38 Manual on small earth dams

For climates with less intensive rainfalls such as lower, coastal African locations
and some North American and Australian environments, the peak floods would be
lower and the spillways that much smaller.

Figure 6a - One day storm rainfall

6a ONE DAY STORM RAINFALL
260
DETERMINE MEAN
240 800 MEAN
ANNUAL RAINFALL
750 ANNUAL
220 FOR LOCATION OF
700 RAINFALL
DAM. THIS EXAMPLE

ONE DAY STORM RAINFALL (mm), P

200 650 (mm)
FOR SWAZILAND (LOW
180 VELD AREA).

160
140

120

100
80

60

40

20
0
5 10 20 50
RETURN PERIOD (YEARS)

Figure 6b - Storm depth ratio

6b STORM DEPTH RATIO
1.0
0.9
0.8
STORM DEPTH RATIO, R

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tc (HOURS)

Figure 6c - Runoff coefficient

6c RUN-OFF COEFFICIENT
0.5

1 IN 50 YEAR RETURN PERIOD

0.4
RUNOFF COEFFICIENT, Cr

1 IN 20 YEAR RETURN PERIOD

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
5 10 15
EXTREME HEIGHT SLOPE (%)

Where data are available, it would not be difficult to draw up similar charts or
tables and once peak floods are determined, the hydraulic parameters for estimat-
ing spillway widths and depths are available.

In all cases, however, such charts and tables are by their nature generalized and
should always be used with caution and, wherever possible, be adapted to suit local
conditions.
5 Site selection and preliminary investigations 39

Once the PMF has been estimated, the spillway width can be calculated using the
formula:
Qp = 1.7 b D1.5

where b and D are in m and Qp is in m3/s

‘1.7’ is a factor derived for concrete ogee type crests and can vary up to 2.25 accord-
ing to site conditions and factors of safety. 1.7 is generally used for spillways for
small dams on small catchments.

‘b’ is the minimum width (‘breadth’) of the spillway and is calculated by introduc-
ing the values for Qp (estimated using the options above) and D1.5. It is assumed
that b is large when compared to D and that the spillway channel will thus be
rectangular.

‘D’ is the depth of the spillway at the crest and will comprise all or part of the
design freeboard. D is normally in the range 0.75 m to 1.5 m for small dams and
comprises the total freeboard. However, where wave action or backing up of floods
may affect the dam, an additional ‘dry’ freeboard of up to 0.75 m. should be added
to the figure above for safety reasons.

Once all the other values are known, ‘b’ can then be calculated and the best option
for varying depths, ‘D’, can be chosen.

The width ‘b’ is the minimum width for the spillway to accommodate the design
flood. It assumes that there is no constriction downstream of the spillway. The
width and depth may have to be adjusted to suit the local topography and spillway
bed material later in the design process.

5.11 ESTIMATES OF STORAGE REQUIRED

At this time, it is wise to better assess the economic amount of water required from
the dam.

This will, for irrigation dams, comprise irrigation requirement, other uses (live-
stock/domestic water), losses to seepage and evaporation and dead storage.
¼ Irrigation requirement can be calculated by multiplying the gross annual
irrigation requirement per hectare by the area proposed. This may have to be
adjusted once the estimated storage for the dam chosen is calculated.
¼ Environmental flows to release normal flows into the river or to comply with
any legal requirements downstream.
¼ Other uses such as livestock water can be calculated by estimating water use
for this. FAO can provide advice as well as locally based government and
other organizations. As a guideline the following (assuming the animals are
on dry pastures and good quality water is available) can be used:
– Cattle 40-80 litres/day for each animal (milking cows may
need 100 litres/day).
– Young stock 25-50 litres/day.
– Pigs 25 litres/day.
– Poultry 30 litres/day per 100 adult birds.
– Bee hive 2 litres/day.
– Sheep 2-6 litres/day.
– Goats 3-8 litres/day.
40 Manual on small earth dams

– Camels 30-40 litres/day.

– Horses 40-50 litres/day.

Add 10 percent to any calculated total for water use by wild and feral
animals and add a further 10 percent if the water is higher in salt content than
recommended. Slightly saline waters can be tolerated by animals (but pigs
and poultry are most sensitive) but they will have higher intakes to allow a
greater water turnover to regulate body salt balances.
¼ Troughs are always recommended. Dams should be fenced off and no
livestock allowed to drink directly from the reservoir or to damage the
surroundings to the dam by overgrazing the catchment, tracking in the
immediate surrounds of the reservoir and wallowing in the reservoir itself.
¼Domestic water uses – opting for piped water supplies using filters or similar
– can be calculated by determining the likely numbers of people who will
use the dam for water and estimating total annual or dry season needs. A
minimum of 20-50 litres/day per person in more rural areas can be used if
piped water supplies are not to be provided but consideration for increases
in use should be made in areas where populations are high and levels of
urbanization may increase.
¼Seepage losses are always difficult to estimate before the dam is built and to
calculate after the dam has been constructed. As all dams will seep, it is best
to estimate that a well constructed embankment will lose about 10 percent of
its water to seepage in any one year.
¼Evaporation losses can be calculated from local records noting that shallow
large surface area reservoirs will have higher evaporation rates than narrow
deep reservoirs. Wind is also an important factor in dry areas. Annual rates
of evaporation from dams in Africa can exceed 30 percent but for calculating
water uses (i.e. for irrigation), where actual figures are not known, dry season
losses can be taken as 20 percent maximum.
¼Dead storage is the amount of water retained in the dam that cannot be
accessed. The dead storage will vary according to design, pumping suction
heads and positions of any outlets in the embankment. It will also be more,
proportionally, for a small dam than a larger dam and will offer an area in all
dams for sediment to accumulate. For design purposes, a figure of 5 percent
maximum of the total water stored can be used to estimate dead storage.

Once the above has been estimated the remaining amount available for irrigation
can be calculated. It is at this stage the areas proposed under irrigation can be
adjusted and any economic analysis made.
Detailed design 6
6 Detailed design 43

6 Detailed design

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Once all preliminary investigations have been made and a suitable site has been
found, the next step is to carry out a detailed survey of the valley and reservoir area
to allow more accurate estimates of quantities and to provide the necessary data for
design work to be undertaken. The aim of such a survey is to present, on paper, a
contour map of the reservoir up to and exceeding the maximum flood level, and
to provide details for the location of the embankment, spillway and outlet works.
From the contour map, the capacity of the reservoir can be assessed for varying
dam heights. A depth-capacity curve can then be drawn up to provide a quick
and easy method for the dam designer to choose the optimum full supply level.
A simplified example of a depth-capacity curve is shown in Figure 7. Often the
depth-surface area curve (usually with a reversed scale) is added to these graphs.

Figure 7 - Typical depth capacity curve

5.0

4.0 FULL SUPPLY LEVEL

DEPTH (m)

3.0

2.0

1.0

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

CAPACITY (m3 x 103)

6.2 CONTOUR SURVEY

On very large sites it may be possible to draw up a contour map – at an interval
suitable for the design (normally 0.5 m is satisfactory for small dams) – from aerial
photography or satellite imagery using specialized stereo plotting and digitization
techniques that, although expensive, may pay for themselves in the time saved in
avoiding groundwork. However, if this is not possible, as is usual on smaller sites,
one of three methods of ground survey14 below will be necessary:

14 High levels of accuracy are not required at this stage considering that elevations will later be
affected by site stripping pre-construction.
44 Manual on small earth dams

1. Grid survey
This is a simple and straightforward but time-consuming method. Also it may not
be possible if the area is heavily vegetated and/or physically inaccessible.

2. Cross-sections
Cross-section surveys are taken along various lines within the river valley(s)
from benchmarks previously established. Levels are observed at set intervals and
outstanding features (changes of slope in particular) are also noted.

3. Spot heights
This is especially suited to larger areas. A circuit of benchmarks is established and
spot height observations with bearing, distance and elevation are made from each
station. For smaller dams, and if a theodolite or electronic instrument is used, it
may be possible to take all the readings from one station. Alternatively, reason-
ably accurate GPS surveys can be used to establish a network of elevation readings
across the site.

6.3 REVISED CAPACITY

From the contour survey, an estimation of the surface area of the reservoir can be
made for the full supply and other levels. The approximate capacity of the reservoir
can be assessed from Table 2 below. For example, to find the capacity of a reservoir
with a maximum depth of 3.25 m and a surface water area of 32.7 ha, the following
steps, extrapolating where needed, are made:

(i) 30 ha at 3.25 = 325 000 m3

(ii) 2 ha at 3.25 = 21 666 m3
(iii) 0.7 ha at 3.25 = 7 583 m3

Total capacity = 354 249 m3

A quick reference check using the formula:

Q= H’ A’
3

where H’ is the maximum depth in m. (3.25 m) and A’ is the surface area in m2

(327 000 m2) results in a figure of 354 250 m3 and closely correlates with that
already determined from Table 2.

6.4 REVISED VOLUME OF EARTHWORKS

Method 1
Although this method is not as accurate as Method 2 it is useful for the relatively
rapid calculation of volumes of a number of proposed dams for comparison
purposes. It is reasonably accurate in its estimates of quantities and subsequent
costing of the proposed works. The embankment volumes are calculated, as in the
example shown in Figure 8a, as follows:

Fill in the reduced level column on the left-hand side of the sectional paper, starting
with the settled crest level on the top line. It is advisable, for ease of working, to
consistently use a reference reduced level of 100 (largely to avoid having negative
6 Detailed design 45

values when referring to the crest height and to make any calculations above or
below this reference level easy to work out) either for the highest or for the lowest
point of the proposed embankment.

Table 2 Approximate reservoir capacities (in m3)

Reservoir Depth of water at deepest point
area (ha)
1m 1.5 m 2m 2.5 m 3m 3.5 m 4m
1 3 333 5 000 6 666 8 333 10 000 11 666 13 333
2 6 666 10 000 13 333 16 666 20 000 23 333 26 666
3 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000 35 000 40 000
4 13 333 20 000 26 666 33 333 40 000 46 666 53 333
5 16 666 25 000 33 333 41 666 50 000 58 333 66 666
6 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 70 000 80 000
7 23 333 35 000 46 666 58 333 70 000 81 666 93 333
8 26 666 40 000 53 333 66 666 80 000 93 333 106 666
9 30 000 45 000 60 000 75 000 90 000 105 000 120 000
10 33 333 50 000 66 666 83 333 100 000 116 666 133 333
20 66 666 100 000 133 333 166 666 200 000 233 333 266 666
30 100 000 150 000 200 000 250 000 300 000 350 000 400 000
40 133 333 200 000 266 666 333 333 400 000 466 666 533 333
50 166 666 250 000 333 333 416 666 500 000 583 333 666 666
Depth of water at deepest point
4.5 m 4.75 m 5m 5.25 m 5.5 m 5.75 m 6m
1 15 000 15 833 16 666 17 500 18 333 19 166 20 000
2 30 000 31 666 33 333 35 000 36 666 38 333 40 000
3 45 000 47 500 50 000 52 500 55 000 57 500 60 000
4 60 000 63 333 66 666 70 000 73 333 76 666 80 000
5 75 000 79 166 83 333 87 500 91 666 95 333 100 000
6 90 000 95 000 100 000 105 000 110 000 115 000 120 000
7 105 000 110 833 116 666 122 500 128 333 134 166 140 000
8 120 000 126 666 133 333 140 000 146 666 153 333 160 000
9 135 000 142 500 150 000 157 500 165 000 172 500 180 000
10 150 000 158 333 166 666 175 000 183 333 191 666 200 000
20 300 000 316 666 333 333 350 000 366 666 383 333 400 000
30 450 000 475 000 500 000 525 000 550 000 575 000 600 000
40 600 000 633 333 666 666 700 000 733 333 766 666 800 000
50 750 000 791 666 833 333 875 000 916 666 958 333 1000 000

Draw in the longitudinal section by accurately plotting ground levels against

distance (on the upper scale marked crest length) and join these points with lines to
show the cross-section profile of the valley. The spillway is not included.

Draw the cross-section of the proposed dam at its maximum height (i.e. above
stream bed) after settlement, starting with the upstream toe on the left at zero
(using the horizontal scale at the bottom and marked base width), working up to
the crest, along and down to the downstream toe. This plotting must be carried out
accurately as scaled dimensions are to be used in the calculations. Calculate, and
check by measurement, values of w (i.e. the mean width of each 0.5 m or 1 m cross
section) commencing with the crest section and enter it in the appropriate column
and line.
46 Manual on small earth dams

Measure carefully the values of l (i.e. the length of the longitudinal section to corre-
spond with each position of w) and again enter it into the appropriate column and
line. Multiply each w by the corresponding l, and the height of the section h, and
enter the result in the Volume column on the appropriate line. Total this column to
give the volume of the earthworks in the dam.

If a training bank (to channel flows in the spillway to safe discharge) is to be

constructed, this should also be calculated using the formula shown and added to
the total volume above. Finally, add 10 percent to this total to include extra earth-
works for settlement.

Figure 8a - Revised volume of earthworks (method 1)

AREA OF LENGTH VOLUME

LENGTH l (m) CROSS OF
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 SECTION LONG wxhxl
SECTION
wxh l
3m CREST 13.0 m
113 13 (m2) (m) (m3)
SPILL-
WAY 1x4.8
112 12 4.8 317 1 522
1.5 m FREEBOARD FSL 11.5 m
1x8.5 8.5 286 2 434
111 11

2 1x11.5 1.5 11.5 271 3 116

110 10
1 1 D/S
REDUCED U/S
1x15.0
109 9 15.0 232 3 480
LEVELS
AT 1x18.5
108 LEFT BANK RIGHT BANK 8 HEIGHT 18.5 194 3 589
CENTRE h
LINE 1x22.5
107 7 (m) 22.5 160 3 600
(m)
1x25.5
106 6 25.5 133 3 392

1x29.5
105 29.5 106 3 127
5
1x33.0
104 33.0 63 2 079
4
1x36.5
103 36.5 31 1 131
3
1x40.0
102 40.0 11 440
2
1x43.5
43.5 9 392
101 1
1x47.0
47.0 25 118
100 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 48.5
WIDTH w (m) EMBANKMENT VOLUME 28 417 m3
TR. BANK VOLUME 294 m3
TRAINING BANK
V = hl (c+ hs) m3 where h = mean height = 0.9 m TOTAL VOLUME 28 711m3
VOLUME 2
l = length = 75 m SETTLEMENT 10% 2 871 m3
c = crest width =2m
FINAL VOLUME 31 582 m3
s = slopes (1.5+1.5) =3m
Spillway volume excluded
V = 0.9x75 (3+ 0.9x3) = 293.65 m3 w is mean width of x-section
2 s is total value of both side slopes

VALLEY CROSS-SECTION-EARTHWORKS VOLUME DETAILS

Comparison of this result with the result obtained from the formula

V = 0.216 HL (2C + HS)

is likely to lead to quite a significant difference. The formula result should be much
greater, but this is acceptable as the formula is used for calculating the total cost
of the dam and not the earthworks alone. At the reconnaissance stage, a general
planning cost is required and this is calculated by using an estimated overall rate
per m3 of earthwork that will include all of the items detailed in Table 3 in the next
section.
6 Detailed design 47

Method 2
Method 2 (see Figure 8b) is much the same as Method 1 except that the cross-
sectional area is calculated more accurately. The cross-section is squared off as
illustrated and each rectangle has its respective area calculated in a straightforward
manner (i.e. length x breadth). The remaining triangular pieces which flank each
rectangle have constant areas that are calculated as follows:
¼ upstream slope 1:2, height of section 1 m,
area of upstream triangle= (2/2) x 1 = 1 m2
¼ downstream slope 1:1.75, height of section 1 m, area of downstream triangle
= (1.75/2) x 1 = 0.875 m2

Therefore, each cross-sectional area can now be estimated relatively quickly and
the method of assessing volumes proceeds as in Method 1.

Figure 8b - Revised volume of earthworks (method 2)

AREA OF LENGTH VOLUME

LENGTH l (m) CROSS OF
SECTION LONG wxhxl
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380
SECTION
wxh l
3m CREST 13 m (m2) (m) (m3)
113 13
SPILL-
WAY 1 m2 3.0m2 0.75 m2 4.75 317 1 506
112 12
1.5 m FREEBOARD FSL 11.5 m
7 m2 8.75 286 2 502
111 11

2 10 m2 1.5 11.75 271 3 184

110 10
1 1 D/S
REDUCED U/S
13.5 m2 15.25 232 3 538
109 9
LEVELS HEIGHT
AT 17 m2 0.75m2 (m)
108 LEFT BANK RIGHT BANK 8 18.75 194 3 637
CENTRE ‘h’
LINE 20.5 m2
107 7 22.75 160 3 640
(m)
1.0 m2 24 m2
106 6 25.75 133 3 425
28 m2
105 5 29.75 106 3 153
31 m2
104 4 32.75 63 2 063
35 m2
103 3 36.75 31 1 139
38 m2
102 2 39.75 11 437
1.0 m2 41.5 m2
0.75 m2
101 1 43.25 9 389
45 m2
100 0 46.75 25 117
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 48.5
WIDTH w (m) EMBAKMENT VOLUME 28 730 m3
TR. BANK VOLUME 294 m3
TOTAL VOLUME 29 024 m3
SETTLEMENT 10% 2 902 m3
FINAL VOLUME 31 926 m3

Spillway volume excluded

w is mean width of x-section
s is total value of both side slopes

Finished versions of the method can then be presented on design drawings with
allowances for over-excavation, training walls and settlement and without the
calculations.

6.5 DESIGN DRAWINGS

It is important to provide comprehensive, useful design drawings for implementing
the works and for eventual tendering and award of contract. Standardizing these
drawings is equally important and being able to present one sheet with sufficient
data on it to explain the design, list the main quantities and provide details of the
48 Manual on small earth dams

location is essential. Further drawings for more specialized aspects of the works
can also be provided.

Standard drawings in A3 format are provided in Annex 4 with examples of the

more specialized drawings required. Regardless of the design and its complexity or
otherwise, all drawings should be of a high standard and be presented on quality
paper as well as in electronic format.

6.6 ESTIMATED COST OF DAM CONSTRUCTION

The costing of the dam can now go ahead, with estimates based on either costs for
dams already constructed in the same locality or rates provided by local contractors
and or government departments. A list of quantities following the guidelines given
in Table 3 can then be drawn up.

Should the dam (or dams) design and costing be prepared for tender or contracting
to the private sector it is important that the details on costing for Table 3 and any
engineer’s estimates remain confidential and be used as a guide in evaluating any
bids or other proposals from potential contractors to construct the dam(s). Annex
1 has more details on this.

Table 3 Quantities and costs of dam construction

Item Description Unit Quantity Rate Amount
1 Site investigation Sum
2 Engineer fees Sum
3 Movement charge Sum
4 Clearing site Hours
5 Excavating cutoff/core m3
6 Backfilling m3
7 Embankment work m3
8 Training bank(s) m3
9 Spillway m3
10 Topsoil return m3
11 Trimming/tidying Hours
12 Other …..
Subtotal
Contingencies @ x%
Total

6.7 OUTLET WORKS

With any dam the major outlet work is the spillway, but other minor outlet
structures may be required to release water for irrigation, trickle flows or other
purposes.

6.7.1 The spillway

The spillway is the most important outlet and has to be designed to accommodate
the anticipated peak flood. It has to be a permanent structure that will not erode
and is located at a level that allows for the required water depth and freeboard
ascertained at the site selection and investigations stage.
6 Detailed design 49

Critical items are the entrance width ‘b’ (already discussed above and dependent
on the peak flood), the outfall (dependent usually on ‘b’ – refer below) and the
material the spillway will be constructed with and sited upon.

For grass spillways, the erosion hazard is an important consideration. Therefore,

this type of spillway should be horizontal at its entrance, ideally with a concrete
or masonry sill to level the entrance and control velocities and erosion. It can have
o
a slight crossfall (but no more than 5 ) across the spillway and must have a safe
outfall to return floodwaters to the stream. Allowable flow velocities will depend
upon depth of flow (and in turn affect the freeboard) and the floor material of the
spillway.

Guidelines to follow are presented in Table 4. The guidelines assume that an earth
spillway is level and grassed with good, mat-forming creeping grass.

Table 4 Guideline discharges and velocities for earth dam spillways

Type of surface Sand to sandy Sandy loam Sandy clay Light clay Heavy Hard rock
loam to sandy loam clay gravel
clay loam friable rock
Max velocity (m/s) 0.30 0.60 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
Flow depth (m) at 0.15 0.30 0.50 0.60 0.75 1.50
spillway entrance
Discharge 0.05 0.20 0.35 0.60 1.00 2.50
(m3/s per m width)

Calculations of minimum spillway width made for hydrological reasons should,

at this stage, be modified to meet the guidelines above. Always accept the more
conservative value – to thus increase spillway width – where dimensions vary.

6.7.2 Other outlet works

Trickle flow outlets are necessary where there would be perennial stream flow on
grass spillways, as these will protect the earth spillway from the hazards of rills
formed by a continuous low flow. The trickle flow can be passed out of the dam
by either a drop-inlet overflow in the embankment or a trickle flow channel in
the spillway. This may involve the use of reinforced concrete for which a set of
standard specifications and methods of construction are advised.

Drop inlet overflows

A drop inlet overflow consists of a pipe (or pipes) installed at the time of construc-
tion and set to an upstream level just below spillway (full supply) level. It is of a
diameter large enough to carry all but the flood flows. Depending on the design
discharge, the pipe can either protrude directly from the wall (for smaller flows) or
have an inlet chamber (for larger flows) located adjacent to the wall but designed
to prevent vortexing and possible erosion of the upstream face of the embankment.

The main spillway can be reserved for flood flows and problems of gullying will
thus be avoided (erosion may still occur as a result of floods. This should only
happen infrequently and can be treated accordingly).

The pipe, as illustrated (with inlet chamber) in Figures 9a and 9b, must be carefully
laid, true to line and level. Steel pipes should be flanged and concrete pipes should
have staunching rings (anti-seepage collars) to prevent seepage of water along the
50 Manual on small earth dams

outside of the pipe. The pipe should be laid in a trench cut in original ground on
the valley sides before the embankment is built. If stream flows are not known, the
minimum diameters of pipe are as follows:
– 300 mm for very small catchments.
– 375 mm for catchments up to 5 km2.
– 450 to 550 mm for catchments between 5 and 8 km2 (i.e. ‘44 gallon’ drums in
concrete).

For known expected maximum stream flows the diameters of the pipe and its
physical gradient can be selected from Tables 5a or 5b.

Figure 9a - Drop-inlet overflow

Figure 9b - Section of a drop-inlet overflow

6 Detailed design 51

Table 5a is based on a maximum flow velocity of 2 m/s or a maximum friction head

loss of 2 m per 100 m of pipe. See Figures 9a and 9b for D1 and D2.

Trickle flow spillways

Where normal flows are small or a drop-inlet overflow was not installed at the time
of construction, a trickle flow spillway can be constructed within the existing grass
spillway(s). A well founded stone-pitched or brick-lined channel designed to carry
average stream flow can avoid subsequent erosion of the main spillway. A concrete
or masonry sill placed across the entrance and exit of the grassed spillway will also
reduce risk of erosion as well as allowing for control of the full supply level in
conjunction with a drop-inlet pipe. Maintenance (de-silting and repair works) may
be required after major floods or at the end of each rainy season.

Table 5a – Guide to minimum dimensions of drop-inlet chambers and pipes

Dimension D1 (mm) Dimension D2 (mm) Diameter D3 (mm) Capacity (litres/s)
300 300 100 15
500 300 150 30
600 500 225 70
1 200 500 300 125
2 000 1 000 375 200
3 000 1 600 400 250

Table 5b – Gradient chart for drop-inlet overflow pipes

Internal diameter of pipe (mm)
Q
75 100 125 150 225 300 375 400
(l/s)
Approximate gradient required (1: … )
1.5 320 1 470
3 80 370 1 210
6 90 300 800
9 135 350
12 75 200 1 750
15 50 130 1 130
20 80 700
25 350 1 600
30 280 1 300
40 180 830
50 400 1 300
60 325 1 070 2 300
75 210 690 1 800
100 300 750
150 170 450
Note: Pipes are assumed flowing full, under negligible water pressure and are constructed of concrete or similar.

6.7.3 Training banks and spillway outfall

Whether the spillway be grass, rock, drop-inlet, or trickle flow, an essential
requirement will be a safe return to flow downstream of the embankment. For any
spillway the avoidance of bends or constrictions to the channel must be adhered to.

Grass, and occasionally rock spillways, may require the construction of training
banks (stone pitched if necessary) to guide the flood flows away from the steeper
52 Manual on small earth dams

slopes and the downstream toe of the dam. A maximum slope of about 5 percent
for the return should be the goal and this should only be exceeded where rock is
to be used for the return. The actual outfall should be designed to be non-erosive
and, as a rule of thumb, the final width should be 1.5 to 2 times the entrance width
‘b’ thus reducing velocities of flow to manageable levels. Examples of training bank
and outfall designs are provided in the sample layout drawings in Annex 4.

On rock spillways, downstream erosion that will not endanger the embankment or
cause environmental problems and which will stop once the flow has eroded back
to the rock, is permissible. For drop inlet overflows the construction of a channel
of brick or stone from pipe outlet should be sufficient and this can then be led to a
safe dissipation point downstream.

If farm machinery or other vehicles are expected to use the embankment and
spillway as a road, the side slopes of the spillway should not exceed 25 percent and
some protection (i.e. stone or concrete crossings) from erosion by traffic should be
constructed at the time of building the dam.

6.7.4 Other outlets

Where the expected flows are sufficiently small, pipes leading through the embank-
ment high up on one bank at full supply level may be used and will prove cheaper
than a box inlet type overflow. Care must be exercised in leading the flow back
to the streambed and usually a stone pitched, brick or concrete lined channel is
required. Outlet pipes are often required where a regulated flow of water is needed
and these will be of steel or concrete with a control valve installed. The best option
is to lay the piping beneath the embankment (even if high up on the bank) at the
time of construction and it is important to ensure good rock or compacted soil
foundation along its entire length. The trench should be cut to size, (i.e. as narrow
as possible), with provision for seepage collars or flanges every 4-6 m and the pipe
laid on a bed of concrete and then covered by more concrete.

If the dam is already constructed and an outlet pipe is required, excavation into
the embankment is not recommended as this would create an area of weakness in
what is meant to be a unified structure. The alternatives are either to pump from
the upstream side over the embankment or to construct a siphon.

The pump(s) could be located on a raft with a flexible connection to a fixed pipe
on the dam, or be positioned on a ramp that will allow them to follow water levels
as they rise and fall to avoid too high suction lifts occurring (i.e. more than 3-5 m).

Siphons require careful construction to ensure all joints and valves are airtight and,
as insurance, some means of priming at the highest point may be incorporated in
the pipeline. With a siphon it is essential that the outlet be located at a level below
that of the inlet when the water level in the reservoir is at its lowest. Siphoning
water over an elevation of more than 5 m is not advisable and it may be necessary
to minimize the elevation difference by burying the pipe into the top portion of
the embankment.

6.8 THE EMBANKMENT

The embankment is the principal part of the dam and certain guidelines in design
and construction must be followed: the side slopes must not be steeper than 1:2
on the upstream and 1:1.75 on the downstream sides. Where embankments are
made of poor materials, or are likely to suffer erosion from cattle trampling or
6 Detailed design 53

wave action, the slopes should be made flatter to suit the circumstances involved.
Anthills and solid rock outcrops should be avoided unless there is no alternative.
Anthills should be completely excavated and the hole filled in, preferably with soil,
or, as a last resort, with treated ant heap material in well compacted thin layers.
Rock outcrops will require scraping down and key walls built into the embank-
ment or core.

6.9 FREEBOARD
Freeboard for small dams should never be less than 0.5 m with 0.75 m to 1.0 m
preferred. Where wave action is likely, additional freeboard may be required. This
can be estimated using the following formula:

Freeboard height, H’’ (in m) = 0.014 (F)0.5

where H’’ is the freeboard height and F is the fetch which is the longest distance,
in km, across the storage area (usually measured in a straight line from the centre
line of the proposed embankment to the tailwater area of the proposed reservoir).
The overall freeboard height can then be calculated taking into account the wet
freeboard, H’’, (as estimated with the formula above) required to counteract wave
action and the dry freeboard (estimated by the engineer) for safety and other
factors. The total freeboard is effectively the design depth for the spillway (at its
entrance).

6.10 CORE DEPTH AND THICKNESS

Cores and cutoffs are expensive items in construction and should be designed
to the minimum required according to the FSL, the method of construction and
taking into account the comments below. The core will usually comprise the centre
of the embankment (refer to zoned dams above) and be designed to reduce seepage
to manageable levels.

For designing small dams, as the cutoff can be excavated by hand or small machin-
ery, it need not exceed 2 m wide. For larger dams, cutoffs can be excavated by
bulldozer or scraper and then will require a width, usually 4 m, that permits access.

Depths of cutoff should be to good foundation (solid rock or impermeable subsoil

layer) or to at least 0.75 times the height of the embankment. When using the latter
guideline, if poor material is encountered at the depth for finishing the excavation,
the cutoff should be continued until good foundation is encountered. It is very
difficult to rectify cutoff problems once the dam is completed and the reservoir
full of water so care must be taken in constructing this vital part of the dam and
costs should not be compromised. To further ensure that the cutoff is constructed
properly, and especially for trenches being excavated by contractors, the supervis-
ing engineer should insist that the finished trench is inspected before backfilling
commences.

Excavation of any trench requires safety factors to be considered and, for deep
trenches, benched or sloping sides or other measures may be required to reduce
the possibilities of the sides collapsing. Sloping or benched sides also permit easier
compaction and improves the bond between the backfill and the existing ground.
54 Manual on small earth dams

6.11 CREST WIDTH

The crest width of an embankment is selected taking into account the size of the
dam, the catchment characteristics and topography and whether road or other
access will be required across the embankment. In all cases, the embankment crest
width should be designed to allow the safe passage of plant and equipment to be
used in the dam construction and should be no less than 2 m wide.

Alternatively, and most appropriate to small dams exceeding 5 m in height, a

standard crest width of 3 m can be adopted or the formula below can be used:

Cw (in m) = 0.4H + 1

where Cw is the crest width and H is the maximum height of the dam in metres.

Always adopt the widest crest width possible (and flatter embankment slopes)
where foundations or construction materials are suspect.

To reduce erosion, all crests should be given a 2.5 percent crossfall to drain rainwa-
ter to the reservoir via the upstream slope of the embankment.

6.12 SETTLEMENT ALLOWANCE

The embankment will always settle a little after construction and the finished crest
should be given a settlement allowance that raises it above its design height at the
mid-point by between 5 percent and 10 percent and tapering off to the spillway
and valley sides.

6.13 STONE PITCHING AND TRAINING BANKS

Stone pitching is usually not necessary, as a good grass cover is normally sufficient
to protect the embankment here.

However, occasionally training banks may require stone pitching protection,

depending on the climatic regime and likely flood flows. The training banks should
be long enough to divert water safely away from the downstream toe of the dam.
They should have the same proportions and crest level as the main embankment.
Where natural spillways are to be used, the training bank material must be imported
from borrow areas as excavation on the site of the natural spillway is not desirable.
Similarly, the traversing of plant and vehicles over a natural spillway could lead to
problems later in establishing a good grass cover on partially compacted soils and
erosion in places where wheel tracks have been made.

6.14 SEEPAGE
Seepage is always a potential problem that should be considered at this stage and
the designer-builder will have to bear in mind the permeability of the fill materials
and of the foundation, the position and flow of groundwater at the site, the type
and design of any core or below ground cutoff within the embankment, and the use
of drainage devices to collect and safely channel seepage water in the downstream
section of the embankment. All earth dams will have some seepage and it is unre-
alistic not to expect this. If seepage is considered as a potential problem, counter-
measures – such as filters, drains, clay blankets and flatter side slopes – introduced
at the design stage can reduce any risks to a minimum.
6 Detailed design 55

6.15 FILTERS AND DRAINS

Filters are expensive and are not normally required for smaller dams.

The aim of all seepage ‘filter’ drains is to lower the phreatic surface (the ‘seepage
line’) within the embankment to prevent water from emerging from the down-
stream slope where erosive and absorptive flows could cause slumping of the
material and endanger the whole structure.

Trenches dug into the subsoil beneath the downstream face and toe, at the time
of construction, and filled with rock and gravel (the latter helping to limit the
movement of finer embankment material into the drains) and continued to a collec-
tor drain network at least 3-5 m below the toe line, can safely bring seepage lines
down to allow flow out from beneath the embankment.

The configuration of the filter zones, however, will depend upon the type of
embankment:
¼In a modified homogenous dam, the filter is generally placed as a blanket15
of sand and fine gravel on the downstream foundation area, extending from
the cutoff/core trench boundary to the edge of the downstream toe and then
taken to safe discharge by the toe drains.
¼In a zoned dam, the filter is placed between the core and the downstream
shell zone. A longitudinal ‘chimney’ drain of gravel material that collects the
intercepted seepage flow and carries it to the base of the chimney and, via
one or more transverse drains, conveys the water to the toe drains outside the
embankment.

Such drains are essential when seepage risks are considered high – for example,
a downstream fill material of fairly low permeability, or a homogeneous dam
on an impervious foundation, would always require seepage drains. A saturated
downstream area can lead to instability and slippage. If this is significant it may
deplete the volume of fill to the extent that the weight is insufficient to resist the
forces exerted on the embankment by the water pressure in the reservoir and from
beneath the dam. Partial or complete failure may then result.

Other measures to reduce seepage are blankets16 of impermeable material laid on

the upstream face and a rock toe constructed to add weight to the structure (and
assist in relieving pore pressure in the downstream section of the embankment).
Figure 10 illustrates a typical clay blanket laid, with a new cutoff, on the upstream
face of an existing dam or, possibly, a new dam with poor foundation. Clay blankets
can be expensive for larger dams and the option of perhaps less costly filters and
drains, to safely take seepage away from the dam and relieve high water pressures
within the embankment, should be weighed against the loss of water before a clay
blanket is installed.

In established dams, seepage drains can be excavated in the downstream shoulder

to relieve water problems but results are always less satisfactory than for drains
installed at the time of construction.

15 Never less than 500 mm thick.

16 300 mm thick for dams up to 3 m high, 500 mm thick for dams 3-5 m high and 750-1 000 mm thick for
dams 5-8 m high.
56 Manual on small earth dams

More details on seepage and countermeasures can be found in FAO guidelines on

small dams and weirs in earth and gabion materials (FAO, 2001).

Advice on drainage from an expert is always recommended as the capacity and

spacing of drains and the ratio of coarse to fine materials in the filters can be impor-
tant.

Figure 10 - Clay blanket and new cutoff

6.16 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

It is at this stage that any environmental impact-assessment reports should be
completed and any works required to mitigate such impacts be designed and
costed. For small dams impacts are usually correspondingly small and may not
require significant works. Including a small percentage of the total cost in the bill of
quantities and costings (under other works) may suffice to cover any likely costs.

Conserving the catchment before works commence to allow vegetative cover to

become well established and thus reduce sedimentation can be considered.

Even if an environmental impact assessment is not required, at the design stage for
any new dam, consider the need for environmental flows and releases from the
dam – usually in the dry season – to maintain the downstream watercourse in as
natural condition as possible.

Provision of drinking water supplies downstream of the dam (using pipes under
or through the embankment and simple, sand filters and stand pipes under gravity
pressure) will reduce access to the reservoir by people and livestock. Alternatively,
wells and hand pumps in the same area may prove suitable and allow local people
access to water that may otherwise be lost to seepage.

Fencing the dam and reservoir may be required to prevent access to the embank-
ment and reservoir. Where this is not possible and to reduce the incidence of shisto-
somiasis, malaria and other water-borne diseases by keeping grass cover around the
reservoir and in flowing channels to a minimum (including regular cutting), raising
and lowering reservoir levels and removing the possibilities of standing water in
and around the dam will help.
6 Detailed design 57

Much of the above should become the responsibility of the communities benefiting
from the dam and a programme of education (incorporating health and sanitation)
on the use of the dam and its resources should be initiated at an early stage in the
design/construction process. Involvement of the beneficiaries in any remedial or
mitigation works (under any community contribution to the overall works) also
engenders a sense of responsibility in using and maintaining the water resource
provided.

Dam construction disturbs the landscape around the dam (excavation, clearing areas
for storage, accommodation and parking, access roads) and such works should be
kept to a minimum. It should be part of any contract for the contractor to remove
and store the topsoil of any area to be disturbed and then return such topsoil to
the site to allow normal vegetation to re-grow and prevent any subsequent erosion.
For borrow areas it can prove difficult to restore them to their original condition
but infilling them with waste material from the dam reservoir area and then topsoil-
ing and grassing them will mitigate much of the negative impacts. Alternatively,
converting any such pits to fish ponds can be considered (and the pits can be exca-
vated at the time of construction with this eventual aim in mind).
Dam construction 7
7 Dam construction 61

7 Dam construction

7.1 SETTING OUT THE DAM SITE

This should be completed immediately prior to the start of construction to avoid
unnecessary ground clearing and the loss of pegs and benchmarks. Should the
original site survey pegs become lost, the dam centre line must be re-established
with additional and substantial reference pegs, installed at each end of the centre line,
a good distance from where construction will occur. If the original benchmark(s)
is (are) not satisfactory another should be established on a permanent site within
easy reference distance.

The centre-line pegs should be installed at the ends of the embankment and at
every change in ground level. For each change in ground level a ‘mating’ peg (see
Figure 11a) should be established by level or GPS on the opposite side of the
valley, but still on the centre line.

At each peg on the centre line of the embankment, the distances of the toe pegs
upstream and downstream are calculated and set out at right angles as in Figure 11b.

Unless it is a very small dam, it is advisable to make an extra allowance of 10

percent on the height of the embankment for future settlement. If this is not done
at this stage the process can become very tedious and time consuming, as pegs have
to be offset from the toe peg or centre line at every construction level. For very
small dams (i.e. less than 5 m high) it is common to add a settlement allowance to
the top of the embankment at the end of construction.

The toe peg offset distances from the centre line are calculated using the formula:
Offset distance (m) = S. H + 0.5 Cw

Where: S is the slope value

H is the height of the embankment (m)
including 10 percent allowance
Cw is crest width (m)
Pegs will be required to indicate the core and crest. If the core is central and has the
same width as the crest, the pegs will serve a dual function.

On the spillway side, pegs are located where the spillway cut (if any) begins and
ends and additional pegs are placed in an arc along the sides of the spillway channel
(see Figure 11b). A 15 m interval between pegs is desirable and each should show
the depth of the excavation required, note being made of the slope within the
spillway itself (usually 1:400) needed to encourage flood water to flow away from
the training bank and end of the embankment.

When all the pegs have been installed, and a full pegging layout drawn up, all the
ramifications of the project can be discussed with the client and/or plant operator so
that any risk of error and opportunity for misunderstanding are minimized and use
of equipment and efficiency maximized.
62 Manual on small earth dams

Figure 11a - Mating pegs

Figure 11b - Pegging layout