anything that will allow less rudder to be used, making more rudder
available to the pilot.

An increase in VMC is undesirable, because the airplane will lose directional control at a
higher airspeed.

Factors that cause VMC to increase:

Moving the C.G. aft will make the rudder less effective.
 Small arm to rudder = Smaller rudder moment = Rudder less effective.
 Anything that will cause more rudder to be used, making less rudder
available to the pilot.

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CENTER OF GRAVITY LOCATION

The C.G. location changes the length of the arm to the rudder: the longer the arm, the more
effective the rudder; the more effective the rudder, the lower V MC. As the C.G. moves forward,
VMC decreases; as the C.G. moves aft, VMC increases.

Performance increases as the C.G. is moved aft. As the C.G moves forward, more tail‐down
force is needed to keep the airplane level. The more tail‐down force needed, the more total lift
is required. When more lift is created (airplane flying at a higher angle of attack), more drag is
also created. The increase in drag causes the overall speed to decrease.

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AVAILABLE POWER

The more power (thrust) produced by the operating engine, the more rudder deflection is
needed to stop the resulting yaw. Using more rudder leaves less available to the pilot.
Therefore, Vmc increases as power on the operating engine is increased.

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DENSITY ALTITUDE

As density altitude increases, temperature increases, pressure decreases, and/or humidity

increases, the output of the engine or thrust created by the engine decreases. The less
thrust that is created, the less rudder input is needed to oppose the yaw.

The need for less rudder deflection leaves more rudder authority available to the pilot.
Therefore, VMC decreases. So, as density altitude increases, temperature increases, pressure
decreases, and/or humidity increases, VMC decreases.

Performance decreases as density altitude increases, temperature increases, humidity

increases, and/or pressure decreases. With air being less dense, not only does the engine
become less efficient, but the propeller and wings also have decreased performance due to
having less air molecules available to create thrust and lift.

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GEAR POSITION
As the landing gear operates to retract or extend, the C.G. location moves in the direction of
travel of the nose gear.

The change in C.G. can affect VMC speed as stated previously. In the extended (down) position,
the landing gear can also act like the keel of a boat, giving the airplane a stabilizing effect. This
stabilizing effect helps prevent a yaw, thereby lowering VMC.

NOTE
The current Piper Seminole POH/IM states: “fuel burn off and gear movement
do not significantly affect C.G. location (page 615).”

Extending the landing gear always decreases performance due to parasite drag.

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PROPELLER WINDMILLING VERSUS PROPELLER FEATHERED

A windmilling propeller creates more drag than a feathered propeller. This extra drag adds to
the yawing due to asymmetric thrust to make the total effect worse. This situation will require
more rudder deflection to maintain directional control, which means that less rudder is
available to the pilot, thereby increasing VMC. Once the propeller is feathered the drag is
reduced, thereby reducing VMC.

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FLAP POSITION

When the flaps are down the wings create more lift than if the flaps were up. However, when
lift is created, drag is also created (as lift increase, drag increases).

The side with the operating engine is creating even more lift because of the accelerated air
flowing over the wing. When the flaps are extended, the drag caused by the accelerated flow
opposes the yaw caused by the inoperative engine allowing the pilot to use less rudder
deflection to maintain heading. Having more rudder authority available to the pilot lowers VMC.

It should be noted more lift on the right wing will cause a roll to the left. If ailerons are used to
counteract the rolling of the airplane, the drag from the adverse aileron yaw will actually
increase the yaw towards the inoperative engine.

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GROSS WEIGHT

The weight of the airplane determines the amount of total lift required by the airplane to
maintain level flight. As the airplane is banked, the lift is separated into horizontal and vertical
components of lift.

The horizontal component of lift (the force that causes the airplane to turn) will help oppose
the yaw due to an inoperative engine. The more weight, the more horizontal lift is available to
oppose the turn from the inoperative engine.

This means that horizontal lift can be used along with rudder to stop the turn. When more
horizontal lift is available, less rudder deflection is needed, which means more rudder authority
is available to the pilot and VMC decreases. So, as weight increases, VMC speed decreases. As
weight decreases, VMC increases.

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The larger horizontal component of lift on the heavier airplane will make the resulting yaw
smaller. This also reduces the amount of rudder needed to maintain the airplane’s heading.
A higher weight always lowers performance because it decreases the amount of excess thrust
available. This is especially true during one‐engine inoperative operations.

Fuel consumption will also lower the weight of an aircraft during flight, increasing VMC and
airplane performance. The amount it affects weight depends on the rate at which the fuel is
consumed.

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2°-3° BANK TOWARD OPERATING ENGINE

In this example, both rudder and a small amount of bank are used to maintain a constant
heading.

This bank angle and rudder combination results in a Zero Sideslip condition. A Zero Sideslip
condition exists when the relative wind is directly parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
airplane. This condition results in the minimum amount drag possible when an engine is failed.

VMC speed will be lower in this case (compared to 0° bank) for two reasons:
1. The angle of attack on the rudder is larger making it more effective.
2. The amount of rudder needed and used is less than in the 0° of bank scenario since it
is more effective. Also, the horizontal component of lift is now helping to oppose the
yaw from the inoperative engine (meaning less rudder deflection will be required).

The result is more rudder authority is available to the pilot, which will lower VMC.

Performance will increase due to the smaller amount of drag.

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5° BANK TOWARDS INOPERATIVE ENGINE

In this example, the airplane is banked towards the inoperative engine

Banking towards the inoperative engine will cause the horizontal lift from the wings to add to
the yaw from the inoperative engine. The relative wind will create a fuselage lift that opposes
the yaw. The angle of the relative wind with the rudder will create a small angle of attack
making the rudder less effective. To maintain heading the pilot will have to use a very large
amount of rudder. This increases VMC significantly.

The performance of the airplane will decrease because the angle of the relative wind will result
in a slipping condition and cause a large amount of drag on the airplane.

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KEY PERFORMANCE NUMBERS

V – Speeds
Multiengine airplanes use the same nomenclature to identify velocities, “V”‐speeds, as
single‐engine airplanes. However, multiengine airplanes have additional “V”‐speeds and
airspeed indicator markings unique to OEI flight.

Unless otherwise noted, “V”‐speeds given in the AFM/POH/IM apply to sea level pressure,
and standard day conditions at the airplane’s maximum certificated takeoff weight.
Performance speeds will vary with aircraft weight, configuration, and atmospheric
conditions. A review of some familiar key “V” speeds and several new speeds unique to
multiengine airplane operations is provided below.

VSO – 55 KTS – Stall speed in landing configuration (bottom of the white arc).

VMC – 56 KTS - Minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative. The minimum
speed at which directional control can be maintained under a very specific set of circumstances
outlined in 14 CFR Part 23, Airworthiness Standards.
 Indicated as a red radial line on most airspeed indicators.
VMC only addresses directional control.

VS – 57 KTS – Stall speed with flaps retracted.

VR – 75 KTS - Rotation speed. The speed at which back‐pressure is applied to rotate the
airplane to a takeoff attitude.

VX – 82 KTS - Best angle of climb speed. This is the speed at which the airplane will gain the
greatest altitude for a given distance of forward travel. Required climb gradient is
normally expressed as feet per nautical mile.

VXSE – 82 KTS - Best angle of climb speed with one engine inoperative.

VSSE – 82 KTS - Safe, intentional one‐engine‐inoperative speed. Originally known as safe

single engine speed, it is the minimum speed to intentionally render the critical engine
inoperative.
• Required by 14 CFR Part 23, Airworthiness Standards, to be established and
published in the AFM/POH.

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VY – 88 KTS - Best rate of climb speed. This is the speed at which the airplane will gain the
most altitude for a given unit of time, normally expressed in feet per minute.

VYSE – 88 KTS - Best rate of climb speed with one engine inoperative.
• Indicated as a blue radial line on most airspeed indicators.

VFE - 111 KTS – Maximum flaps extended speed (top of the white arc).

VLO (UP) – 109 KTS - Maximum landing gear retraction speed.

VLO (Down) – 140 KTS – Maximum landing gear extension speed.

VLE – 140 KTS – Maximum landing gear extended speed.

VNO – 169 KTS – Maximum structural cruising speed.

VNE – 202 KTS – Never exceed speed.

VA – 135 KTS – Maneuvering Speed at 3800 pounds.

VA – 112 KTS – Maneuvering speed at 2700 pounds.

Maximum demonstrated crosswind component 17 KTS.

An important point to note: VMC addresses Directional Control only. If an engine failure occurs
below VMC while the airplane is on the ground, there is insufficient airflow crossing the rudder
surface to maintain directional control and the takeoff must be aborted. Directional control can
only be maintained by promptly closing both throttles and using nose wheel steering and
brakes as required to stop the airplane.

After lift-off, the next consideration is to gain altitude as rapidly as possible. After leaving the
ground, altitude gain is more important than achieving an excess of airspeed. Experience has
shown that excessive speed cannot be effectively converted into altitude in the event of an
engine failure. Altitude gives the pilot time to think and react. Therefore, the airplane should be
allowed to accelerate in a shallow climb to attain VY, the best all-engine rate-of-climb speed. VY
should then be maintained until a safe single-engine maneuvering altitude, considering terrain
and obstructions, is achieved.

In OEI flight at low altitudes and airspeeds, such as the initial climb after takeoff, pilots must
operate the airplane so as to guard against the three major accident factors: (1) loss of
directional control, (2) loss of performance, and (3) loss of flying speed. All have equal potential
to be lethal

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PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS

Accelerate-stop distance is the runway length required to accelerate to a specified speed

(either VR or VLOF, as specified by the manufacturer), experience an engine failure, and bring
the airplane to a complete stop.

Accelerate-go distance is the horizontal distance required to continue the takeoff and climb
to 50’ AGL, assuming an engine failure occurs at VR or VLOF, as specified by the manufacturer
(see diagram below).

14 CFR Part 91 does not specifically require that the runway length be equal to or greater
than the accelerate‐stop distance. Most AFM/POHs publish accelerate‐stop distances only
as an advisory. It becomes a limitation only when published in the limitations section of
the AFM/POH. Using runway lengths of at least the accelerate‐stop distance is a good
operating and safety practice.

SINGLE ENGINE CLIMB PERFORMANCE

FAR 23.67 is the regulation that establishes the single‐engine climb performance
requirements for airplane manufacturers seeking FAA certification of multiengine aircraft.
Specifically;

For aircraft with a maximum weight of 6,000 lbs., or less and a VSO of 61 knots or less:

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The single‐engine rate of climb at a pressure altitude of 5,000’ must simply be determined
with the—
1. Critical engine inoperative and its propeller in the minimum drag position
2. Remaining engine(s) at no more than maximum continuous power
3. Landing gear retracted
4. Wing flaps retracted
5. Climb speed not less than 1.2VS1
• The rate of climb could be a negative number – meaning a descent
• There is no requirement for a single‐engine positive rate of climb at 5,000 ft., nor
any other altitude.
For Aircraft with a maximum weight of 6,000 lbs. or less, and/or VSO more than 61 knots:

If certified before February 4, 1991: the single engine rate of climb in feet per minute at
5,000’ MSL must be equal to at least .027 VSO2 (VSO Squared)

If certified after February 4, 1991: maintain a steady climb gradient of at least 1.5 percent
at a pressure altitude of 5,000 ft. with the—

1. Critical engine inoperative and its propeller in the minimum drag position
2. Remaining engine(s) at no more than maximum continuous power
3. Landing gear retracted
4. Wing flaps retracted
5. Climb speed not less than 1.2 VS1
Rate of climb is the altitude gain per unit of time.

Climb gradient is the actual measure of altitude gained per 100 ft. of horizontal travel,
expressed as a percentage.
 An altitude gain of 1.5 ft. per 100 ft. of horizontal travel (or 15 ft. per 1,000, or
150 ft. per 10,000) is a climb gradient of 1.5 percent.

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ENGINE ALTITUDE LIMITATIONS

All-Engine Service Ceiling ‐ the highest altitude at which the airplane can maintain a
steady rate of climb of 100 fpm with both engines operating at full power.

All-Engine Absolute Ceiling ‐ the altitude where climb is no longer possible with both
engines operating at full power.

Single-Engine Service Ceiling ‐ the highest altitude at which the airplane can maintain a
steady rate of climb of 50 fpm with one engine operating at full power and one engine’s
propeller feathered.

Single-Engine Absolute Ceiling ‐ the altitude where climb is no longer possible with one
engine operating at full power and one engine’s propeller feathered.

If a multiengine airplane is flying above the single‐engine service ceiling and one engine
fails in flight, the airplane will drift down from the failure altitude to the single‐engine
absolute ceiling.
• Above the single‐engine absolute ceiling, VYSE yields the minimum rate of sink.
• For example if an airplane’s single‐engine absolute ceiling is 5,000 ft. and while
cruising at 9,000 ft. an engine fails, the airplane will drift down (descend) to 5,000 ft.
Maintaining VYSE will provide the slowest drift-down (descent) to the single-engine
absolute service ceiling.

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PIPER PA-44-180, SEMINOLE SYSTEMS

AIRFRAME

The basic airframe is constructed of an aluminum alloy. The fuselage is a semi‐monocoque

structure, meaning both the internal supports and the metal skin share the load of the airplane.

The Seminole has an entry/exit door on the forward right (passenger) side of the fuselage, a
cargo door on the aft right side of the fuselage, and an emergency egress available through the
forward left (pilot) window.

The wings are semi‐tapered and attached to the fuselage by one main spar and two auxiliary
(front/rear) spars. The rear spar, in addition to taking torque and drag loads, provides a mount
for flaps and ailerons.

ENGINES

The Piper Seminole is powered by two Lycoming four‐cylinder O‐360‐A1H6 engines rated at
180 hp at 2700 RPM.

The engines are carbureted, direct‐drive, horizontally opposed, air cooled engines. The right
engine model is called a LO‐360‐A1H6, with the L standing for left‐turning. The 360 stands for
the number of inches of cubic displacement in the cylinders, and the A1H6 stands as a
manufacturer code for the type of accessories used on the engine and the type of propeller
mount on the front of the engine.

A useful mnemonic device to use is LHAND:

L – Lycoming O-360-A1H6
H – Horizontally Opposed
A – Air cooled
N – Normally Aspirated
D – Direct Drive

Each engine is equipped with an oil cooler with a low temperature bypass system and engine
mounted oil filter. The bypass system only lets oil flow through the oil cooler if the oil is hot
enough to need to be cooled.

The oil system can hold a maximum of 6 quarts and can be run on a minimum of 4 quarts.
SkyWarrior requires a minimum of 4.5 quarts before flight. Each engine has its own specific
dipstick and they cannot be interchanged. Each dipstick has the words “LEFT ENGINE” or

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“RIGHT ENGINE” stamped on it (as shown below).

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COWL FLAPS

Each engine has a manually operated cowl flap which is used to vary the amount of air flowing
through the engine cowling. This air will cool the engine and keep it at normal operating
temperatures. The cowl flaps have three positions (open, intermediate, and closed) and must
be unlocked by pushing the metal lever in to move the cowl flap lever. Push down to open the
cowl flaps, pull up to close.

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PROPELLERS

The Seminole has counter‐rotating propellers that provide balanced thrust during takeoff and
climb and eliminate the critical engine factor in one engine inoperative flight.

The propellers are two‐bladed, constant‐speed, controllable‐pitch and full‐feathering Hartzell

propellers. Propeller pitch is controlled by oil pressure, a hub spring, counterweights, and
nitrogen pressure. Governors supply engine oil at various pressures to the propeller hub to
maintain constant RPM settings. Each governor controls engine speed by varying the pitch of
the propeller to match load torque to engine torque in response to changing flight conditions.

Feathering
Feathering is accomplished by moving the propeller control full aft into the detent position.
Feathering takes approximately 10-17 seconds. A feathering lock or centrifugal stop pin,
operated by centrifugal force, will prevent feathering during engine shutdown by making it
impossible to feather anytime the engine speed falls below 950 RPM. This will prevent
excessive loads on the engine starter during the next engine start.
Regardless of the propeller control position, if oil pressure is lost, the propeller will feather
when the RPM is above 950 RPM. Typically, RPM will be above 950 in flight and during takeoff
and landing due to airflow over the propeller.

Propeller Overspeed
Propeller overspeed is usually caused by a malfunction in the propeller governor, which allows
the propeller blades to rotate to full low pitch. If propeller overspeed should occur, retard the
throttle. The propeller control should be moved to full “DECREASE RPM” and then set to a
normal operating RPM if any control is available. Airspeed should be reduced and the throttle
used to maintain a maximum of 2700 RPM.

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LANDING GEAR

Operation of the landing gear is electrically activated and hydraulically actuated. The landing
gear system uses an electric 12‐volt, reversible pump to move hydraulic fluid. The hydraulic
fluid flows in and out of an actuator that, in turn, raises and lowers the landing gear.

The landing gear pump is located behind the baggage compartment aft bulkhead (a removable
plastic panel). Landing gear extension or retraction takes 6 to 7 seconds.
There are also a series of up‐limit, down‐limit, and squat switches that control the system.

When raising or lowering the landing gear, the hydraulic pump will activate and move hydraulic
fluid from one side of each landing gear actuator to the other. This fluid motion moves a piston
connected to an actuator rod that is connected to the appropriate main landing gear or nose
gear. The main gear actuators are located near the wheels under each wing.

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Each main gear and the nose gear have an up‐limit switch and a down‐limit switch to sense gear
position. The left main gear has a squat switch. A squat switch determines if the airplane is
airborne or still on the ground. The squat switch prevents accidental gear retraction on the
ground, and deactivates the stall warning horn. When the gear is retracted, it is held in the UP
position only by hydraulic pressure. When the gear is fully extended (DOWN), it is locked
down by a down‐lock (called a “J‐Hook” because of its shape), a spring that keeps tension on
the J‐Hook, and an over‐center joint which helps keep the gear down in the event of a
side‐loaded landing. There are also mirrors mounted on the engine nacelles to allow visual
confirmation that the nose wheel is extended.

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The three green landing gear annunciator lights are illuminated when the down‐limit
switches are depressed. The red WARN GEAR UNSAFE light illuminates when any one of
the down‐limit switches are not depressed (meaning the gear is not totally down), or
up‐limit switches are not depressed (meaning the gear is still in transit and not all the way
up). All three of the indicator lights are interchangeable to allow troubleshooting possible
landing gear extension problems.

The landing gear warning system is activated under any of the following conditions:
1. The landing gear is not locked down with the throttle lever positioned below approximately
15" manifold pressure (MP) on one or both engines.
2. The landing gear is not locked down with wing flaps selected to 25˚ or 40˚.
3. The landing gear handle is in the up position on the ground (tested only by authorized
maintenance personnel).

Landing gear retraction on the ground is prevented by a squat switch located on the left main
landing gear. On the ground, the switch is open, preventing electrical current from reaching the

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hydraulic pump. Once airborne, the strut becomes fully extended, closing the switch that allows
current to reach the hydraulic pump.
In the event of a hydraulic malfunction, the landing gear may be extended by the use of the red
emergency gear extension knob. After placing the landing gear selector in the down position,
pulling the red emergency gear extension knob releases the hydraulic pressure which is holding
the landing gear in the up position and allows the landing gear to free-fall down. The positive
gear down indication is 3 green lights. Emergency landing gear extension is limited to a
maximum of 100 KIAS due to air-load on the nose gear. When dealing with a suspected landing
gear problem, it is important to verify the position of the navigation light switch. Turning this
switch on will cause the green lights to be dimmed and, in some cases, make them impossible
to see during the day. As with any emergency or abnormality, always refer to the appropriate
checklist.

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LANDING GEAR OPERATION

To raise the landing gear, the Gear Selector switch must be pulled out slightly and placed
(lifted) to the UP position. The hydraulic pump will start and pump fluid into the “retract” side
of all three actuators. The down‐locks will disengage, the red WARN GEAR UNSAFE light will
illuminate, and the landing gear will be retracted by the hydraulic actuators. The hydraulic
pump will continue to operate and build‐up hydraulic pressure until a pressure switch is
activated to shut‐off the pump. The red WARN GEAR UNSAFE light will extinguish when all
three up‐limit switches are depressed. The up‐limit switches do not turn the gear pump off. The
gear is held in the up position only by hydraulic pressure.

To lower the landing gear, the Gear Selector switch is placed in the Down position. The
hydraulic pump will start and pump fluid into the opposite side of the three hydraulic actuators.
The landing gear will begin to extend, assisted by gravity and springs. When the up‐limit
switches are not depressed, the red WARN GEAR UNSAFE light will illuminate. The landing gear
pump will continue to operate until all three down‐limit switches are depressed. The
down‐limit switches will also cause the three green landing gear position lights to illuminate.
After all three down‐limit switches are depressed, the red WARN GEAR UNSAFE light will
extinguish.

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Never move the Gear Selector switch in the opposite direction (from Up to Down, or Down to
Up) while the hydraulic pump is running. Doing so could damage the gear pump. Wait until the
landing gear has finished its extension or retraction cycle completely and then move the Gear
Selector switch to the desired position.
If the NAV lights are ON, the landing gear annunciator lights will automatically dim. This may
make it difficult to see if all three green lights are illuminated. It is acceptable to briefly turn
the NAV lights OFF to verify that the three green lights are illuminated to ensure that the
landing gear is down and locked.

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LANDING GEAR WARNING HORN

The Seminole has a landing gear warning horn to help prevent unintentional gear up
landings. When activated, the horn beeps at 90 cycles per second and the red WARN GEAR
UNSAFE light will illuminate.

The landing gear warning horn will sound in the following three scenarios:

1. The landing gear is not down and locked, and the manifold pressure (MP) is below
14” on one or both engines. This is accomplished by micro‐switches positioned on
the throttle quadrant near the throttles themselves (not from a MP indication).
Because the positioning of the micro‐switches are critical to the accuracy of horn
actuation, any variation in the location of these switches will cause the gear horn to
sound at a MP higher or lower than 14”, as appropriate.
2. Flaps are extended to the 25 degrees or 40 degrees, and the landing gear is not
down and locked.
3. If the Gear Selector switch is in the UP position when the airplane is on the ground.

LANDING GEAR EMERGENCY EXTENSION

If the landing gear does not extend correctly, there is an emergency extension procedure.
Always refer to the proper checklist when conducting this procedure. The emergency extension
utilizes a basic pressure relief valve.

The landing gear is held in the UP position by hydraulic pressure. If that pressure is released,
gravity will cause the landing gear to free‐fall to the Down position. While the landing gear is
extending, the piston in the hydraulic actuator will move the hydraulic fluid into the extension
side of the gear actuators.

When using the Emergency Gear Extension control, move the metal guard up and out of the
way of the knob and pull the knob out fully. Leave it out fully. Only SkyWarrior Maintenance
personnel should push the control knob back in, and only after the landing gear system has
been checked. The maximum emergency extension speed is 100 KIAS.

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OVERCENTER JOINT

The over‐center joint helps to keep the landing gear fully extended in the event of any side
loading during landing. “Over‐center” means that, instead of the joint being in a straight line, it
is slightly bent to utilize the force of a side load to help keep the gear down and locked.

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BRAKES

The wheel brakes consist of two single‐disc, double‐puck brake assemblies, one on each
main wheel. There are four master brake cylinders, one located behind each rudder pedal.

To set the parking brake, depress the brake pedals first and then pull the parking brake
handle up. Setting the parking brake activates a valve that traps hydraulic pressure in the
brake lines. Hydraulic fluid for the brakes and the parking brake valve are located in the
nose compartment.

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FLAPS

The Seminole incorporates plain flaps that are extended and retracted by a manual flap control
handle located between the two front seats. The flaps are extended by a control cable and
pushrods with the use of the flap control handle. The flaps can be selected in 4 different
positions: 0, 10, 25, and 40 degrees.

The flaps are spring‐loaded to return to the retracted (0°) position. The flap control handle
incorporates a button that must be pressed when retracting the flaps. The button does not
need to be depressed to extend the flaps. The right flap incorporates a lock to allow the right
flap to be used as a step when fully retracted.

The maximum flaps extended speed is 111 KIAS.

FUEL SYSTEM

There are two 55 gallon total fuel cells (54 usable); one in each nacelle (behind each engine).
The total capacity is 110 gallons, with 108 gallons of usable fuel. The fuel tanks are made of
rubber bladders. There are four fuel vents, one in each fuel filler cap and one under each wing.
The vents under the wing feature an anti‐icing design. The curvature in front of the fuel vent
disturbs the air and prevents ice from forming on the exposed fuel vent.

If fuel is spilled by the fuel cap, or if the tank is over filled, a drain called a scupper drain
removes the excess fuel. The scupper drain is located underneath the engine on each wing.

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Two fuel drains are located on the right side of the fuselage near the baggage door.
The system also contains two engine‐driven fuel pumps and two electrical fuel pumps. The
electric fuel pumps are used during start (priming the engine), takeoff, maneuvering, fuel
selector manipulation, and are a backup in case the engine driven pumps fail. When priming
the engine only three of the cylinders are primed; the fourth cylinder, where manifold pressure
is measured, is not primed. The electric fuel pumps must be on to prime the engine.

The manifold pressure gauge measures the absolute pressure of the fuel/air mixture inside the
intake manifold and is more correctly a measure of manifold absolute pressure (MAP). (The
intake manifold is the pipe that carries the fuel air mixture to the cylinder from the carburetor).
At a constant rpm and altitude, the amount of power produced is directly related to the fuel/air
flow being delivered to the combustion chamber. As the throttle setting is increased, more fuel
and air flows to the engine and MAP increases. When the engine is not running, the manifold
pressure gauge indicates ambient air pressure (i.e., 29.92 inches of mercury at sea level on a
standard day).

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There is a fuel selector for each engine that has a 3‐position switch (ON, OFF, X‐Feed (cross
feed). If the left engine fuel selector is ON, fuel will be used from the left tank to the left engine.
If the left engine fuel selector is OFF, no fuel will flow to the left engine. If the left engine fuel
selector is in the X‐Feed position, fuel will be fed from the right fuel tank to the left engine. The
right fuel selector works in a similar way, but with the opposite tank.

The cross feed position should only be used in level flight and then only to keep the fuel load
balanced across the airplane (usually in a single engine scenario). In flight, the fuel selectors
should never both be in the X‐Feed position. Do not takeoff or land with a fuel selector in the
X‐Feed position.

NOTE
When one engine is inoperative and the fuel selector for the operating engine is on X FEED the
selector for the inoperative engine must be in the OFF position. Do not operate with both
selectors on X FEED. Do not take off or land with a selector on X FEED.

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There are two fuel quantity gauges as well as two fuel pressure gauges located on the
instrument panel in front of the pilot.

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ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

The electrical system is a negative‐ground, dual‐fed, split‐bus system. There are two belt driven,
14‐volt, 60-ampere alternators; one mounted on each engine.

The Seminole is equipped with a 14-volt electrical system which utilizes push-pull type circuit
breakers; a 12-volt, 35 amp hour battery; and two 60-amp, engine-driven alternators. Voltage
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regulators maintain constant 14-volt output from each alternator at varying engine RPMs,
effectively sharing the electrical load. Loss of one alternator is indicated by an annunciator light
and a zero indication on the affected load meter. The remaining alternator will normally
provide adequate electrical power.

An over-voltage relay in each alternator circuit provides system protection by taking an

alternator off-line if its output exceeds l7-volts. If this occurs, the ALT annunciator will
illuminate. The battery is used as a source of emergency electrical power and for engine starts.
High current drain items include the lights, vent fan, heater, gear hydraulic pump, radios, and
GPS. If an electrical problem arises, always check the circuit breakers. If a circuit breaker is
popped, reset only one time.

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VACUUM SYSTEM

The Seminole is equipped with two engine-driven vacuum pumps. The vacuum system operates
the attitude gyro and the directional gyro element of the HSI. Suction limits are 4.8 to 5.2
inches of mercury at 2000 RPM. The failure of a vacuum pump is indicated by an annunciator
panel light and a red, pump inoperative indicator on the vacuum gauge. In most circumstances,
the failure of one pump alone will not cause the loss of any instruments because the remaining
pump should handle the entire vacuum demand.

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PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

The pitot static system supplies pitot and static pressure to the airspeed indicator and static
pressure to the altimeter, vertical speed indictor, and blind encoder. (The blind encoder is what
sends the altitude of the airplane to ATC.)

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The pitot and static lines can be drained of water through drain valves located inside the
cabin to the left of the pilot seat near the floor. To drain press the buttons in and any water in
the lines will drain out the middle of the button.

An alternate static source located under the left side of the instrument panel will allow air from
inside the cabin for static pressure. The cabin vents and storm window must be closed and the
cabin heat and defroster must be on when using the alternate static source.

The pitot mast is also heated for de‐icing or anti‐icing if unintentionally encountering icing
conditions in flight.

ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM

The environmental system provides both fresh outside air and heated air for cabin heat and
defrosters. There is an air blower near the tail of the airplane and a Janitrol combustion heater,
which is located in the nose compartment of the airplane.

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COMBUSTION HEATER

Heat to the cabin is supplied by either a Janitrol or a Kelly gas combustion heater located in the
nose compartment. Air from the heater is distributed by a manifold to the ducts along the cabin
floor to outlets at each seat and to the defroster outlet. Operation of the heater is controlled by
a three-position switch located on the instrument panel labeled “CABIN HEAT”, “OFF”, and
“FAN.” Airflow and temperature are regulated by the three levers to the right of the switch:
“AIR INTAKE”, “TEMP”, and “DEF.”
For cabin heat, the “AIR INTAKE” lever must be fully open and the “CABIN HEAT” switch must
be on. This simultaneously starts fuel flow and ignites the heater. During ground operation, it
also activates the ventilation blower. When cabin air reaches the temperature selected on the
“TEMP” lever, ignition of the heater cycles automatically to maintain the selected temperature.
Two safety switches located on the front of the heater unit prevent both fan and heater
operation when the air intake lever is in the closed position. When the heater is on, a
ventilation blower actuates any time the landing gear is extended. In flight, a micro switch,
which actuates when the gear is retracted, turns off the ventilation blower so that the cabin air
is circulated by ram air pressure only.
An overheat switch in the heater acts as a safety device to render the heater inoperative if a
malfunction should occur. Should the switch deactivate the heater, the red “HEATER OVER
TEMP” annunciator light on the instrument panel, will illuminate. The overheat switch is
located on the aft inboard end of the heater vent jacket. A red reset button is located on the
heater shroud in the nose cone compartment.
To prevent activation of the overheat switch upon normal heater shutdown during ground
operation, turn the three-position switch to “FAN” for two minutes with the air intake lever in
the open position before turning the switch off. During flight, leave the air intake open for a
minimum of 15 seconds after turning the switch to off.
Fuel is supplied to the heater at a rate of ½ gallon per hour from downstream of the left fuel
selector and filter.

To introduce outside, unheated air into the cabin during flight, the “AIR INTAKE” lever should
be open and the “CABIN HEAT” switch must be off. A fresh air blower is installed to provide
airflow during ground operation. It is operated by a high/low blower fan switch.

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ANNUNCIATOR PANEL AND WARNING LIGHTS

STALL WARNING SYSTEM

Stall warning vanes on the left wing are enabled by the squat switch once the airplane is
airborne. They cause an aural warning when airplane is approximately 5‐10 knots above stall
speed. The outboard stall warning vane operates when flaps are set at 0 or 10 degrees. The
inboard stall warning vane operates when the flaps are set at 25 and 40 degrees.

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EMERGENCY EXIT

The left window can be removed to be used as an emergency exit. To open the exit, remove
the plastic cover from over the handle, pull the handle towards the nose of the airplane,
and push the window out. The window will then free fall out of the frame. This exit should
only be opened and used when on the ground.

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EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER (ELT)

The ELT is located in the aft fuselage section of the airplane. It runs off its own self-contained
battery. The battery must be replaced after 1 hour of cumulative use, after it has been used in
an emergency situation, or after the replacement date on the battery, which is half the shelf life
of the battery. It can be tested during the first 5 minutes after the hour for no more than 3
audio sweeps. There is an automatic G‐switch that will turn on the ELT after a hard landing or a
crash, and a remote switch located on the instrument panel that can turn on the ELT anytime.

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PROCEDURES AND MANEUVERS

Pre-maneuver Checklist
1. Fuel Selectors- on
2. Fuel pumps- on
3. Landing light- on
4. Props- Full Forward (for maneuvers such as stall recoveries that require full power)

Steep Turns ATP and CMEL

1. Clearing turns - Complete
2. Pre-maneuver checklist - Complete
3. Power-18”/2400 RPM (110 KIAS) Note: this should yield an airspeed below VA
4. Note target heading
5. Roll into a 360o turn at a 45o bank for ATP, at least 50o for CMEL
6. Rolling through 30o bank pitch up slightly and add 1”-2” MP
7. Roll out (lead by ½ the bank angle)
8. Pitch down to horizon and decrease power 1”-2” MP
9. Repeat 360o turn in the opposite direction

Slow Flight CMEL

1. Clearing turns – complete (entry altitude at or above 4,000’ AGL)
2. Pre-maneuver checklist complete
3. Power 15” MP
4. Landing Gear down (below 140 KIAS)
5. Lower flaps in increments to 40o (below 111 KIAS)
6. Increase power as needed to maintain 60 KIAS
7. Recover – add full throttle, retract flaps to 25p, retract landing gear, and retract remaining flaps
in increments
8. Re-establish cruise on assigned heading and altitude – power 18” airspeed 110 KIAS

Approach to stall in Landing Configuration (landing gear down; full flaps) ATP
1. Clearing turns complete (entry altitude at or above 4,000’ AGL)
2. Pre-maneuver checklist complete
3. Note target heading
4. Power 15 “MP
5. Landing Gear down (below 140 KIAS)
6. Flaps down (below 111 KIAS)
7. Maintain heading and altitude
8. Recover at first indication of stall (normally this will be the stall warning horn)
9. Power- full
10. Pitch to reduce angle of attack
11. Flaps- retract to 25o
12. Landing Gear retract
13. Retract remaining flaps in increments, minimize altitude loss
14. Level off at 110 KIAS - power 18” MP
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Power Off Stall in Landing Configuration (landing gear down, full flaps) CMEL
1. Clearing turns complete (entry altitude at or above 4,000’AGL)
2. Pre-maneuver checklist complete
3. Note target heading
4. Power 15” MP
5. Landing gear down (below 140 KIAS)
6. Flaps down (below 111 KIAS)
7. Maintain heading and establish a stabilized descent at 80 KIAS
8. Reduce power to idle and maintain altitude and heading
9. Recover at the onset of buffet
10. Power – full
11. Pitch to reduce angle of attack
12. Flaps – retract to 25o
13. Landing gear retract with a positive rate of climb
14. Retract remaining flaps in increments
15. Level off at 110 KIAS – power 18” MP

Approach to stall in Approach Configuration (landing gear down; 25 degrees flaps) ATP
1. Clearing turns complete (entry altitude at or above 4,000’ AGL)
2. Pre-maneuver checklist complete
3. Note target heading
4. Power 15“ MP
5. Landing Gear down (below 140 KIAS)
6. Flaps down to 25o (below 111 KIAS)
7. Maintain Heading and Altitude
8. Recover at first indication of stall
9. Power- Full
10. Pitch to reduce angle of attack
11. Landing Gear retract
12. Retract flaps in increments, minimize altitude loss
13. Level off at 110 KIAS – power 18” MP

Power On Stall in Short Field Takeoff Configuration (landing gear down; 25 degrees flaps) CMEL
1. Clearing turns complete (entry altitude at or above 4,000’ AGL)
2. Pre-maneuver checklist complete
3. Note target heading
4. Power 15 “MP
5. Landing Gear down (below 140 KIAS)
6. Flaps down to 25o (below 111 KIAS)
7. Maintain heading and altitude and decelerate to VR (75 KIAS)
8. Throttle to 20” MP and raise nose to decelerate, maintaining heading
9. Recover at the onset of buffet
10. Power – full
11. Pitch to reduce angle of attack
12. Landing gear retract with a positive rate of climb

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13. Retract flaps in increments, accelerating to VY (88 KIAS)

14. Level off at 110 KIAS – power 18” MP

Approach to stall in the Clean Cruise Configuration; 15-30° angle of bank ATP
1. Clearing turns complete (entry altitude at or above 4,000’ AGL)
2. Pre-maneuver checklist complete
3. Note target altitude
4. Power- 15 “MP
5. Bank- 15°-30°
6. Pitch- nose up to maintain altitude
7. Recover at first indication of stall
8. Lower nose to horizon
9. Power- full
10. Wings- Level
11. Stabilize at 110 KIAS, 18” MP

Accelerated Stall in the Clean Cruise Configuration CMEL

1. Clearing turns complete (entry altitude at or above 4,000’ AGL)
2. Pre-maneuver checklist complete
3. Note target altitude
4. Power- 15“ MP, decelerate to 75 KIAS
5. Bank- 45°
6. Pitch- nose up to maintain altitude, increasing elevator pressure steadily to induce a stall
7. Recover at the first indication of a stall
8. Apply forward elevated pressure as required to reduce the AOA
9. Level the wings
10. Adjust power as necessary
11. Stabilize at 110 KIAS, 18” MP

Recovery from Unusual Attitudes ATP

1. Clearing turns complete (entry altitude at or above 4,000’ AGL)
2. Pre-maneuver checklist complete

Nose Low Recovery

1. Power – idle
2. Wings – level
3. Pitch – up to horizon

Nose High Recovery

1. Pitch – down to horizon
2. Power – full
3. Wings – Level

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VMC Demonstration ATP (only if required) and CMEL

1. Clearing turns complete (entry altitude at or above 4,000’ AGL)
2. Pre-maneuver checklist complete
3. Landing gear and flaps up, cowl flaps open
4. Reduce power to idle on the left engine (simulating the loss of the critical engine in a
conventional light twin)
5. Add full power on the right engine
6. Airspeed 10 knots above VSSE (82 KIAS)
7. Maintain heading with rudder
8. Bank up to 5o into the operating engine
9. Pitch up to slow the airspeed at approximately 1 knot per second
10. Recover at first indication of a stall or loss of directional control
11. Reduce power to idle on the right engine
12. Pitch down to gain airspeed (at least 82 KIAS) and regain directional control/prevent stall
13. Power full on right engine
14. Pitch for VYSE (88 KIAS), match throttles at 18” of MP and return to cruise flight

Short Field Takeoff (over obstacle) CMEL

1. Use all available runway
2. Flaps set at 25o
3. Hold brakes
4. Power to 2,000 RPM
5. All engine instruments in the green
6. Full power (2,700 RPM, approximately 28 – 29” MP)
7. Release brakes
8. Rotate at 63 KIAS, pitch for 67 KIAS
9. Positive rate of climb, landing gear retract
10. Once clear of the obstacle, retract flaps in increments, accelerate to VYSE (88 KIAS), set climb
power and airspeed at 1,000’ AGL

Short Field Landing CMEL

1. Approach checklist complete, enter pattern on the downwind leg, 100 KIAS
2. Landing gear extend, before landing checklist
3. Abeam intended point of landing, power approximately 15” MP, flaps 10o
4. Base leg, flaps 25o, 90 KIAS
5. Final, flaps 40o, 80 KIAS, reducing to 75 KIAS on short final, landing assured
6. Touchdown on 1,000’ markers (minus zero, plus 100’)
7. Retract flaps, full up elevator, and apply brakes without skidding the tires

Emergency Descent ATP and CMEL

1. Throttles close
2. Props full forward
3. Landing gear down below 140 KIAS
4. Pitch down to maintain 120 – 130 KIAS
5. Level off and retract landing gear below 109 KIAS
6. Reset cruise power 21” MP and 2400 RPM

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GROUND USE ONLY

Required maneuvers for the CFI Multi-Engine Add-On are the same as for the Commercial Add-On except for the
addition of the Airspeed Drag Demonstration.

Airspeed Drag Demonstration

Note power required for each drag item and VSI changes throughout each step.
1. Clearing turns.
2. Mixtures - Enrichen. Props - Fwd. Fuel Pumps – On.
3. Slow to 88 KIAS/Blueline.
4. Extend gear.
5. Add power to maintain 88 KIAS and altitude.
6. Extend flaps 25°.
7. Add power to maintain 88 KIAS and altitude.
8. Extend flaps 40°.
9. Add power to maintain 88 KIAS and altitude.

Above steps are for knowledge of drag to required-power relationships

PTS-Required Tasks Below

10. Close left throttle. (Windmilling pro)

11. Add max power on right engine, maintain 88 KIAS and heading. (Note VSI.)
12. Left Cowl Flap – As Required.
13. Flaps up, maintain 88 KIAS. (Note VSI.)
14. Gear up, maintain 88 KIAS. (Note VSI.)
15. Left throttle to 12” MP simulated feather power, maintain 88 KIAS. (Note VSI.)
16. Pitch for 82 KIAS. (Note VSI.)
17. Pitch for 100 KIAS. (Note VSI.)
18. Bring throttles slowly together to 2” MP.
19. Left cowl flap: open or as required.
20. “Cruise Checklist”.

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Seminole Power Settings

Throttles Props

Take off: Full Forward Full forward

Cruise Climb: 25 inches MP 2500 RPM

Cruise: 21 inches MP 2400 RPM

Maneuvers: 18 inches MP 2400 RPM

Steep turns: 21-22 inches MP 2400 RPM

Stall entries: 15 inches of MP Full forward

Instrument Approaches
Precision
Two Engines One Engine

Throttles Props Throttles Props

21 inches MP 2400 RPM As required Full forward

(To glide slope intercept)

17 inches MP Full forward 20 inches MP Full forward

(At glide slope, gear down and 25° flaps) (At glide slope, gear down 0° flap)

Note: pitch nose down 2° for 100 Knots on two engines. Pitch 5° down on one to achieve 100 knots with
one engine.

Instrument Approaches
Non-Precision
Two Engines One Engine

Throttles Props Throttles Props

15 inches Full forward As required Full forward

(At FAF with 25o flaps) (At FAF with 0o flaps)

Note: Two miles before FAF pilot needs to select landing gear down

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Normal Landing Pattern

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Aircraft Ground Review Checklist

Name: _________________________ Date: ______________________

Aircraft Make/Model: ____PA-44_______ Total Flight Time AMEL:

1. What are the following “V” Speeds?

a. Vmc __________ _ KIAS
b. Vxse ____________ KIAS
c. Vyse _______ _____KIAS
2. What is the airspeed white arc range? ____________ (Vso) to ____________ (Vfe) KIAS
3. What does the white arc on the Airspeed Indicator denote? ________________________
4. What is the airspeed green arc range? ____________ (Vs) to ____________ (Vno) KIAS
5. What does the green arc on the Airspeed Indicator denote? ________________________
6. What is the airspeed yellow arc range ___________ (Vno) to ____________ (Vne) KIAS
7. What does the yellow arc on the Airspeed Indicator denote? _______________________
8. What is the upper RED LINE speed? _______________ (Vne) KIAS
9. After an engine failure, what is the recommended speed? ___________ KIAS
10. Referring to question 9, above what RPM must the prop be feathered?
_________________________ RPM
11. What is the max gear DOWN speed?
12. What is the max gear UP speed?
13. What is the normal RPM operating range for this engine? _____________ to ___________ RPM
Maximum RPM is _______________
14. What is the normal oil pressure range? ____________ min to ____________max; the maximum
allowed oil pressure is ____________ PSI
15. A. What is the normal oil temperature range? ____________ F to ____________ F
B. Engine oil level: Fill to ____________ quarts for extended flight.
C. Engine oil level: Do not operate with less than ____________ quarts.
16. What is the maximum allowed takeoff weight? ____________ lbs.

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Garmin 430 Quick Reference

Left-hand Keys and Knobs

The COM Power/Volume Knob controls unit power and communications radio volume. Press
momentarily to disable automatic squelch control. The VLOC Volume Knob controls audio volume
for the selected VOR/Localizer frequency. Press momentarily to enable/disable the ident tone. The
large left knob is used to tune the megahertz (MHz) value of the standby frequency for the COM
transceiver or the VLOC receiver, whichever is currently selected by the tuning cursor. The small
left knob is used to tune the kilohertz (kHz) value of the standby frequency for the COM transceiver
or the VLOC receiver, whichever is currently selected by the tuning cursor. Press this knob
momentarily to toggle the tuning cursor between the COM and VLOC frequency fields.
The COM Flip-flop Key is used to swap the active and standby COM frequencies. Press and hold to
select emergency channel (121.500 MHz). The VLOC Flip-flop Key is used to swap the active and
standby VLOC frequencies (i.e., make the selected standby frequency active).

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Right-hand Keys and Knobs

The RNG Key allows the pilot to select the desired map range. Use the up arrow of the key to zoom
out to a larger area, or the down arrow to zoom in to a smaller area. The Direct-to Key provides
access to the direct-to function, which allows the pilot to enter a destination waypoint and establishes
a direct course to the selected destination. The MENU Key displays a context-sensitive list of
options. This options list allows the pilot to access additional features or make settings changes
which relate to the currently displayed page. The CLR Key is used to erase information, remove
map detail, or to cancel an entry. Press and hold the CLR key to immediately display the Default
NAV Page. The ENT Key is used to approve an operation or complete data entry. It is also used to
confirm information, such as during power on. The large right knob is used to select between the
various page groups: NAV, WPT, AUX, or NRST. With the on-screen cursor enabled, the large
right knob allows the pilot to move the cursor about the page. The large right knob is also used to
move the target pointer right (turn clockwise) or left (counterclockwise) when the map panning
function is active. The small right knob is used to select between the various pages within one of the
groups listed above. Press this knob momentarily to display the on-screen cursor. The cursor allows
the pilot to enter data and/or make a selection from a list of options. The small right knob is also used
to move the target pointer up (turn clockwise) or down (counterclockwise) when the map panning
function is active.

Bottom Row Keys

The CDI Key is used to toggle which navigation source (GPS or VLOC) provides output to an external
HSI or CDI. The OBS Key is used to select manual or automatic sequencing of waypoints. Pressing
the OBS Key selects OBS mode, which retains the current ‘active to’ waypoint as the navigation
reference even after passing the waypoint (i.e., prevents sequencing to the next waypoint). Pressing
the OBS Key again returns the unit to normal operation, with automatic sequencing of waypoints.
When OBS mode is selected, the pilot may set the desired course to/from a waypoint using the
‘Select OBS Course’ pop-up window, or an external OBS selector on the HSI or CDI. The MSG Key is
used to view system messages and to alert the pilot to important warnings and requirements. The
FPL Key allows the pilot to create, edit, activate, and invert flight plans, as well as access
approaches, departures, and arrivals. A closest point to flight plan feature is also available from the
FPL Key. The PROC Key allows the pilot to select and remove approaches, departures, and arrivals
from the flight plan. When using a flight plan, available procedures for the departure and/or arrival
airport are offered automatically. Otherwise, the pilot may select the desired airport, then the
desired procedure.

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To Power on the GNS 430

 Turn the COM Power/Volume Knob clockwise to turn the unit power on and set the desired
radio volume.
 A welcome page appears briefly while the unit performs a self-test, followed sequentially by
the Unit Type Page and the Software Versions Page. Then (depending on configuration) the
Weather Page, the Traffic Page, the Aviation Data Page, the Land/Terrain/Obstacles
database Page, and the Situational Awareness Page are sequentially displayed.
 Once the self-test concludes, the Database Confirmation Page is displayed, showing
the effective and expiration dates of the Jeppesen database on the NavData® card.
Press the ENT Key to acknowledge the Database Page and proceed to the
Instrument Panel Self-test Page.

 The Instrument Panel Self-test Page allows the pilot to verify that the GNS 430 is
communicating properly with in-panel instruments. Compare on-screen indications
with the information depicted on connected instruments, such as the CDI, HSI, RMI,
and/or external annunciators. After verifying proper operation, press the ENT Key to
display the Satellite Status Page.

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SCREEN LAYOUT (WINDOWS)

The GNS 430’s display is divided into three separate ‘windows’ (or screen areas). The left 1/4 of the
display provides a COM window (top two lines) and a VLOC window (bottom two lines). The right
3/4 of the display consists of a GPS window, which shows the various navigation, waypoint
information and settings ‘pages’.

Each unique screen of information is referred to as a page. Pages are typically selected using the
small and large right knobs, with the cursor removed from the GPS Window.

CURSORS
There are two separate cursors: a tuning cursor and a GPS window cursor. The tuning cursor is used
to select the standby COM or VLOC frequency. If desired, press the small left knob to move the
tuning cursor to VLOC Window. Then, use the small and large left knobs to select the desired
frequency. The COM Flip-flop and VLOC Flip-flop keys are used to activate the selected frequency.

FREQUENCY SELECTION
If the tuning cursor is not currently in the desired window (COM or VLOC), press the small left knob
momentarily. 2) Turn the large left knob to select the desired megahertz (MHz) value. For example,
the ‘117’ portion of the frequency ‘117.80’.

Turn the small left knob to select the desired kilohertz (kHz) value. For example, the ‘.80’
portion of the frequency ‘117.80’.

To activate the selected frequency, press the COM Flip-flop Key for COM frequencies, or
the VLOC Flip-flop Key for VLOC frequencies.

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DATA ENTRY
Data is entered in the GPS Window using the large and small right knobs. The large right knob is
used to move the cursor about the page. The small right knob is used to select individual characters
for the highlighted cursor location.

Main Page Groups

The GNS 430’s main pages are divided into 4 separate page groups: NAV, WPT, AUX, and NRST. Each
page group is comprised of multiple pages. The page groups are selected using the large right knob.
The individual pages are selected using the small right knob.

The bottom right corner of the screen indicates which page group is currently being displayed (e.g.,
NAV, WPT, AUX, or NRST), the number of screens available within that group (indicated by the
square icons), and the placement of the current screen within that group (indicated by a highlighted
square icon).

To select the desired page group

Press and hold the CLR Key to select the Default NAV Page. Turn the large right knob to select the
desired Page Group.

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To select the desired page

Turn the small right knob to select the desired page.

To select a direct-to destination

Press the Direct-to Key. The Select Direct-to Waypoint Page appears, with the waypoint identifier
field highlighted.

Use the small and large right knobs to enter the identifier of the desired destination waypoint.

Press the ENT Key to confirm the selected waypoint, and press the ENT Key again to activate the
direct-to function.

Default NAV Page

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The following symbols are used on the Default NAV Page (directly below the CDI), to depict the
‘active leg’ of a flight plan or direct to:

NAV COM Page

The NAVCOM Page provides a list of the airport communication and navigation frequencies at the
departure, enroute, and arrival airports.

To select a frequency list for a departure, enroute, or arrival airport

Press the small right knob to activate the cursor. Turn the large right knob to place the cursor on
the airport identifier field (top line on the NAVCOM Page). Turn the small right knob to select the
desired airport and press the ENT Key.

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To select an approach
Press the PROC Key to display the Procedures Page. Turn the large right knob to highlight ‘Select
Approach?’ and press the ENT Key.

A window appears listing the available procedures. Turn the large right knob to highlight the
desired procedure and press the ENT Key.

A second window appears listing the available transitions. Turn the large right knob to highlight the
desired transition waypoint and press the ENT Key. (The approach ‘Vectors’ option assumes the
pilot will receive vectors to the final course segment of the approach and will provide navigation
guidance relative to the final approach course.)

Turn the large right knob to highlight ‘Load?’ or ‘Activate?’ and press the ENT Key. (‘Load?’ adds the
procedure to the flight plan without immediately using it for navigation guidance. This allows the
pilot to continue navigating the original flight plan, but keeps the procedure available on the Active

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Flight Plan Page for quick activation when needed.) For precision approaches and some non-
precision approaches, a reminder window appears indicating that GPS guidance on such approaches
is strictly for monitoring only — use the VLOC receivers and external CDI (or HSI) for primary
navigation. To confirm this reminder, highlight ‘Yes?’ and press the ENT Key.

For a copy of the complete GNS 430 Quick Reference Guide or GNS 430 Pilot’s Guide you can access
the Garmin Website at Http//:WWW.Garmin.com. Select the Support icon, then manuals, then
aviation, and finally discontinued. Both the Quick Reference Guide and the Pilot’s Guide are
available for download free of charge.

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