DOMESTIC APPLICATION OF ELECTRONICS – 1

PROF. DEBASHIS DUTTA GUPTA

1
 CONTENT

Difference between Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors………………. 3

Idea of Semiconductors with examples………………………………………….. 3
Idea of Sensors with examples…………………………………………………... 10
CRT and LCD display…………………………………………………………… 13
Analog and Digital system………………………………………………………. 15
Microprocessors Microcontrollers and 7 segment display……………………… 18
Basics of Communication……………………………………………………….. 20

2
 Difference between Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

Idea of Semiconductors with examples

Semiconductor
Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally
metals) and non-conductors or insulators (such as ceramics). Semiconductors can be
compounds, such as gallium arsenide, or pure elements, such as germanium or silicon.

3
Semiconductor according to band gap theory

Band gap
A band gap is the distance between the valence band of electrons and the conduction band.
Essentially, the band gap represents the minimum energy that is required to excite an electron
up to a state in the conduction band where it can participate in conduction.

Conduction band
The conduction band is the band of electron orbitals that electrons can jump up into from the
valence band when excited. When the electrons are in these orbitals, they have enough energy
to move freely in the material.

Valence band
The valence band is the band of electron orbitals that electrons can jump out of, moving into
the conduction band when excited. The valence band is simply the outermost electron orbital
of an atom of any specific material that electrons actually occupy.

4
Fermi energy
Fermi energy is a concept in quantum mechanics that usually refers to the energy difference
between the highest and lowest occupied single-particle states in a quantum system of non-
interacting fermions at absolute zero temperature.

Hole
When the electron is freed, it left an empty spot with a positive charge in the crystal lattice
known as a hole. This hole is not fixed to the lattice; but, is free to move about.

Types of semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor
Semiconductors that are chemically pure, in
other words, free from impurities are termed as
intrinsic semiconductors. The number of holes
and electrons is therefore determined by the
properties of the material itself instead of the
impurities. In intrinsic semiconductors, the
number of excited electrons is equal to the
number of holes; n = p.

5
Extrinsic semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that are doped with specific impurities. The
impurity modifies the electrical properties of the semiconductor.

n-type semiconductor
When a tetravalent atom such as Si or Ge is doped with
a pentavalent atom, it occupies the position of an atom
in the crystal lattice of the Si atom. The four of the
electrons of the pentavalent atom bond with the four
neighbouring silicon atoms, and the fifth one remains
weakly bound to the parent atom. As a result, the
ionization energy required to set the fifth electron free is
very low, and the electrons become free to move in the
lattice of the semiconductor. Such semiconductors are
termed as n-type semiconductors.

p-type semiconductor
When a tetravalent atom such as Si or Ge is doped with a
trivalent impurity such as Al, B, In, etc., the dopant atom
has one less electron than the surrounding atoms of Si or
Ge. Thus, the fourth atom of the tetravalent atom is free,
and a hole or vacancy is generated in the trivalent atom.
In such materials, the holes are the charge carriers, and
such semiconductors are termed p-type semiconductors.

6
p-n junction diode
When a p-type and an n-type semiconductor are fused together, the device thus formed is
known as p-n junction diode.
The p-n junction means an
interface between an n-type and
a p-type semiconductor
material, with the n-type having
more electrons and the p-type
having more holes.

Depletion region
The electrons and holes are close to each other at the junction of the diode. According to
coulomb’s law, there is a force between the negative electrons and the positive holes. When
the p-n junction is formed a few electrons from the n-type diffuse through the junction and
combines with the holes in the p-side to form negative ions and leaves behind positive ions in
the n-side. This results in the formation of the depletion layer, which acts as the barrier and
does not allow any further flow of electrons from the n region to the p region.

Biasing of p-n junction

There are two types of biasing in p-n junction i.e. method of connection of power sources to
get desirable current and voltage. These are forward bias and reverse bias
In the forward bias, the p side of the diode is connected to the positive side of the battery and
the n side is connected to the negative side of the battery. The direction of the applied voltage
is opposite to the junction barrier potential. Therefore, the size of the depletion region
decreases. Therefore, the voltage applied in the forward direction assists the electrons in the n
region to overcome the barrier and flow to the p region.
When the p-side is connected to the negative terminal and n-side is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery, it is called reverse biased. When a reverse bias is applied, free electrons
are pulled away from the junction, which results in the increase of the width and resistance of
the depletion region.

7
Current equation and I-V characteristics

qV
I = I0 (eηkT − 1)

Where I = current in the diode

I0 = reverse saturation current
q = electronic charge
V = applied voltage
k = Boltzmann constant
T = Absolute temperature
η = constant

Avalanche breakdown
This type of breakdown occurs in the presence of a high electric field. When we apply a high
electric field in a reverse biased condition, the electrons start gaining high kinetic energy.
These electrons start breaking other covalent bonds and start creating more hole-electron pairs.
These pairs start crossing the depletion region and contribute to a high reverse biased current.

Zener diode
A Zener diode is a highly doped semiconductor device specifically designed to function in the
reverse direction. A Zener diode functions similarly to a regular diode when forward-biased.
However, in reverse-biased mode, a small leakage current flows through the diode. As the
reverse voltage increases and reaches the predetermined breakdown voltage (VZ), current
begins to flow through the diode. This current reaches a maximum level determined by the
series resistor, after which it stabilizes and remains constant across a wide range of applied
voltages.

Zener breakdown
When the reverse bias voltage applied to a Zener diode approaches its Zener voltage, the
electric field within the depletion region becomes strong enough to attract and remove
electrons from their valence band. These valence electrons, energized by the intense electric

8
field, break free from their parent atoms. This phenomenon takes place in the Zener breakdown
region, where even a slight increase in voltage leads to a rapid surge in electric current.

Circuit symbol of p-n diode and zener diode

Transistor
A transistor is three terminal two junction semiconductor device that controls voltage or
current flow in electronic signals and it amplifies and acts as a switch for them. These are of
two types BJT and FET
BJT are of two types
P-N-P Transistor: It is a type of BJT where one n-type material is introduced or placed between
two p-type materials. In such a configuration, the device will control the flow of current. PNP
transistor consists of 2 crystal diodes which are connected in series. The right side and left side
of the diodes are known as the collector-base diode and emitter-base diode, respectively.
N-P-N Transistor: In this transistor, we will find one p-type material that is present between
two n-type materials. N-P-N transistor is basically used to amplify weak signals to strong
signals. In an NPN transistor, the electrons move from the emitter to the collector region,
resulting in the formation of current in the transistor. This transistor is widely used in the
circuit.

9
Application of Diode and Transistors
Name Application
p-n diode Rectifier, analog construction of gates
Zener diode Voltage regulators
BJT Electronic switch, amplifiers
FET Electronic switch, amplifiers

Idea of Sensors with examples

Photoconductive cell
A photoconductive cell is a two-
way terminal semiconductor device
where the terminal resistance varies
linearly compared to the intensity of
the incident light. Thus
photoconductive cells are also
known as photo resistive devices.
There are two primary materials,
cadmium sulfide as well as
cadmium selenide. These are the
two primary materials typically used to manufacture photoconductive cells. Both of these cells
respond quite slowly to changes in terms of light intensity.

Applications of Photoconductive cell

Following are some applications of photoconductive cells.
 Photoconductive cells are components of light-sensitive alarms, automatic street lights,
and lighting control. Generally, they have a beam of infrared light that shines
permanently on a light-dependent resistor and produces a steady flow of electric current.
 The photoconductive cells help detect ships and aircraft locations by the radiations that
come out from their exhaust.
 They are useful for withering switching on as well off the transistors related to electronic
circuits.

10
Photodiodes
A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric current.
Photodiodes are designed to work in reverse bias condition. Photodiodes can be manufactured
from a variety of materials including, but not limited to, Silicon, Germanium, and Indium
Gallium Arsenide.
A photodiode is subjected to
photons in the form of light which
affects the generation of electron-
hole pairs. If the energy of the
falling photons (hν) is greater than
the energy gap (Eg) of the
semiconductor material, electron-
hole pairs are created near the
depletion region of the diode. The
electron-hole pairs created are
separated from each other before recombining due to the electric field of the junction. The
direction of the electric field in the diode forces the electrons to move towards the n-side and
consequently the holes move towards the p-side. As a result of the
increase in the number of electrons on the n-side and holes on the
p-side, a rise in the electromotive force is observed. Now when an
external load is connected to the system, a current flow is observed
through it.
Since photodiodes generate current flow directly depending upon
the light intensity received, they can be used as photo detectors to detect optical signals. Built-
in lenses and optical filters may be used to enhance the power and productivity of a photodiode.

Applications of photodiode
 Photodiodes are used in simple day-to-day applications. The reason for their prominent
use is their linear response of photodiode to light illumination.
 Photodiodes with the help of opto couplers provide electric isolation. When two isolated
circuits are illuminated by light, opto couplers are used to couple the circuit optically.
Opto couplers are faster compared to conventional devices.
 Photodiodes are used in safety electronics such as fire and smoke detectors.

11
Light dependant resistor (LDR)
LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) as the name states is a special type of
resistor that works on the photoconductivity principle means that
resistance changes according to the intensity of light. Its resistance
decreases with an increase in the intensity of light. The Light-dependent
resistors made with photosensitive semiconductor materials like
Cadmium Sulphides (CdS), lead sulfide, lead selenide, indium
antimonide, or cadmium selenide.
It works on the principle of photoconductivity whenever the light falls on
its photoconductive material, it absorbs its energy and the electrons of that
photoconductive material in the valence band get excited and go to the
conduction band and thus increasing the conductivity as per the increase
in light intensity. The LDR has the highest
resistance in dark around 1012 ohm and this resistance decreases with
the increase in light.
As per the property of LDRs, the amount of light entering the LDR
the inversely proportional to the resistance of the sensor, and the graph
is hyperbolic in nature.

Application of LDR
 Photo proximity switch
 Laser-based security systems
 Solar Street Lamps
 Camera light meters

Metal detector
A metal detector is an instrument that detects the nearby presence of metal. Metal detectors
are useful for finding metal objects on the surface, underground, and under water. A metal
detector consists of a control box, an adjustable shaft, and a variable-shaped pickup coil. The
simplest form of a metal detector consists of an oscillator producing an alternating current that
passes through a coil producing an alternating magnetic field. If a piece of electrically
conductive metal is close to the coil, eddy currents will be induced (inductive sensor) in the
metal, and this produces a magnetic field of its own. If another coil is used to measure the
magnetic field (acting as a magnetometer), the change in the magnetic field due to the metallic
object can be detected.

12
 CRT and LCD display

CRT display
CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube. CRT is a technology used in traditional computer monitors
and televisions. The image on CRT display is created by firing electrons from the back of the
tube of phosphorus located towards the front of the screen.
Once the electron heats the phosphorus, they light up, and they are projected on a screen. The
colour you view on the screen is produced by a blend of red, blue and green light.
Main Components of CRT are:
1. Electron Gun: Electron gun consisting of a series of elements, primarily a heating filament
(heater) and a cathode. The electron gun creates a source of electrons which are focused into
a narrow beam directed at the face of the CRT.
2. Control Electrode: It is used
to turn the electron beam on and
off.
3. Focusing system: It is used to
create a clear picture by focusing
the electrons into a narrow beam.
4. Deflection Yoke: It is used to
control the direction of the
electron beam. It creates an
electric or magnetic field which
will bend the electron beam as it passes through the area. In a conventional CRT, the yoke is
linked to a sweep or scan generator. The deflection yoke which is connected to the sweep
generator creates a fluctuating electric or magnetic potential.
5. Phosphorus-coated screen: The inside front surface of every CRT is coated with
phosphors. Phosphors glow when a high-energy electron beam hits them. Phosphorescence is
the term used to characterize the light given off by a phosphor after it has been exposed to an
electron beam.

13
LCD display
A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical
device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers.
Liquid crystals do not emit light directly but instead use a backlight or reflector to produce
images in colour or monochrome.
LCDs can either be normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer
arrangement. For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have black lettering
on a background that is the colour of the backlight, and a character negative LCD will have a
black background with the letters being of the same colour as the backlight.
Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between
two transparent electrodes, often made of indium tin oxide (ITO) and
two polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular polarizers), the axes of transmission of which
are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other.

Types of Liquid Crystal

There are three types of liquid crystal: nematic, smectic and cholesteric.
Nematic: The nematic phase is the simplest form of liquid crystal and is the phase in which
the crystal molecules have no arranged positions and are free to move in any way they like.
However, while they do not have a specific order, the molecules point in the same direction
during this phase, distinguishing them from a pure liquid.
The liquid crystal at this stage can be characterised by its thread-like appearance when viewed
under a microscope. The use of nematic liquid crystals in telescope lenses is common because
it allows for a clearer image when researchers are faced with atmospheric turbulence.
Smectic: In this step, the molecules line up in layers, keeping the same orientation and pointing
in the same direction as the molecules in nematic liquid crystals. While these layers move
freely, movement within the layers is restricted; therefore, it forms a slightly more solid
substance. Smectic liquid crystals have been found to have fast electro-optical response times
and are therefore used in conjunction with nematic liquid crystals in making liquid crystal
display (LCD) screens.
Cholesteric: The cholesteric phase, also known as the chiral nematic phase, is characterised
by molecules being aligned and stacked at a slight angle to each other within very thin layers
– this prevents a substance from being crystalline or solid. This type of liquid crystal also has
the characteristic of changing colour when exposed to different temperatures. This is why
cholesteric liquid crystals are used in common household items such as thermometers and
mood rings.

14
Application of LCD
LCDs have a wide range of applications. They are commonly used in televisions, computer
monitors, laptops, tablets, smartphones, digital cameras, portable gaming devices, and car
displays. They are also found in industrial equipment, medical devices, and various consumer
electronics.

Advantage of LCD over CRT

 Size and Weight: The colour LCD is thinner and much lighter. It is much easier to install
into tight areas. The CRT can weigh up to 50 pounds and needs additional bracing and
heavier supports.
 Viewing area: LCDs have a larger viewing area. Example: a 19” CRT has only 18”
screen view, and the LCD has a full 19” diagonal picture.
 Response Time: The new LCDs are just as quick as the CRT. While the older LCDs
were much slower, this has changed within the past 4 to 5 years.
 Power: Energy savings on the LCD can make a big difference in companies having
multiple units in production. Savings can be as much as 1/3 over the older CRT.

Analog and Digital system

Analog system
An analog system is a system in which an electrical value, such as voltage or current, represents
something in the physical world.

Features of Analog system

 Uses continuous signals: Analog systems use continuous signals to represent
information, such as electrical voltages or sound waves.
 Real-world representation: Analog systems are better suited for representing real-world
phenomena such as sound and light, which are continuous in nature.
 Smooth transitions: Analog systems provide smooth and continuous transitions between
different values, which can be important in certain applications such as music or video.

15
  Complexity: Analog systems can be more complex than digital systems due to the need
for additional circuitry to process and transmit the signals.

Digital system
A digital system represents information with discrete symbols (of which digits are a special
case) rather than with a continuously varying quantity, as in an analog system.

Features of Digital system

 Uses binary code: Digital systems use binary code, which is a combination of zeros and
ones, to represent information.
 Accuracy: Digital systems are more accurate than analog systems because the
information is represented in a precise and consistent manner.
 Processing speed: Digital systems are capable of processing large amounts of data
quickly and accurately.
 Noise immunity: Digital systems are immune to noise and interference, which means
that the transmitted information is less likely to be corrupted.

Advantages of digital embedded system

Precision and Accuracy − Digital systems work with discrete values, data may be represented
precisely and accurately. Digital signals may be transferred and processed with little loss or
degradation, unlike analogue systems, which are prone to noise and distortion.
Flexibility and Programmability − Digital systems are flexible and easily programmable,
allowing them to execute a variety of jobs or adjust to changing conditions. This adaptability
makes it possible to create flexible hardware and software that can be updated or upgraded
with new features.
Reliability and Stability − Digital signals are less prone to interference and signal
deterioration than analogue signals in terms of reliability and stability. Digital systems can
contain error-detection and error-correction techniques, increasing their dependability and
stability, and they are built to tolerate noise.
Signal Processing Capabilities − Digital systems are excellent at processing and modifying
signals, making it possible to use cutting-edge signal processing strategies including filtering,
modulation, compression, and encryption. Algorithms for digital signal processing can be
efficiently implemented, improving functionality and performance.

16
Storage and Memory − Digital systems are capable of storing a lot of data in small,
dependable memory devices. In comparison to analogue storage techniques, digital storage
systems offer quicker access times, higher data integrity, and simpler duplication and backup.
Integration and Compatibility − Utilising standardised interfaces and protocols, digital
systems may integrate and communicate with other digital devices and systems. By facilitating
smooth integration and interoperability between various parts, this compatibility makes it
simpler to construct sophisticated systems out of digital building pieces.
Reproducibility and Replication − Digital data is easily reproducible and replicable without
degrading in terms of quality or information. This makes it suitable for applications like
multimedia, data sharing, and collaborative work since it enables simple distribution, sharing,
and duplication of digital content.
Cost-Effectiveness − Digital components like memory and microprocessors have seen a sharp
decline in price over time. Digital systems are now more accessible to a variety of applications
and sectors due to mass production and scale economies.
Scalability − Digital systems can simply scaled up or down to meet changing needs thanks to
their scalability. They are easily enlarged by including more digital components or connected
into bigger systems. Digital systems can adapt to various needs and growth scenarios thanks
to their scalability.

Memory
Memory devices are digital systems that are used to store data for temporary basis or for a long
time. The main types of memory are discussed below
Cache memory. This temporary storage area, known as a cache, is more readily available to
the processor than the computer’s main memory source. It is also called CPU memory because
it is typically integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip with
a bus interconnect with the CPU.
RAM. It is one of the parts of the Main memory, also famously known as Read Write
Memory. Random Access memory is present on the motherboard and the computer’s data is
temporarily stored in RAM. As the name says, RAM can help in both Read and write.
D RAM (Dynamic RAM): D RAM uses capacitors and transistors and stores the data as a
charge on the capacitors. They contain thousands of memory cells. It needs refreshing of
charge on capacitor after a few milliseconds. This memory is slower than S RAM.
S RAM (Static RAM): S RAM uses transistors and the circuits of this memory are capable
of retaining their state as long as the power is applied. This memory consists of the number of
flip flops with each flip flop storing 1 bit. It has less access time and hence, it is faster.

17
ROM: ROM full form is Read Only Memory. ROM is a non-volatile memory and it is used
to store important information which is used to operate the system. We can only read the
programs and data stored on it and cannot modify of delete it.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only memory is modifiable once
by the user. The user purchases a blank PROM and uses a PROM program to put the required
contents into the PROM. Its content can’t be erased once written.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM is an extension to
PROM where you can erase the content of ROM by exposing it to Ultraviolet rays for nearly
40 minutes.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): Here the written
contents can be erased electrically. You can delete and re programme EEPROM up to 10,000
times. Erasing and programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms(milliseconds). Any
area in an EEPROM can be wiped and programmed selectively.
Virtual memory. A memory management technique where secondary memory can be used
as if it were a part of the main memory. Virtual memory uses hardware and software to enable
a computer to compensate for physical memory shortages by temporarily transferring data
from RAM to disk storage.

Microprocessor Microcontroller and 7 segment display

Microprocessor
Microprocessor, any of a type of miniature electronic device that contains the arithmetic, logic,
and control circuitry necessary to perform the functions of a digital computer’s central
processing unit.

Features of microprocessor
 Low Cost - Due to integrated circuit technology microprocessors are available at very
low cost. It will reduce the cost of a computer system.
 High Speed - Due to the technology involved in it, the microprocessor can work at very
high speed. It can execute millions of instructions per second.
 Small Size - A microprocessor is fabricated in a very less footprint due to very large
scale and ultra large scale integration technology. Because of this, the size of the
computer system is reduced.

18
  Versatile - The same chip can be used for several applications, therefore,
microprocessors are versatile.
 Low Power Consumption - Microprocessors are using metal oxide semiconductor
technology, which consumes less power.
 Less Heat Generation - Microprocessors uses semiconductor technology which will not
emit much heat as compared to vacuum tube devices.
 Reliable - Since microprocessors use semiconductor technology, therefore, the failure
rate is very less. Hence it is very reliable.
 Portable - Due to the small size and low power consumption microprocessors are
portable.

Microcontroller
A microcontroller (MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit that is designed to
control specific tasks within electronic systems. It combines the functions of a central
processing unit (CPU), memory, and input/output interfaces, all on a single chip.

Features of microcontroller
 The benefit of this is that the instructions are macro-type. It can be used to replace a
number of instructions together.
 The new technology has helped to make microcontrollers that consume very less power.
Commonly, they support a voltage of 1.8-5.5 V
 The microcontrollers are very user-friendly and also quite reliable because they use
advanced memory. ROM memories which are high-end benefits of technological
improvements like EEPROM are better and much more capable in storage functions. It
also allows for more erase/write cycles.

7 segment LED

The emission of photons from a 7-segment display

occurs when the diode junction of each segment is
forward biased by an external voltage allowing
current to flow across its junction a phenomenon
called electroluminescence.

19
 It has a common display pin where all the LED’s are
connected. According to it there are two types of 7
segment display the common anode type and
common cathode type the circuit diagram is given
above.

Basics of Communication

Communication
Electronic communication is any form of communication that's broadcast, transmitted, stored
or viewed using electronic media

Modulation
Modulation is the process of varying the RF (radio frequency) carrier wave in accordance with
the information in a low-frequency signal.

Need for modulation

Increase the Signal Strength
The baseband signals transmitted by the sender are not capable of direct transmission. The
strength of the message signal should be increased so that it can travel longer distances. This
is where modulation is essential. The most vital need of modulation is to enhance the strength
of the signal without affecting the parameters of the carrier signal.
Wireless Communication System
Modulation has removed the necessity for using wires in the communication systems. It is
because modulation is widely used in transmitting signals from one location to another with
faster speed. Thus, the modulation technique has helped in enhancing wireless communication
systems.
20
Prevention of Message Signal from Mixing
Modulation and its types prevent the interference of the message signal from other signals. It
is because a person sending a message signal through the phone cannot tell such signals apart.
As a result, they will interfere with each other. However, by using carrier signals having a high
frequency, the mixing of the signals can be prevented. Thus, modulation ensures that the
signals received by the receiver are entirely perfect.
Size of the Antenna
The signals within 20 Hz to 20 kHz frequency range can travel only a few distances. To send
the message signal, the length of the antenna should be a quarter wavelength of the used
frequency. Thus, modulation is required to increase the frequency of the message signal and
to enhance its strength to reach the receiver.

Amplitude modulation
In amplitude modulation a type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier wave varies
in some proportion with respect to the modulating data or the signal.

21
Mathematical representation of amplitude modulation
Aam = (Ac + Am sin ωm t) sin ωc t
Where Aam = final amplitude modulated wave
Ac = amplitude of carrier wave
Am = amplitude of signal wave
ωm = angular frequency of signal wave
ωc = angular frequency of carrier wave

Frequency modulation
Frequency Modulation is a process of encoding information on one carrier wave by changing
its frequency. The frequency of the carrier wave is changed according to the frequency of the
modulating signal.

22