Ralph Morrison

List of the Learning Circuits v

A Note to the Reader ix

I Resistors, Capacitors, and Voltage 1

2 Inductors, Transformers, and Resonance 41

3 Introduction to Semiconductors 81

4 More Semiconductor Circuits 119

5 Feedback and IC Amplifiers 151

6 IC Applications 187

7 Circuit Construction, Radiation, and Interference 217

8 A Review of Basic Electrical Concepts 237

Appendix I: Preparing to Use the Learning Circuits 261

Appendix II: Basic Algebra 267

Index 275
1 Resistors, Capacitors, and Voltage

2 Inductors, Transformers, and Resonance

3 Introduction to Semiconductors

4 More Semiconductor Circuits

5 Feedback and IC Amplifiers
6 IC Applications
Welcome to the study of electronics. This is a fascinating field, one whose
relevance to life in the twenty-first century cannot be overestimated. Our lives
have been changed immeasurably by electronic devices from cell phones to
computers. Electronics are used in medicine, in aviation and space travel, in the
cars we drive, and in the many devices in our homes. Indeed, some form of
electronics touches every aspect of our lives. Yet these countless devices are
built from the same basic components. So the study of basic electronics will give
you a way to understand how many of the electronics we use every day actually
function.

My approach has been to start with the fundamentals and build up your
knowledge step by step. In chapter 1 you'll begin working with just two of the
simplest electronic components, and will learn how to combine them into
circuits. Then you will add more components and move on to more complicated
circuits.

Understanding electronics depends on your having some familiarity with

electricity itself. You need to know the basics of voltage, current, and Ohm's
law. If it has been some time since you studied basic electricity I have provided a
review for you in chapter 8. If you need to brush up on these concepts, chapter 8
is the place to start, even before you start on chapter 1.

If you are completely unfamiliar with electricity, you may find that the review
in chapter 8 is not enough. In this case it makes sense to prepare yourself for the
study of electronics by reading Basic Electricity, which is also part of this series
of Self-Teaching Guides.

The basic principles of electronics are ultimately derived from physics. Many
of these principles can be expressed most simply and completely as algebraic
equations. In an equation, letters and symbols are used to represent the
components and variables used in electronics. Algebra provides us with
techniques for stating principles and solving problems using these letters and
symbols. You will find a number of equations used in this book. If it has been
some time since you used algebra, you will find a review of it in appendix II. If
you are completely unfamiliar with algebra, there are many textbooks on
elementary algebra available. An understanding of trigonometry will help in
some sections of the book, but it is not required and you will be able to proceed
without it.

One feature of this book that I think you will find enjoyable and useful is the
Learning Circuits. A Learning Circuit is an electronic circuit you can build
yourself, which will help you to understand a principle of electronics. In order to
build the Learning Circuits you need a supply of basic components. These are
not expensive and are readily available at electrical supply stores. Each Learning
Circuit begins with a list of the components you need to build it, and has
complete instructions and drawings to help you put it together. A complete list of
all the components needed for every Learning Circuit appears in appendix I.
Appendix I also has information about the testing equipment used in the
Learning Circuits, and some general advice about putting together electronic
circuits.

It is possible to go through the book and understand the material without

building the Learning Circuit exercises, but you will get much more out of the
book if you do. It's also fun. One of the most enjoyable parts about writing this
book was building the Learning Circuits, which I did with a student to whom it
was all brand-new. There is truly no substitute for hands-on experience, and this
is a good way to acquire it at your own pace.
Objectives

In this chapter you will learn:

• two definitions of electronics (and how to tell which one is

intended)

• how to study electronics using the Learning Circuits

• the equipment you will need for the Learning Circuits

• the characteristics of two basic components used in most

electronic equipment-the resistor and the capacitor

What Is Electronics?

The word electronics has two different, though closely related, meanings. This
can be confusing, but you will find you can quite easily tell which meaning is
intended. In the first definition, electronics is "the study of voltage and current
waveforms that vary in time." When this meaning is intended, the word
electronics is singular, and in a sentence it is used with a singular verb. For
example, one would say, "Electronics is the study of voltage and current
waveforms."

Electronics can also refer to electrical devices created to perform specific

tasks, such as amplifying an electrical signal, sending or receiving radiation, or
any one of hundreds of different functions. If this is the sense intended, the word
electronics is plural and is followed by a plural verb. One would say something
like, "The electronics onboard an airplane are very sophisticated."

You will be able to tell whether electronics refers to the study or to the
devices by observing the way the word is used in a sentence and the context in
which it is used. In ordinary conversation, the second sense of the word is used
most often. If you walk into almost any large department store, you will find a
section of the store called electronics. It's the section where you can buy DVDs,
CD players, and so on. Clearly, the word refers to electronic devices. In this
book, on the other hand, the word electronics refers most of the time to the study
of voltage and current waveforms. That is why this section is called "What Is
Electronics?" and not "What Are Electronics?"!

The Learning Circuits

Throughout this book you will find experiments in electronics you can do
yourself. They are called Learning Circuits, and they have been designed to give
you a hands-on sense of the way electronic circuits work. A circuit is a group of
interconnected electronic components. They perform such tasks as amplification,
waveform generation, filtering, signal sensing, signal switching, logic, radiation,
and electromagnetic field detection.

Don't worry if you don't know what these functions are. By the time you
finish this book you will be familiar with all of them. They are the functions that
make up radios, VCRs, stereo amplifiers, telephones, and all the other electronic
devices we use. You will not be able to design these electronic products when
you finish this book (that requires more advanced study), but you will have a
much better appreciation of how they work, and you will be well prepared to
take the next step toward learning to design them yourself.

In this chapter there are 8 Learning Circuits. These first experiments will
show you different ways of connecting two basic electrical components: resistors
and capacitors. Before you create your first cir-cult, however, you need some
equipment and some understanding of how to use it.

First, you need some means of measuring and observing changing

waveforms. The Learning Circuits include pictures of changing voltage
waveforms you can expect to see, and equations describing them. Pictures and
equations are helpful, of course, but there is no substitute for seeing the voltages
in real time, and for this you need some equipment. The two main tools used in
electronics to make observations are the waveform generator (also called a
function generator or signal generator) and the oscilloscope.

So, should you dive in and immediately purchase these two pieces of
equipment? That will be your decision, but be sure to read appendix I,
"Preparing to Use the Learning Circuits," first. As you'll see, the equipment is
costly. Before making the purchases, you might want to go through at least a
chapter or two of this book, studying the Learning Circuits and the drawings that
accompany them. You can certainly learn a great deal this way. Then, if you find
you are still excited about electronics, you can look for some used equipment
and start making your own observations.

For the first few Learning Circuits, you can use another piece of equipment
called a multimeter. As the name implies, this is a multiuse measuring device
that can function as a voltmeter, ohmmeter, or ammeter. Multimeters are not
very expensive, and they can measure ac and dc volts, dc current, and resistance.
What they cannot do is show waveforms-for that an oscilloscope is needed.

Circuits also need a source of power, but using utility power from a wall plug
poses a safety hazard. To resolve this difficulty, all of the ac sources in the book
make use of an ac adapter. An adapter is an Underwriter's approved transformer
that supplies a source of low-voltage ac power. (Underwriter's Laboratory is a
testing organization that approves electrical hardware for use by consumers.)

Connecting circuit components together requires some tinned bus wire, some
insulated wire, some solder, and a soldering iron. Simple circuits can be
connected using clip leads or test leads. A test lead is an insulated wire that has
mechanical clips (alligator clips) on each end. In some circuits you can make a
connection simply by twisting leads together. You can also purchase a circuit
board that has a grid of holes so that tie pins can be pressed into the holes, and
you can solder components to these pins. (Just be sure not to cut the leads short
until you are certain they are resting in their final location.) But when circuits
become more complicated, soldering works best. You will find a stepby-step
description of soldering in appendix 1.
 You will also need some basic tools, which you may already own: a pair of
needle-nosed pliers and wire cutters.

Finally, you will need a workstation to do the Learning Circuits, which does
not need to be more than a few feet of counter space near a wall outlet. Ideally
this should be a place where you can leave your equipment out and available
while you experiment with the various Learning Circuits.

The Waveform Generator

A waveform (function) generator is a piece of electronic test equipment used to

generate a repetitive changing voltage, or a voltage waveform that repeats itself
over and over. The voltage waveforms that can be selected are sine, square, or
triangle. The lowest settable frequency is often around 0.1 Hz (see chapter 8).
The highest sine wave frequency is often 10 MHz. The voltage amplitude is
often limited to 10 V peak or 20 V peak-to peak.

Each of these waveforms has its own particular use. Sine waves are used to
test the response of circuits. A sine wave is sinusoidal in character. A sine wave
is often referred to as a sinusoid. See Figure 1.1. This waveform is used because
the currents and voltages in a linear circuit are all sine waves. Square waves are
valuable because they provide information about circuit behavior not easily seen
with sine waves. A square wave voltage can transition symmetrically around 0
volts or transition from 0 to a peak voltage level once per cycle. The transition
time or rise time should be short compared to the time of one cycle. This makes
it difficult to generate a 2-MHz square wave, as the transition times should be
around 5.0 ns. Shorter transition times raise the cost. Triangular waves are useful
because the voltage slopes are constant. However, triangular waves are not
generally used in testing. These three waveforms are shown in Figure 1.1. For
more on these concepts, see chapter 8.

An output cable is usually supplied with the waveform generator (which can
also be called a signal generator or a function generator). The cable can have
alligator clips on the end so that it can be connected to various points in a circuit.
The outer conductor of the cable is called the zero reference conductor of the
signal. It is also called a shield, a ground, or the common conductor. (The word
ground is often used to mean "earth" but this is not always the intended
meaning.) It connects to the ground or common of the circuit you are testing. In
some generators this shield is connected to the safety or green wire of the power
conductor. For most testing, you should remove this connection link or strap.
The circuit you are testing may already be connected to ground. If this is the
case, then two connections to ground can be troublesome. This can be checked
by measuring a low resistance from the common output lead to the third pin on
the power cord.

Figure 1.1 The three voltage waveforms provided

by a waveform generator
The Oscilloscope

An oscilloscope is a piece of electronic test equipment used to observe circuit

behavior in real time. The oscilloscope generates a picture of the changing signal
patterns. All of the waveforms shown in the figures in this book can be observed
in real life by applying a signal generator to a circuit and then observing the
waveforms with an oscilloscope. The vertical scale on an oscilloscope displays
voltage, and the horizontal axis displays time.

The operation of a basic oscilloscope is simple. A dot moves (transitions)

linearly across a viewing screen from left to right. When it reaches the right edge
of the screen it immediately returns to the left side. A single crossing is called a
"sweep." If the sweep frequency is set to 1 kHz, the dot moves across the screen
in 1 millisecond (ms). In the first sweep, the time goes from 0 to 1 ms. The dot
returns to the start and traces the same path for the second millisecond, and so
on.

If the voltage probe is connected to a 1-kHz sine wave voltage, a single sine
wave will be displayed on the screen. If the sine wave frequency is 2 kHz, then
two full sine waves will be displayed. When the dot makes many sweeps per
second, the screen pattern appears stationary.

You can observe the oscilloscope display in slow motion by observing a 1-Hz
sine wave from a function generator, with the sweep frequency on the
oscilloscope set to 1 Hz. At this slow rate you will be able to see the dot move
across the screen, writing a sine wave pattern over and over. A sine wave voltage
display is shown in Figure 1.2.

It is worthwhile spending a little time with the oscilloscope and the function
generator before you get started on the Learning Circuits. I can't tell you exactly
how to work the controls, as there are many different designs. You will have to
hook up the oscilloscope to the function generator and play with the dials until it
becomes clear. Don't worry, you can't hurt yourself or the equipment, so go
ahead and experiment.
 Figure 1.2 A sine wave displayed on an oscilloscope

An oscilloscope has one or two input probes. The probe tip is designed to
connect to points in a circuit. The grounding clip on the probe is usually
connected to the zero reference or ground of the circuit. At its other end (inside
the oscilloscope) the grounding clip connects to the oscilloscope frame and to
the power safety or green wire (the third plug in a three-pronged electrical plug).
This connection to ground is required by the National Electrical Code.

A problem arises when you have both an oscilloscope and a function

generator (or in more complicated circuits, multiple devices) all connected to
one circuit. If two or more devices are connected to the power safety, you have
multiple grounds. This is not desirable. For this reason, when you do have
several devices connected to your circuit, use a "cheater plug" (a two-pronged
plug) for all but one of your devices. In the Learning Circuits you will be using
an adapter plug, which provides an additional level of isolation and safety.

Voltages

Throughout this book, the figures generally include a reference to a voltage

source. The voltage source can be either ac or dc (see chapter 8). Voltage may
come from a waveform generator, a battery, or the power utility.

The symbol used for a voltage source is either the letter V in a circle or the
symbol for a battery. A lowercase v refers to a changing voltage. The polarity
(plus or minus) of a dc voltage will always be indicated.
 We will assume that the voltage source can supply the current demanded by
the circuit without changing voltage. This is referred to as an ideal voltage
source. In actuality voltage does change with load, but assuming an ideal source
simplifies the discussion.

If the voltage is a step function or square wave, it will be clearly stated in the
text.

Resistors and Capacitors

We are now ready to begin using our first electronic components, resistors and
capacitors. These two components are found in most electronic equipment
because they do very basic and important jobs needed in every circuit.

Resistors are the most common electrical component (see chapter 8). They are
used to limit the flow of current in a circuit. By comparison a conductor offers
very little opposition to current flow. There are many types and sizes of resistors.
In electronics, resistors are apt to be small cylinders that are about a half-inch
long. This is the circuit symbol for a resistor:

Capacitors are the second most common component. Their basic function is
to store electrical field energy. This field energy requires electric charge on the
plates of the capacitor. (See chapter 8 for discussion of capacitors and electric
charge.) The ratio of voltage to charge is called capacitance. Since it takes time
to store energy, capacitors can be used to control frequency response, provide
filtering action, provide timing, and store energy in power supplies. Capacitors
are found in almost every circuit design. The circuit symbol for a capacitor is

In the next sections we will be examining the way resistors and capacitors
respond to various voltage waveforms. You will recall that a waveform
generator produces sine waves, square waves, and triangle waves. Sine wave
voltages are the only waveform that keep the same shape in any combination of
resistors and capacitors.

One way to study resistors and capacitors is to apply a "step function" to the
circuit. A step function is a voltage that changes from one value to another. In
many cases a low-frequency square wave can be used as a step function. Digital
circuits make extensive use of square waves and step functions.

A common source of dc voltage is the battery. Batteries can be placed in

series to increase the dc voltage. If two 9-V batteries are placed in series, the
total voltage is 18 V. This series arrangement is shown in Figure 1.3.

If one of the batteries is reversed in polarity, the voltages subtract.

In practice, series batteries should be of the same type so that the batteries
will last the same length of time.
 Figure 1.3 Batteries in series

LEARNING CIRCUIT 1

Measuring Battery Voltages

You will need (in addition to your multimeter or oscilloscope):

2 9-V batteries
1. Set the multimeter to "volts" and to a scale appropriate (the voltage
can be easily read on that range) for measuring 9 to 18 V (usually 25
V). Practice using the multimeter (which is now functioning as a
voltmeter) by measuring the voltage of a battery. It should read 9 V.

2. Touch the batteries together in series, positive to negative, so the

voltages add. Measure the total voltage. The reading should be 18 V

3. Tie the common voltmeter lead to the connection between the two
batteries. Note that the ends of the batteries are at +9 V and -9 V.

4. Do the same measurements using the oscilloscope. Note the trace

moves across at different levels.

When batteries are placed in series, any one of the battery terminals can be
called 0 V. If the midpoint or jumper between the two series 9-V batteries is
called 0 V, then the other two terminals are at -9 V and +9 V. The potential
difference between the outer terminals is 18 V.

Batteries may be placed in parallel provided their voltages are equal. Connect
the plus terminals together and connect the minus terminals together. The
resulting voltage is the same as one of the batteries, but the current capability is
increased. A problem with this arrangement is that if one of the batteries
becomes weak, the strong battery will drain into the weak battery.

AC voltage sources can be placed in series if they are voltages on separate

windings or coils of a transformer. (Refer to chapter 8.) The voltages must be in
phase (peak at the same time) if the voltages are to add. The coils of the
transformer should have nearly the same dc resistance for this to be practical. In
utility power generation, ac sources (generators) are placed in parallel on the
power grid. Placing a power generator on line requires skill and a complex
procedure.
 Figure 1.4 Two 9-V batteries and a reference
conductor

Resistors in Series or Parallel

When resistors are placed in series, their resistances add. If three 10ohm resistors
are placed in series, the total series resistance is 30 ohms. To calculate the total
resistance, the units of resistance must agree. From this point on we will use the
Greek letter S2 to mean ohm.

Consider a 300-52 resistor in series with a 2-ku resistor. The 200 S2 must be
expressed as kS2 or the 2 kS2 must be expressed as ohms. The answer is 2 kS2 +
0.3 kL = 2.3 W. The other solution is 2,000 S2 + 300 0 = 2,300 Q.

The conductance of a resistor is the reciprocal of its resistance. You calculate

the resistance of parallel resistors by adding their conductances, and then taking
the reciprocal of the total. Figure 1.5 shows two parallel resistors. A 10-52
resistor has a conductance of 0.1 S, where S stands for sieman (a unit of
conductance.) Consider a 5-52 and a 2-52 resistor in parallel. The conductances
are 0.2 S and 0.5 S. The total conductance is 0.7 S. The total resistance is YO 7
Q = 1.429 Q. This circuit is shown in Figure 1.6.

The equation relating the conductances of three parallel resistors is

where RT is the total resistance and R,, R2, and R3 are the resistances of the
three parallel resistors. This idea can be extended to any number of resistors.

When the resistors are in units of kS2 or MS2, a convenient technique is to

treat the values as if they were all ohms and at the end of the calcu lation affix
the correct unit. (The capital M stands for million. It is pronounced mega. A
lowercase in stands for thousandth. It is pronounced milli. A lowercase k stands
for thousand. It is pronounced kilo.) For example, 10 MS2 in parallel with 20
MS2 is treated like 10 and 20 Q. The answer is 6.66 0. With the correct units the
answer is 6.66 MS2.
Figure 1.5 Resistors in parallel
 Figure 1.6 A circuit with two parallel resistors

LEARNING CIRCUIT 2

Combining Resistors in Series and Parallel

You will need (in addition to your multimeter or oscilloscope):

3 1,000-Q resistors

Set your multimeter to ohms x 1,000 (it is now functioning as an

ohmmeter). Measure the resistances of two 1,000-52 resistors in series
and parallel combinations. Do the same thing using three resistors.
How many combinations of series and parallel can you make with three
resistors? See Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7 The three ways three 1,000-Q resistors can be arranged

Voltages Applied to Resistors

When a voltage is placed across a resistor, a current flows in a loop formed by

the voltage source and the resistor. This circuit is shown in Figure 1.8.

The current in the loop is given by Ohm's law. By convention, the direction of
the current is out of the positive terminal of the battery. The current level for a 6-
V battery and a 1,000-0 resistor is 6 mA. The power dissipated in the resistor is
given by V z/R. (See chapter 8 for discussion of these concepts.) To use this
equation, the voltage must be expressed in volts and the resistor in ohms. The
power is 36/1,000 W or 36 mW. If the voltage were 6 V ac, the answer would be
the same.

Standard carbon resistors are commercially available that cover the range 10
Q to 22 MS2. These resistors are available in 'a-W, %-W, 1-W, and 2-W sizes. It
is good practice to avoid using resistors at more than one-half their wattage
rating. In most circuit applications it is convenient to use resistors of one wattage
size, as X-W size is a typical power level. This means many resistors are rated
higher than they need to be. The standard resistor values, with accuracy to within
20% of the stated value, in the range from 10 to 100 92 are 10, 12, 15, 18, 22,
27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, and 82 Q. These same multiples are available in every
decade. For example, resistors are available at 22, 220, 2.2 k, 22 k, 220 k, 2.2 M
and 22 M. Resistors with accuracy to within 10% and 5% of their stated value
are also available.

The value of a carbon resistor is noted in a rather esoteric way, by bands of

color that encircle each end of the resistor. At one end of the resistor, only silver
and gold are used. Gold indicates that the resistor's accuracy is to within 5% of
the stated value and silver indicates 10%. No color on this end indicates
accuracy to within 20%.
 Figure 1.8 A voltage source across a resistor

On the other end of the resistor, 10 different colors plus gold and silver are
used, in three bands. The first two bands indicate numeric values and the third
band indicates the number of added zeros. The numeric meaning of each color is
listed in the following table. Note that gold and silver on this end have different
meanings than they have on the other end.

A resistor with bands of brown, black, and brown reads 100 Q. The first
brown is 1, the black band is 0, and the second brown indicates one added 0. The
resistor with bands of brown, green, and green indicates 1,500,000 Q. The brown
is 1, the first green is 5, and the last green says that you add five zeros. Bands of
green, blue, and gold indicate 5.6 ohms. Green is 5, blue is 6, and the gold says
you divide by 10.

Another way resistors are made is by depositing a thin film of metal on a

cylinder. A spiral is then cut into the surface of the cylinder. This cut defines the
resistance-the closer together the spiral, the more resistance. These resistors are
accurate to within 1% or 2%, and are more stable then carbon resistors.
 For critical applications, precision wire-wound resistors are available with
accuracies better than 0.1%. Metal film resistors are often coded by a stamped
number. The last digit indicates the number of zeros.

If you have any doubt as to the value of a resistor, use your ohmmeter to
verify the value.

Note that when you use your fingers to clamp the leads of the ohmmeter to
the resistors, your fingers become part of the circuit. The resistance between
your fingers can be as low as 10,000 Q. The resistance depends on the
individual, the surface area, the finger pressure, and the moisture and oils in the
skin. For resistors over 1,000 Q hold the ohmmeter by the plastic handles, and
keep your fingers out of the circuit. When measuring a resistor, your fingers
should not provide a parallel path for current flow, or the answer will be
incorrect.

In many mass-produced products such as TV sets, the resistors are extremely

small, have no leads, and are soldered directly onto the circuit board. At the
other end of the spectrum, there are very large resistors that can dissipate 5, 10,
or even 100 W. These resistors are made using a resistive alloy wire wound on a
ceramic core.

The current that flows in an ideal resistor depends only on the instantaneous
voltage. If the voltage is a sine wave, a step function, or a square wave, the
current waveform is exactly the same. When the resistor value is very large or
very small, there are exceptions to this statement. Resistors with low resistance
values are influenced by their series inductance, and resistors with high
resistance values are influenced by a shunt parasitic capacitance. These effects
are important at high frequencies. For the circuits we will discuss in this book,
these effects can be ignored.

The Voltage Divider

Two resistors in series across a voltage source form a voltage divider. This
voltage divider circuit is shown in Figure 1.9.
 One side of the voltage source is usually called the reference conductor or
zero of potential. The voltage at the junction between the two resistors is a
fraction of the total voltage. The purpose of the voltage divider is to produce this
reduced potential. The ratio of voltage drops is equal to the ratio of resistance
values. The sum of the two voltage drops is equal to the source voltage. In
Figure 1.9 the negative side of the voltage source is the reference conductor. If
the resistors are equal, the attenuation factor is 2. The current in this circuit is the
voltage divided by the sum of the resistors, or I = V/(R1 + R2). The voltage
across the first resistor is this resistance times the current, or V, = I X R, = V x
R,/ (R, + R2). The voltage across the second resistor is given by V2 = V X
R2/(R1 + R2). For example, if Rl = 2 kS2 and R2 = 8 W, their sum is 10 kS2. If
the voltage is 10 V, the current is 1 mA. The voltage across the 2-kc2 resistor is I
X R2, or 2 V. If the negative terminal of the battery is at 0 V, then the
connection between the two resistors is +2 V. If the positive terminal of the
battery is at 0 V, then the junction between the resistors is at -8 V
 Figure 1.9 A voltage divider

For sine wave voltages or dc voltages, the power dissipated in each resistor
can be calculated three different ways (see chapter 8). The voltage times the
current, or V x I, is the simplest way. The other two ways are I2R and V2/R. The
units must be in ohms, amperes, and volts to get an answer in watts. Using the
equation P = V x I, the power dissipated in R1 is 2x 0.001=2mW.

Sometimes it is necessary to select two resistors to obtain a required

attenuation factor. The easiest way to solve this problem is to decide on a current
level. The resistor values are simply the voltages divided by the current. For
example, if 20 V is to be attenuated to 5 V, select a current of 1 mA. The resistor
with 5 V is 5/0.001 = 5 kQ. The other resistor has 15 V across its terminals, so
the resistor is 15/0.001 = 15 W.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 3

Predicting and Measuring Voltage at the Junction of Three Resistors

You will need (in addition to your multimeter or

oscilloscope):

3 1,000-0 resistors

1 9-V battery

1. Place three 1,000-52 resistors in series across a 9-V battery.

2. Place the black or negative lead of the voltmeter to the

negative terminal of the battery.

3. Predict and measure the voltages at the junctions of the

three resistors.

4. Measure the voltages placing the black voltmeter lead on

the positive battery terminal. These are negative voltages if
the positive battery terminal is used as the reference or zero
conductor.

Source Resistance at DC

When current is taken from a practical voltage source, the voltage drops. This is
the result of current flowing in an internal resistance. An internal resistor and an
external load resistor form a voltage divider (attenuator). The circuit is shown is
Figure 1.10.

Internal resistance of any circuit at the point of interest is the ratio of voltage
change to current change.

One approach to determining the internal resistance (also called the internal
impedance) of a circuit is to add a load resistor and note the voltage change. The
voltage before the load is applied is called the open circuit voltage. The change
in voltage, or voltage difference, is the open circuit voltage minus the voltage
when current is flowing. The change in current is the loaded voltage divided by
the load resistance. The ratio of these two numbers is the internal resistance.

For example, assume the open circuit utility power is 120 V at 60 Hz. A 12-
52 load resistor drops the voltage to 119 V. The voltage difference is 1.0 V. The
current is 119/12 = 9.917 A. The internal resistance is 1/9.917 = 0.1008 Q. The
internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is zero. (Warning: Do not attempt
to make this measurement on an open power connection. There is a good chance
of electrical shock.)
 Figure 1.10 The internal resistance of a dc voltage source (also called
source resistance)

It is sometimes useful to measure source resistance by using two different

load resistors. For example, if the current varies from 15 to 35 mA and the
output voltage varies from 9 to 8.98 V, the source impedance is 0.02 V/0.02 A =
1 Q.

The idea of source resistance can be extended to include inductance and

capacitance. The term source resistance then becomes source impedance. The
expression output impedance means the same thing. Impedance only has
meaning for sine wave voltages and currents. The expression "output
impedance" is in common use, but the value usually refers to a resistance.

The voltage divider in Figure 1.9 has an equivalent source resistance (series
resistance) that can be determined by the ratio of open circuit voltage to short
circuit current. This is known as Thevenin's theorem. The open circuit voltage is
Vo = VR,/(R1 + R2). The short circuit current is Is(: = V/R2. The ratio of Vo/Isc
= R1R2/(R1 + R2). This is the resistance of the two resistors in parallel, or the
source resistance. In order to lower the source resistance, more current must flow
in the divider. If both resistors are one-half of their first value, the source
resistance would be one-half of its previous value. For example, consider a 20-V
source where R, and R2 are both = 10 M. The equivalent circuit is a 10-V source
in series with 5 W. If R, and R2 are each 5 kS2, the source impedance is 2.5 kQ.

Thevenin's theorem can be very impractical. A short circuit on the utility

power line to measure source impedance would blow the breaker.

The Current Divider

When a voltage is applied across two parallel resistors as in Figure 1.11, the
current in each resistor follows Ohm's law.

The total current can be calculated two ways. The first way is find the current
in each resistor and then add the values together. The second way is to compute
the parallel resistance and then calculate the current. If the resistors are 2.5 k1
and 5 k12 and the voltage is 25 V, the currents are 10 mA and 5 mA. The total
current is 15 mA. Using the second method, the resistors in parallel are 1.66 W.
The current is 25/1,666 = 0.015 A or 15 mA.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 4
 Determining the Internal Impedance of a Battery

You will need (in addition to your multimeter or

oscilloscope):

3 1,000-Q resistors

1 9-V battery

Use the 9-V battery and the three 1,000-52 resistors in

parallel. Place a voltmeter across the 9-V battery. Can you see
the voltage drop when the resistor is touched to the battery
terminals? Calculate the source resistance.
 Figure 1.11 Parallel resistors across a voltage source

Switches

Switches provide a mechanical means of making or breaking one or more

electrical connections. The moving part of a switch is called a pole. A pole can
make one or more connections in the throw of a lever or the rotation of a shaft.
The abbreviation for pole is the letter p. If the pole makes one connection when
the switch lever is thrown, the switch is called single-pole single throw, or SPST.
A pole that transfers between two connections is called an SPDT, or single-pole
double throw.

Switches are available with several poles, with connected or disconnected

center positions and with spring returns. Size, style, current rat ing, and
mounting arrangements are also variables. There are thousands of combinations
available for the electronics designer. A few common switch arrangements are
shown in Figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12 Switch arrangements and their diagrams

Capacitors
When capacitors are placed in parallel, the capacitances add. Capacitances must
be expressed in the same units for addition. For example, a 0.001 µF capacitor is
in parallel with 500 pF. The problem requires that the 500 pF capacitance be
expressed in µF. This is 0.0005 µF. The total capacitance is 0.0015 µF.

Capacitors in series add like parallel resistors. The sum of the reciprocal
capacitances is equal to the total reciprocal capacitance. For example, consider a
0.2 µF in series with 0.4 µF. 1/0.2 + 1/0.4 = 3/0.4. The total capacitance is the
reciprocal, or 0.4/3 = 0.133 tE Again, to do a calculation all capacitances must
use the same unit.

When a steady current (dc) flows into a capacitor, the voltage rises linearly.
As an example, if a dc current of 1.0 mA flows into a capacitor for 1 ms, the
charge is I x t (see chapter 8, Equation 8.4). Q = 0.001 x 0.001 = 10' coulombs.
This much charge on 0.1 µF is a voltage V = Q/C = 10-6/10-7 = 10 V. The
voltage rises linearly from 0 to 10 V in 1 ms.

A steady rise in voltage in a capacitor can be demonstrated using a square

wave voltage and an oscilloscope. Consider the circuit in Figure 1.13.

The square wave voltage is set to 10 V peak. A 100-ku resistor connects the
square wave voltage to a 0.1 p.F capacitor. If the voltage on the capacitor never
rises to more than 0.1 V, the current is essentially constant at 0.1 mA. The
maximum charge Q is C V = 10-7 x 0.01 = 10-9 C. This charge equals I x t
where I is 10' A. Solving for t yields 10-5 seconds. The square wave must stay
positive for 10-5 seconds and return to 0 for another 10-5 seconds. This is a
frequency of 50 kHz. The waveform across the capacitor will be a triangle wave,
a voltage that rises and falls in a linear manner. This voltage can easily be seen
on the screen of the oscilloscope.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 5

Observing Current Flow in a Capacitor

You will need (in addition to your oscilloscope and function generator):

1 100-k12 and 1 50-ku resistor (use two parallel 100-ku resistors)

2 0.1-µF capacitors

Connect a 0.1-µF capacitor and a 100-ku resistor to a square wave

generator as shown in Figure 1.13. Set the frequency to 50 kHz and the
amplitude to 10 V. Use the oscilloscope to observe and note the triangle
wave across the capacitor.

Reduce the resistor to 50 kQ and note that the amplitude of the

triangle wave doubles. Now double the capacitance and note that the
voltage returns to the first level.
Figure 1.13 The voltage across the terminals of a capacitor when supplied a
constant current for short periods of time

The RC Time Constant

When a dc voltage is switched on to a series resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit, the
voltage across the capacitor rises as shown in Figure 1.14.

The voltage curve is called an exponential curve. At the moment of switch

closure, the full voltage appears across the resistor. This means the initial current
flow is VIR. As the capacitor receives charge, the voltage across the capacitor
increases, taking away voltage from the resistor. At any moment in time the
voltage across the resistor plus the voltage across the capacitor must equal the
impressed voltage V. After a period of time, most of the voltage appears across
the capacitor and there is very little current flow. The time it takes to reach 63%
of final value is given by the product RC where R is in ohms and C is in farads.
This is called the RC time constant.
 Figure 1.14 A circuit showing the rise of voltage in a series
RC circuit

LEARNING CIRCUIT 6
 Observing the RC Time Constant

You will need (in addition to your multimeter or oscilloscope):

1 9-V battery

1 1-Me resistor

1 1-µF capicitor

1 SPDT switch

Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1.15. Select C = 1 .tF and R =

1 MO. The value of the time constant is 10-6 x 106 = 1 second. This
rise in voltage is slow enough that it can be observed on a voltmeter. If
a square wave generator is used as the voltage source, the rise time can
easily be seen. Set the sweep frequency on the oscilloscope to 1 Hz. Set
the square wave frequency to 1 Hz. Observe the time it takes the
voltage to reach 7 V.

When a capacitor is discharged through a resistor, the falling voltage

also follows an exponential curve. In this case the voltage falls to 37%
in 1 time constant or 1 second. You can see this on the second half of
the square wave cycle.

To show that RC has units of time, we can use the following definitions. R =
VII = volts/amperes and C = Q/ V = coulombs/volts. But coulombs = amperes x
time. Therefore RC = (volts/amperes) x (amperes/volts) x time. As you can see,
the volts and amperes cancel, leaving the unit of time.
 Figure 1.15 The construction of the circuit in Figure
1.14

The idea of a time constant can be applied a second or even a third time to the
same circuit. In the previous example the voltage falls to 37% in 1 time constant
(10 seconds). The voltage will fall to 37% of 37% in 2 time constants (20
seconds). This is a value of about 13%. In 3 time constants or 30 seconds the
value is about 5%.

The Impedance of a Resistor and a Capacitor in Series

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a series RC circuit (shown in Figure

1.17), the current that flows is sinusoidal. The voltage across the resistor peaks at
the same time the current peaks. The voltage across the capacitor lags the current
by 90°. Since the peaks of voltage do not occur at the same time, the voltages
cannot simply add together. In Figure 1.16 the three voltages are represented by
rotating pointers (see chapter 8).

Each pointer makes a counterclockwise rotation once per cycle. The height of
the pointers above the horizontal axis represents the instantaneous voltages. The
length of the pointer is the peak value of voltage. When the voltage across the
resistor is maximum, the voltage across the capacitor is 0. When the pointer for
the resistor voltage points straight up, the pointer for the capacitor voltage points
to the right.
 Figure 1.16 The rotating pointers for a series RC circuit

To solve for the impedance in this circuit, it is convenient to assume a current

I. The peak voltage across the resistor is IR. The peak voltage across the
capacitor is IXc where Xc. is the reactance of the capacitor (see chapter 8). To
find the total voltage V applied to the circuit, form a rectangle using the voltages
across the resistor and capacitor as sides. The peak voltage V is the length of the
diagonal of this rectangle. The length of this diagonal is the input voltage V=
(IXc2 + IR2). The ratio of peak voltage to peak current is

This ratio is the impedance of a series resistor and capacitor. If the reactance Xc
of the capacitor is 300 S2 and the resistor R = 400 92, the series impedance is
500 Q.

The angles between the various pointers in Figure 1.16 are called phase
angles. Sine waves that peak at different times are shifted in phase. To discuss
phase relationships, the voltages must be sine waves at the same frequency. The
current in a capacitor is always shifted 90° from the voltage across the capacitor.
The current is said to lead the voltage. The voltage across a resistor is always in
phase with the current. There is no phase shift in a resistor.

The RC Low-Pass Filter

A low-pass filter is a circuit that attenuates high-frequency sine waves and

passes low-frequency sine waves. This filter might be used to limit high-
frequency interference or reduce the high-frequency amplitude response of a
voice amplifier. A first-order low-pass filter using an RC circuit is shown in
Figure 1.17. This is exactly the same circuit we used to discuss the RC time
constant in the previous section. This time our analysis involves sine wave
voltages and not a step function.

The current flowing in the RC circuit is I= VIN/ZRC. The output voltage is

Vo = INC = VINXC/ZRC. The ratio of output voltage to input voltage is

A low-pass filter is a voltage divider that changes the attenuated voltage

depending on frequency. The ratio of output voltage to input voltage is called
gain or attenuation factor. In this RC filter the gain is always less than 1.
 To understand Equation 1.2 in more detail, let's look at the extremes of
frequency. As the frequency rises, Xc gets smaller and ZRc reaches a limiting
value of R. At high frequencies the gain (attenuation) approaches 1 /27zfR. This
means that the amplitude response falls off inversely proportional to frequency.
If f doubles, the amplitude is half its previous value.

Figure 1.17 A first-order low-pass filter

 At low frequencies Xc gets large compared to R. At the same time, ZRc also
gets greater. At low frequencies, ZRc very nearly equals Xc and the gain ratio
Xc/ZRc approaches 1. This means there is little attenuation at lower
frequencies.The frequency where Xc = R holds a special significance. The gain
at this frequency is 0.707. This is called the -3 dB (dB stands for decibel)
frequency or cutoff frequency of the filter (see chapter 8).

The amplitude response of this filter as a function of frequency is given in

Figure 1.18.

The amplitude response has been normalized so that the -3-dB point is at a
frequency of 1 Hz. To find a resistor and capacitor value for a specific cutoff
frequency f, first select a resistor value like 10 ku. If the cutoff frequency is 15
kHz (see chapter 8), then we can find C from the equation Xc = R. In this
example 1/6.28fC = R = 10,000. Solving for C, we obtain C = 1/(6.28 x 15,000 x
10,000) = 0.0011 .tE The response curve in Figure 1.17 is still applicable.
Simply multiply the horizontal scale by 15 kHz.
 Figure 1.18 The amplitude and phase response of a first-order low-pass RC
filter

The phase shift through this normalized RC filter starts off near 0 degrees at
frequencies well below 1 Hz. This is because the reactance of the capacitor is
much higher than the resistor and the capacitor performs like an open circuit.
Well above the cutoff frequency, the capacitor acts like a short circuit and the
current is limited by the resistor. This means that the current is nearly in phase
with the source voltage. The voltage across the capacitor lags this current by 90°.
At frequencies well above the cutoff frequency, the phase angle between the
input and the output voltages approaches 90° lagging. At the cutoff frequency,
the phase shift is 45°. The phase shift for this first-order filter is shown in Figure
1.18.

There is a close relationship between phase shift and attenuation slope. In this
RC filter, the amplitude falls off proportional to frequency above the cutoff
frequency. If two RC circuits were to contribute to the attenuation, the amplitude
would fall off proportional to frequency squared. In this situation the phase shift
would double. In general, phase shift is closely related (proportional) to the
attenuation slope.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 7

Constructing and Observing a Low-Pass RC Filter

You will need (in addition to your measuring equipment):

1 0.001-µF capacitor

1 100-ku resistor

Construct a low-pass RC filter as in Figure 1.17. Let C = 0.001 µF

and R = 10 W. At 1 kHz set the amplitude level to equal 10 V peak.
Measure the amplitude response across the capacitor at 1, 3, 5, 10, 15,
20, and 40 kHz. Use the oscilloscope as the voltmeter. Find the
frequency where the amplitude is 7.07 V.

Change the function generator to a square wave at 2 kHz. Note the

rounded character to the leading and falling edge of the square wave.
The RC High-Pass Filter

When the roles of the resistor and capacitor are reversed in Figure 1.17, the
output voltage is sensed across the resistor. The frequency and phase response
are mirror images of the low-pass filter. This filter attenuates low frequencies
and passes high frequencies. The circuit and the amplitude and phase response
are shown in Figure 1.19.

The square wave response of a first-order high-pass filter is shown in Figure

1.20.

The voltage across the resistor plus the voltage across the capacitor must
equal the square wave voltage. In other words, the two top curves in Figure 1.20
add up to a square wave. The leading edge of the square wave comes through
immediately in a high-pass filter. The output voltage falls as the capacitor
charges up. After the leading edge is coupled, the voltage waveform follows an
exponential curve. The voltage drops to 37% of initial value in 1 time constant
equal to the product RC.

A high-pass filter can be used to block an average offset voltage. The filter
allows changing voltages to pass. An application of this filter might be to reduce
the bass or low-frequency response in an audio amplifier. It might be used to
pass a high-frequency carrier signal and reject an audio signal.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 8

Constructing and Observing a High-Pass Filter

Use the low-pass filter you constructed in Learning Circuit 7,

but reverse the positions of the resistor and the capacitor. Find
the amplitude response at the same frequencies. At what
frequency does the amplitude reach 0.707 V? Observe the
square wave response at 2 kHz.
Figure 1.19 The amplitude and phase response of a normalized first-order RC
high-pass filter
Figure 1.20 The response to a square wave for a low-pass and a high-pass filter

SELF-TEST

1. The terminals of the six individual cells of a 12-V battery are exposed. All the
cells are in series. If the negative terminal is labeled 0 V, what are the voltages
at the other cell terminals? What happens if the positive terminal is labeled 0
V?

2. Two 9-V batteries are placed in series. If the connecting point is 0 V, what are
the other two voltages?

3. What is the maximum potential difference in problem 2?

4. Three resistors are in series. Their resistances are 910 S2, 2.2 kc, and 3.3 ka.
What is the total resistance?

5. Two resistors are in parallel. Their resistances are 1 kS2 and 10 kil. What is
the total resistance?

6. Two resistors 510 kS2 and 1.2 MS2 are in parallel. What is the parallel
resistance in units of kits and Ms? (Hint: First rewrite the resistor values using
the same units.)

7. A 10-kc2 resistor measures 5% high or 10.5 kS2. Show that a parallel resistor
of 220 kS2 will reduce the resistor value to near 10 kS2. What is the remaining
error expressed as a percentage of 10 kc ?

8. 20 V dc is placed across a 10-0 resistor. What is the current? What is the

power dissipated? What is the current direction?

9. In problem 8, what happens if the battery is reversed in direction?

10. 100 V ac is placed across a 2-kc resistor. What is the current? What is the
power dissipation?

11. 10 V is placed across a resistor of 0.1 Q. What is the current? What is the
power dissipation?

12. 500 S2 and 1,000 0 are in series across a 15-V battery. What is the current in
the resistors?

13. In problem 12 the 500-52 resistor connects to the negative terminal of the
battery. If the negative terminal of the battery is at 0 V, what is the voltage at
the junction between the two resistors?

14. In problem 13, if the positive terminal of the battery is at 0 V, what is the
voltage at the junction between the two resistors?

15. Solve problem 13 if the resistor values are doubled.

16. A 12-V battery is loaded with a 1.2-52 load resistor. The voltage drops to
11.92 V. What is the source resistance?
17. A 15-V dc power supply has a voltage divider consisting of three 2-kS2
resistors. What are the voltages at the two junctions? What is the source
resistance at these two points?

18. Use the circuit of Figure 1.9. If R, is 300 S2 and R2 is 100 S2 and the
voltage is 10 V, what is the voltage at the junction of the two resistors?

19. The voltage in Figure 1.9 is 20 V. If the attenuated voltage is 6 V, what are
the two resistor values if the current drawn is 1 mA? What are the resistor
values if the current drawn is 5 mA?

20. A 9-V battery drops to 8.8 V when a 100-mA load is applied. What is the
internal resistance?

21. A 12-V battery supplies three lamps in parallel. The lamps have resistances
of 2 S2, 3 S2, and 5 Q. What is the total current? Note: The filaments of a
lamp are made from tungsten. The cold resistance of the filament is much
lower than the hot resistance. This problem assumes that the given resistance
values occur when the lamps are illuminated.

22. What is the total capacitance when 0.01 gF is paralleled with 0.1 µF?

23. What is the total capacitance when 330 pF is paralleled with 0.002 µF?

24. What is the total capacitance when 0.001 gF is in series with 500 pF?

25. A capacitor of 2 gF has a voltage of 15 V. What is the charge stored?

26. In problem 25 a current of 2 mA flows for 1 ms. What is the charge?

27. A capacitor of 0.001 gF is charged for 10 gs with a current of 20 mA. What

is the voltage on the capacitor?

28. What is the time constant when the resistor is 100 ko and the capacitor is
0.01 µF? How long are 2 time constants?

29. What resistor forms a 0.1-second time constant with a 0.05 gF capacitor?

30. An RC circuit reaches 95% of final value in 0.1 second. What is the RC time
 constant?

31. An RC low-pass filter has a cutoff frequency of 20 kHz. If R = 10 k1, what is

C?

32. In problem 31, what is the attenuation of a 1-MHz signal?

33. A designer wants to use a 0.01-µF capacitor for an RC low-pass filter at 20

kHz. What resistor value must he use?

34. A high-pass filter has a cutoff frequency of 10 kHz. The R is 100 W. What is
the capacitor value?

35. A high-pass filter is formed using 0.01 gF and 150 kL2. A step voltage of 10
V is applied. How much time elapses before the voltage drops to 3.7 V?

36. In problem 35, how much time is required before the voltage drops to 0.5 V?

37. A high-pass filter has a cutoff frequency of 10 Hz. If the resistor is doubled
in value, what change in capacitor value must be made to maintain the same
cutoff frequency?

ANSWERS

1. The voltages are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 V. If the positive terminal is 0, the

voltages are -2, -4, -6, -8, -10, and -12 V.

2. The voltages are +9 V and -9 V.

3. 18 V.

4. 7,410 i2.

5. 909 Q.

6. 353 kit or 0.353 M.

7. The resistor is corrected to 9.976 kit. The error is 0.024 kit or 0.24%.
8. The current is 2 A. The power is 40 W. The current flows from plus to minus.

9. The current flows in the opposite direction.

10. The current is 50 mA. The power is 5 W.

11. 100 A. 1 kW.

12. 10 mA.

13. 5 V.

14. -10 V.

15. -10 V.

16. The voltage changed 0.08 V. The current changed 9.93 A. The source
impedance is 0.008 Q.

17. The voltages are 5 V and 10 V. The source impedance in both cases is 2 kit
in parallel with 4 kit. This is 1.33 W.

18. 2.5 V.

19. 6k1 and 14 W. 1.2 k) and 2.8 W.

20.20.

21. 1.2 A.

22. 0.11 µF.

23. 0.00233 µF.

24. 333 pF.

30. Three time constants = 0.1 second. One time constant equals 0.03 seconds.

32. The ratio of frequencies is 50:1. The attenuation factor is approximately 50.

36. Three time constants or 4.5 ms.

37. The reactance must also double. This means the capacitance is half the value.
Objectives

In this chapter you will learn:

• the way two more electrical components, the inductor and the transformer,
work

• how an inductor is used in a filter

• what the L/R time constant is

• about the concept of resonance and how it is used

• about diodes and power supplies

The next two electronic components we will be studying are the inductor and
the transformer. Building the Learning Circuits in this chapter will give you a
chance to observe the way these components act in various combinations.
Inductors and transformers have in common the fact that both of them use the
magnetic field. If a review of the magnetic field would be helpful, now would be
a good time to read "The Inductor and the Magnetic Field" in chapter 8.

Inductors are a fundamental component used in many electronics

applications. At low frequencies, practical inductors are bulky and expensive, so
they are not much used in low-frequency applications, such as audio. Their
applications are in high-frequency power supply circuits, in power line filters,
and in tuning and filtering in communications circuits. When combined with
capacitors, inductors form resonant circuits. These circuits are important in the
study of band selection in communications systems.
 The transformer is a component that makes it possible to change ac power
voltages to acceptable levels to operate circuits. Transformers also provide
isolation so that many circuits can operate connected to different grounds.
Transformers also allow circuits to be isolated from each other.

Figure 2.1 shows a coil of wire wrapped on a cylinder, in a geometry known

as a solenoid. Inductors are usually, though not always, made in the shape of a
solenoid. If a second coil of wire is wrapped around the solenoid, you have a
transformer.

Figure 2.1 A solenoid-a coil of wire wrapped around a cylinder

 When current flows in this coil, a magnetic induction field is created. The
induction field is represented by a number of field lines that form closed curves
around the path of current flow These field lines thread through the center of the
solenoid and complete their path on the outside of the coils. The number of
magnetic lines represents the amount of induction flux that is developed. The
number of lines crossing a given area is proportional to the magnetic intensity.
The total number of lines is proportional to the current level and the number of
turns. For a given current, the amount of induction flux can be increased by
placing some magnetic material in the flux path.

High-quality inductors are often built using a bobbin-a mechanical structure

for holding coils of wire-for the coils of wire and a ferrite core material that
surrounds the bobbin. This construction forces the induction flux to cross a small
air gap in the center of the core. The energy stored in the inductor is stored in
this gap. Another construction uses a powered iron toroid (a donut shape) for the
core. Coils of wire are simply threaded through the hole in the toroid. In this
case the air gap is distributed throughout the magnetic material.

Induced Voltages

Consider the magnetic field in Figure 2.1. When a test coil of wire is moved in
this magnetic field, a voltage appears on the ends of the coil. If the direction of
motion is reversed, the voltage reverses its polarity. If the test coil is moved
faster, the voltage increases. If the test coil is stationary and the current in the
coil increases, there is a voltage on the test coil. If the current decreases, the
voltage polarity reverses. The voltage is proportional to the rate at which lines of
flux thread the test coil and to the number of turns. If the lines increase at 1,000
lines per millisecond, the voltage might be 10 V. If the lines decrease at 1,000
lines per millisecond, the voltage would then be -10 V. These are induced
voltages.

Lines of flux thread the very coil that carries the current. When the current
changes in the coil of Figure 2.1, there is a voltage at the terminals. This voltage
is in the direction to oppose the change in current. The voltage is proportional to
how fast the current is increasing. This fact is known as Lenz's law. If there is a
changing current, there must be an induced voltage. This is known as Faraday's
law.

Inductors and Inductance

The proportionality between the voltage and a changing current is known as

inductance. In equation form, this relationship is written as

where L is inductance in units of henries, I is current in amperes, and t is time in

seconds.

An inductor is the component associated with this changing current. The

symbol for an inductor is

Figure 2.2 shows this rise in current for a fixed voltage across an inductor.

If the voltage is 1 V and the inductance is 1 henry, abbreviated H, the current

will rise at 1 A per second. Conversely, if the current rises at 1 A per second, the
voltage is 1 V. It is interesting to compare this with a 1-farad capacitor. The
voltage will rise at 1 V per second for a current of 1 A. Conversely, if the
voltage rises at 1 V per second, the current is 1 A.

A 1-H inductor is not used very often in electronics. Typical inductor values
range from a few microhenries to perhaps 100 millihenries. The millihenry is
0.001 H, abbreviated mH, and the microhenry is 0.000001 H, abbreviated g H.

The Reactance of an Inductor

When a sinusoidal current flows in an inductor, a sinusoidal voltage will appear

across its terminals. The equation for a sine wave of current is
 The maximum rate of change of current is 27mf1 where f is frequency in Hz
and I is the peak current in amperes. The peak voltage is 27cfLI where L is the
inductance in henries. The ratio of peak voltage to peak current is

Figure 2.2 The current rise in an inductor

where XL is called the inductive reactance. The unit of reactance is the ohm.

The maximum rate of change of current for a sine wave current occurs when
the current is 0. In an inductor, when the sinusoidal current is 0, the voltage is
maximum. The rotating pointer system in Figure 2.4 shows the timing
relationship between current and voltage.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 9

Observing the Rise in Current for a Fixed Voltage in an

Inductor

You will need (in addition to your measuring equipment):

1 10-mH inductor

1 10-a resistor

To put together the circuit shown in Figure 2.3, use the construction
layout at the bottom of the figure. When you use a 10-mH inductor, a
voltage of 1.0 V dc across the inductor will cause a current to rise at
100 A/sec. If we limit the maximum current to 0.01 A, we cannot leave
the voltage connected for more than 100 µs. We can do this with a
square wave voltage that stays positive for 100 µs and reverses polarity
for another 100 µs. This is a square wave at 5 kHz. A low-valued
resistor in series with the inductor can be used to measure the current.
The peak voltage across a 10-Q resistor will be 100 mV. Use the
oscilloscope to observe that this voltage is a triangle wave.

In an inductor the voltage leads the current by 90° at all frequencies. Compare
this with a capacitor, where the voltage lags the current by 90° at all frequencies.
 Inductors in Series and Parallel

Inductors in series add. All of the units must agree. For example, to add 100
µH to 2 mH requires the 100 µH be converted to 0.1 mH. The sum is 2.1 mH.
Inductors in parallel are treated the same as parallel resistors. The reciprocal of
reactance is susceptance. The susceptances are first added together. The
reciprocal of the total susceptance is the parallel inductance. Consider 3 mH in
parallel with 2 mH. The reciprocals are } ' and ~. The sum is The final answer is
f = 1.2 mH. Again, all the units must agree.
Figure 2.3 The rise and fall of current in an inductor
 Figure 2.4 The rotating pointers showing current and voltages in an
inductor

The Resistor-Inductor (L/R) Time Constant

Figure 2.5 shows a step voltage applied to a series resistor-inductor (RL) circuit.

Figure 2.5 The rise in current for step function applied to series RL circuit

At the moment the voltage is applied, the current in the circuit is 0. The entire
voltage appears across the inductor. Equation 2.1 requires that the current start to
increase. This current results in a voltage drop across the resistor. This reduces
the voltage across the inductor, which in turn reduces the rate at which current is
rising. The current continues to increase until it reaches a limiting value
determined by the voltage and the resistor.

This rise in current follows an exponential curve. This is the same as the
voltage curve shown in Figure 1.14 for the RC time constant. The current
reaches 63% of final value in a time given by the ratio L/R. To show that L/R
has units of time, we can use Equation 2.1, which states that volts = (inductance
x amperes)/time. This means inductance = (volts/amperes) x time. Ohm's law
says that resistance = volts/amperes. Dividing inductance by resistance, the units
volts/ amperes cancel, leaving the unit of time. For L/R to equal time in seconds,
the inductance must be in henries and the resistance in ohms.

The voltage across the resistor R in Figure 2.5 is a direct measure of the
current. If a square wave voltage is used instead of the step function, the voltage
waveform across the resistor is a filtered version of the square wave. This
waveform is shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 A square wave of voltage filtered by

an RL circuit

The Impedance of a Resistor and Inductor in Series

Impedance is a sinusoidal concept. Our objective is to find the ratio of sine wave
voltage to sine wave current in a series RL circuit. If the current is I, the voltage
across the resistor peaks 90 electrical degrees after the voltage across the
inductor. The rotating pointer system in Figure 2.7 shows these two voltages as
sides of a rectangle.

The applied voltage V is represented by the diagonal of this rectangle. The

peak voltage across the resistor is IR and the peak voltage across the inductor is
IXL. The peak voltage V is

Dividing both sides by I yields the impedance

where Z is in ohms. The impedance Z depends on frequency as XL increases

linearly with frequency.
 Figure 2.7 The rotating pointers showing voltages in an
RL circuit

The RL Low-Pass Filter

The circuit in Figure 2.3 is a low-pass filter. When a sine wave of voltage VIN is
applied to the circuit, the voltage across the resistor is the output of the filter
VOUT. The ratio VOUT/ VIN is the gain of the filter. In this filter the gain is
always less than 1.

The current in the circuit is I = VIN/Z. The voltage out is IR or Vo = VINR/Z.

At dc the value of Z is R, so the gain is 1. When R = XL, the impedance Z is
equal to R\. The gain at this frequency is equal to 0.707. This frequency is called
the cutoff frequency. Above this frequency the impedance is dominated by the
reactance of the inductor, which rises linearly with frequency. This means that
the gain falls off linearly with frequency. A plot of gain and phase shift for a 1-
Hz low-pass filter is shown in Figure 2.8. This is an exact duplicate of the RC
low-pass filter discussed in chapter 1. In the RC filter the output voltage is
sensed at the capacitor, and in the RL filter the output voltage is sensed at the
resistor.
 Figure 2.8 The amplitude and phase response of a first-order low-pass RL
filter

The RL High-Pass Filter

When the resistor and the inductor are exchanged in Figure 2.5, the circuit
becomes a high-pass filter. At high frequencies the inductor has a high reactance
and does not affect the signal. At low frequencies, where the reactance is low,
the signal is attenuated. The curves of gain and phase are the same as the RC
high-pass circuit shown in Figure 1.19. The square wave response is the same as
in Figure 1.20.

Small inductors are often placed in circuit leads to restrict the flow of current
at high frequencies. This type of inductor can be as simple as threading a
conductor through a small magnetic core (ferrite bead). The filtering action
depends on the presence of a shunting impedance. If this impedance is not
present, the filter might not function.

Later when we discuss resonant frequency you will see that inductors are not
perfect. Above a certain frequency an inductor functions like a capacitor and the
expected filtering action does not take place. All components have their
limitations, but inductors have several weaknesses. Experience tells a designer
when and how he can use an inductor. Inductors in the microhenry range work
well above 1 MHz when the impedances are below a few hundred ohms.

The Series Resonant Circuit

Resonance occurs often in mechanical systems. Examples are the ringing of a

big bell, the ringing of a wineglass, or the swinging of a pendulum. The three
things that are needed to create a resonant response are a source of energy and
ways to store potential energy (energy of position) and kinetic energy (energy of
motion).

In an electric circuit the energy stored in a capacitor can be considered

potential energy. This energy depends on the position of charge. The energy
storage in an inductor depends on current flow This energy can be considered
kinetic. If the circuit can be arranged so that current can flow between the
capacitor and the inductor, then the ringing associated with resonance will occur.

Figure 2.9 shows a series RLC circuit connected to a sinusoidal voltage. The
impedance of this circuit can be determined by assuming a sinusoidal current
flow and solving for the voltage. The ratio of voltage to current is the
impedance.

Figure 2.9 A series RLC circuit

The voltage across the inductor is IXL, the voltage across the capacitor is
IXc, and the voltage across the resistor is IR. The voltage across the capacitor
lags the voltage by 90° and the voltage across the inductor leads the current by
90°. The voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current. The pointer
system in Figure 2.10 shows this timing relationship. The voltage across the
resistor is the reference voltage, and it points to the right.

The voltage pointers for the capacitor and inductor point in opposite
directions. This means that these voltages subtract. In Figure 2.10 the voltage
across the inductor dominates and the result is a net inductive reactance. We can
now construct a pointer that is the sum of these three voltages. The difference
voltage IXL - IXc is one side of a rectangle. The other side is IR. The length of
the diagonal is V = VI -'R' + 12(XL - XC)2. The ratio V/I is the impedance of
the circuit or

Figure 2.10 The pointer system applied to a series RLC circuit

At the frequency where XL - XX = 0, the impedance becomes R. This is known

as the resonant frequency. At frequencies below resonance, the capacitive
reactance dominates, and at frequencies above resonance the inductive reactance
dominates. If the resistance were 0, the series resonant circuit would be a short
circuit at the resonant frequency. In practice this resistance can only approach 0.
There are several factors, including the dc resistance of the coil, that add to the
effective resistance. A near short circuit at one frequency allows this circuit to be
used as a selective filter. The impedance of the RLC series circuit as a function
of frequency is shown in Figure 2.11.

The resonant frequency can be determined by letting XL = Xc or 2nJL = 1

/2nfC. Solving for f yields

where f is in hertz, L is in henries, and C is in farads.

 Figure 2.11 The impedance of a series RLC circuit

More About the Series Resonant Circuit

If we use the RLC circuit as a low-pass filter, it offers an opportunity to

demonstrate a few advanced topics in electronics. These topics involve circuit
stability, overshoot, and ringing. See Figure 2.12. Many circuits exhibit the
character of an RLC circuit, yet they are designed from different components.
The circuits are different, but the response can be the same as an RLC response.
 Above the resonant frequency the current in this RLC circuit is delayed by the
inductor by 90°. The voltage across the capacitor is delayed by 90° from the
current. The result is that the output voltage well above the resonant frequency is
shifted in phase by nearly 180°.

(Continued)

LEARNING CIRCUIT 10

Observing the Response of an RLC Circuit

You will need (in addition to your measuring equipment):

1 10-mH inductor

1 100-0 resistor

1 0.01-µF capacitor

Turn back and look again at Figure 2.9. The RLC filter in this figure uses a
10-mH inductor, an 0.01-µF capacitor, and a 100-Q resistor. This circuit has a
gain of 1 at dc and low frequencies. As the frequency of the input sine wave
nears the resonant frequency, the current rises as the impedance drops. At
resonance the current is maximum, and the voltage across the capacitor can be
quite large. The voltage is limited by the value of the resistor. Assume the input
voltage is a 1-V sine wave. If the reactance of the capacitor at resonance is 1,000
S2 and the resistor is 100 0, the output voltage will be 10 V. The output voltage
amplitude is maximum near the resonant frequency.

Connect a sine wave generator to these three components and you can
observe this amplitude response across the capacitor. If you were testing a circuit
and you saw this response, it could be a sign of instability, which is not
desirable. In our circuit, if the resistor is increased, the peaking effect is reduced.
In a circuit where the equivalent resistance goes to 0, the result will be an
oscillator.

When the circuit in Figure 2.9 is excited by a square wave at 1 kHz, the result
is ringing. This ringing voltage is shown in Figure 2.12. If the resistor is
increased, the ringing will diminish. There is a point where the square wave
response has 2 or 3 percent of overshoot. This is an optimum response. In
designing circuits where stability is a consideration, this is how the circuit
should respond. This demonstration illustrates the power of a square wave. By
observing the square wave voltage response, we can infer the response of the
circuit to a wide range of sine waves. Change the resistor to 1,000 S2 and
observe that the ringing is reduced. At R = 1,400 S2, the response is optimum.

The amount of ringing to a square wave is related to a factor called damping.

A damping factor of 1 implies that there is no overshoot. A damping factor of
0.7 implies an overshoot of a few percent. A damping factor of 0.3 implies a
significant overshoot and many ring-down cycles. See Figure 2.12. In theory the
ringing lasts forever. In practice a number of cycles can be seen, depending on
the damping factor. A damping factor of 2 implies a very sluggish response.
 Figure 2.12 The amplitude response and square wave response of a series
RLC circuit

The attenuation at frequencies above the resonant frequency increases

proportional to the square of frequency. Another way of saying this is that the
amplitude falls off at 40 dB per decade. If the output is at 1 V at 50 kHz, the
response is 0.01 V at 500 kHz. You can check this using the circuit components
in Figure 2.9.

The Parallel Resonant Circuit

A parallel resonant circuit is shown in Figure 2.13. When a voltage is impressed

on this circuit, reactive current flows in both the capacitor and the inductor.
These currents are of opposite sign and they subtract. At the resonant frequency
the current in the capacitor equals the current in the inductor. The current
supplied by the external voltage is 0. The current for the inductor is supplied by
the capacitor, and the current for the capacitor is supplied by the inductor.
Current flows, but it is not supplied by the external voltage. An ideal LC parallel
circuit is an open circuit at its resonant frequency. This circuit can be used to
limit current flow at one frequency. This parallel LC circuit is often called a
frequency trap.
 Figure 2.13 A parallel resonant circuit

The inductor in the parallel resonant circuit has some resistance. To see the
effect this resistance has on the circuit impedance, it is convenient to consider
the energy lost in the resistance. As an example, consider 10 V across a parallel
resonant circuit where L = 10 mH and C = 0.10 µF. The resonant frequency is
15.92 kHz. The reactance of the inductor is 1,000 Q. The current that circulates
in the resonant circuit for V = 10 V is 10 mA. If the resistance in the inductor is
10 S2, the power dissipated is hR = 1 mW. This power must be supplied by the
10-V source. The power is VI = 1 mW. But V = 10 V and the current I must
equal 0.1 mA. The impedance given by Ohm's law is V/1= 10/0.0001 = 100 W.
This is a high impedance compared to the reactance. If the series resistor were
only 1 S2, the impedance would increase to 1 M.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 11

Observing the Response of a Parallel Resonant Circuit

The same components used in Learning Circuit 10 can be used to form

a parallel resonant circuit as shown in Figure 2.13. Place this parallel
LC circuit in series with a 1,000-a resistor across a sine wave generator.
Rearrange the circuit so the resistor goes to the signal reference or
signal generator ground. Set the voltage to 10 V peak. Note the voltage
across the resistor with the oscilloscope. At the resonant frequency the
voltage will drop to a low value. Note the attenuation factor. Add a 10-
a resistor in series with the inductance. Note that the attenuation factor
is reduced. Plot the peak output voltage as a function of frequency with
and without the added 10-a resistor. This change in attenuation is
explained in the next discussion.

Transformers

A transformer is a circuit component consisting of coils of wire encircling a path

for magnetic flux. Refer back to the coil shown in Figure 2.1. If a second coil is
added to this inductor, it becomes a transformer.

At frequencies above 1 MHz, the solenoid does not need a core; the magnetic
path can be in air. In applications at power frequencies (60 Hz), however, we
must provide a magnetic material as a path for the magnetic flux.

When a voltage is applied to a coil of wire, the result is an increasing

induction field. The induction flux increases as long as the voltage is present.
This induction flux or B field threads through the coil. This induction field exists
independent of whether there is magnetic material present or just air. The
induction flux requires an associated magnetizing current that also increases with
time. At 1 MHz the voltage is positive for a halfcycle, or / µs. The magnetizing
current must increase for X µs before the voltage reverses polarity and the
current starts to reverse direction. At 60 Hz the current would have to increase
for 8 ms, which is 16,000 times longer. If the maximum current at 1 MHz were
10 mA, the maximum current at 60 Hz would be 160 A. This level of current is
unacceptable for a 60-Hz transformer. This is the reason why a magnetic core
must be provided.

When a voltage is applied to a coil of wire, the current that flows is called the
magnetizing current. This reactive current is associated with an inductance
called the magnetizing inductance. The presence of iron in the magnetic path
reduces the amount of magnetizing current that is required. If the induction flux
follows a magnetic material along its entire path, the magnetizing current can be
significantly reduced. The reduction factor is known as the permeability of iron.
In the previous example, a permeability of 10,000 would reduce the current from
160 A to 16 mA, an acceptable level.

The induction flux created by a voltage across a coil of wire follows the
magnetic path as this path stores the least amount of magnetic field energy. If a
second coil is wrapped around the first coil, then any changing induction flux
threads both coils. The voltage on this added coil depends on how rapidly the
induction flux is changing and on the number of turns. If both coils have 1,000
turns, then the voltage on both coils will be identical. If the second coil has 500
turns, the voltage will be half. This transfer of voltages between coils of wire is
called transformer action. The coil receiving the initial voltage is called the
primary coil. All other coils are called secondary coils.

There is a maximum induction flux that can be supported by a magnetic

material. When a voltage is applied to a coil on a transformer, the induction flux
starts to rise. If the voltage persists for too long, the core saturates. This means
the permeability drops. In this situation the magnetizing current must increase to
support the changing induction field. Transformers are functional as long as the
limits of the induction field are not exceeded.

The symbol for a transformer is shown in Figure 2.14. The bars between the
coils represent the iron in the core. This symbol is sometimes misleading,
because it does not represent the actual construction of the transformer. For
example, there is capacitance between the primary coil and the secondary coil.
The capacitance is not symmetrically distributed, as the symbol might suggest,
but is largely between the last turns of the primary coil and the first turns of the
secondary coil.

Power transformers (60 Hz) are built by winding the coils on a bobbin. The
core material is then added by interleaving iron laminations. These laminations
provide a magnetic path for the magnetic flux. Lam inations are required
because the magnetic field at 60 Hz can only penetrate a short distance into iron.
A typical lamination thickness at 60 Hz is 15 mils or 0.015 inches. 1 mil is a
thousandth of an inch. At 400 Hz the lamination thickness is about 5 mils.

Figure 2.14 The transformer symbol

There are many applications where transformers must operate at higher

frequencies. The core material for these transformers is made from a material
known as ferrite. Ferrite is a powdered magnetic material mixed with a filler so
that the mixture is an insulator. The mixture is then sintered in an oven to form a
very hard material. (Sintering is a heating process that melts the mixture.) The
bits of magnetic material are small enough so that magnetic field can penetrate
into the magnetic material at high frequencies. In other words, ferrite materials
have permeability at high frequencies.

The intensity of the magnetic induction field has units of teslas. In

transformer design the unit used is the gauss. One tesla is equal to 10,000 gauss.
The number of lines of magnetic induction flux is simply the magnetic intensity
(gauss) times the cross-sectional area in cm2. Magnetic materials can support a
limited number of field lines. If the cross-sectional area is increased, the number
of field lines that can be supported is also increased. Air can support an
unlimited number of field lines. Iron begins to saturate above 16,000 lines per
cm2. Saturate here means the material loses its permeability and begins to
behave magnetically like air. Ferrites often saturate above 8,000 lines per cm2.
When a magnetic material is saturated, it behaves like air.

When the number of field lines that thread through a one turn of wire
increases at a linear rate, a steady voltage will appear at the ends of the turn.
When a coil of wire replaces the single loop, the voltage is proportional to the
number of turns in the coil. When a voltage is placed on a single turn of wire, the
number of field lines that thread the coil must change at a fixed rate. If the
applied voltage is fixed and if the number of turns is increased, the voltage per
turn is decreased. This reduces the rate at which the field lines must change.

As an example of how a transformer works, consider a voltage applied to a

primary coil of 500 turns. The core cross-section is 5 cm2. Assume the induction
flux increases at 12,000 lines per ms. After 4 ms the number of lines is 48,000
lines. This is 9,600 lines per cm2, well within the saturation limits of the
magnetic material. At this point the voltage is changed to -25 V. The field lines
begin to decrease. In 8 ms the number of lines is again 0 and in 12 ms the field
lines have reversed direction and the number is -48,000 lines. At this point the
voltage is again reversed and in 16 ms the number of field lines is again 0. One
cycle has taken 16 ms, which is a frequency of 60 Hz.

If the number of turns in the coil were decreased to 250, the number of field
lines would have to change at twice the rate. This means the maximum number
of lines per cm2 would be 19,200. This is enough to saturate the magnetic
material. To avoid saturation the core area could be increased or the number of
turns increased.

Transformer Voltages and Currents

The secondary voltages of a transformer are often lower than the primary
voltage. The ratio of secondary turns to primary turns determines the voltage. If
the primary has 1,000 turns and is 120 V, a secondary coil of 100 turns will be
12 V. If a load is placed on this secondary coil, current will flow as determined
by Ohm's law. For example, if the load is 12 S2, the current is 1 A. The power
dissipated is 12 W. This means that the 120-V primary voltage must supply 0.1
A to the primary coil. Viewed from the primary side of the transformer, a
voltage of 120 V and 0.1 A represents an impedance of 1,200 Q. A 12-Q load on
the secondary represents a 1,200-52 load to the primary voltage. The ratio of
load impedance to input impedance is 100:1. This is the square of the turns ratio.

If a transformer has two secondary coils, then each coil can be independently
loaded. The current waveforms demanded by the secondary coils are reflected on
the primary by the turns ratio. For example, if the primary voltage is 120 V and
the secondary voltage is 12 V, a 3-A pulse of current on the secondary is
supplied by a 0.3-A pulse of current in the primary coil.

The resistances of the primary and secondary coils are adjusted by the
designer so that power losses in the coils are about equally divided. Since the
primary coil must handle all the power, this coil occupies about half the
available volume. It is common practice to wind the primary coil next to the
core. Coils that are intended to supply a higher current have the lowest
resistance.

Many small power transformers have high coil resistances. The result is that
magnetizing current flowing in the resistance of the primary coil modifies the
voltage waveform appearing on the primary coil. This change in voltage
waveform appears on the secondary coils. The magnetizing current is apt to be
greatest when the voltage waveform is at a zero crossing. In most dc power
supplies the current is supplied in short pulses. This current flows in the coil
resistances of the transformer and further reduces the voltage available to the
load. In short, small power transformers (up to 10 W) have many practical
limitations. The loaded waveforms are often very different than sine waves.

Diodes

A diode is a component that allows current to flow in one direction (see chapter
8). The symbol for a diode is

The current flows in the direction of the arrow This is called the forward
direction of the diode. In the reverse direction a diode will withstand a high
voltage before conducting. There are many types of diodes available to
accommodate high current, high reverse voltage, and high-frequency
applications. The forward drop in a silicon diode is about 0.6 V. Diodes are often
used in groups of four. This configuration is known as a bridge rectifier A
package of four diodes is available as a single component with four connections.
We will discuss the diode in detail in the next chapter. For the moment, we need
the diode to discuss power supplies.

DC Power Supplies

Most of the circuits in electronics function from dc power supplies, but batteries
are the sole voltage source in some applications. Sometimes rechargeable
batteries are used, and the batteries are recharged whenever utility power is
available. In this section we will look at dc voltages derived from utility power,
not batteries.

There are many adapters available commercially. An adapter is a

transformer that reduces the utility voltage to a safe level. Some adapters
provide a dc output, while others provide an ac voltage. An adapter is used so
that the equipment does not plug directly into a utility receptacle. An example
might be the charger for a cell phone or the power for a telephone set. An ac
adapter is a convenient source of ac power for many of our experiments. The
low voltage from the adapter can be used without fear of electrical shock. An
ac adapter is used in Figure 2.15 to demonstrate how the diodes convert ac to
dc.

The output voltage V follows the ac source voltage on the positive half of
the power cycle. A 10,000-52 resistor is used as a load so that the voltage is 0
when the diode is not conducting. This is called half-wave rectification. If the
adapter is rated 10 V unloaded, the peak output voltage is 14.14 V less a diode
drop of 0.6 V. This is approximately 13.54 V.

This half sine wave can be used to charge a capacitor. This added capacitor
is shown in Figure 2.16.

The capacitor charges to the peak ac voltage, but the capacitor cannot
discharge back into the transformer as the diode prevents current flow in that
direction. Load resistor RL draws current from the capacitor, causing the
voltage to sag each cycle. The ac voltage rises in each cycle to recharge the
capacitor. The charging current flows when transformer voltage exceeds the
capacitor voltage plus the diode voltage drop.
Figure 2.15 The action of a diode on a sine wave voltage
Figure 2.16 A diode and a capacitor providing a dc voltage

The capacitors used in this application are called filter capacitors. At 60 Hz

these capacitors are usually polarized, which means a voltage can only be
applied in one direction. The dielectric is an electrolyte that has a very high
dielectric constant for one polarity of voltage. These capacitors are called
electrolytics. If the polarity is reversed, the capacitor will conduct and
probably overheat. The polarity markings for an electrolytic capacitor are
usually on the case of the capacitor. Sometimes only one of the polarity signs
is displayed.

The problem with the circuit in Figure 2.16 is that a dc current flows in the
transformer secondary winding. This will tend to saturate the transformer
core, and the transformer may draw excessive magnetizing current. This
excessive current can overheat the transformer. To avoid this problem, a
second diode can be used to supply a second power supply. If the transformer
supplies equal current on the other halfcycle, the transformer will not saturate.
A power supply with a positive and negative dc voltage finds wide acceptance
in circuit design. This circuit is shown in Figure 2.17.
Figure 2.17 The use of two diodes to form two dc power supply voltages

LEARNING CIRCUIT 12
 Building a DC Power Supply

You will need (in addition to your measuring equipment):

an 18-V ac adapter (do not use a dc adapter)

circuit board

soldering iron and solder

bus wire

press fit pins

2 2.2-ku and 4 1-ku resistors

2 100-.tF, 35-V capacitors

2 1N1002 diodes

This Learning Circuit, as well as future Learning Circuit exercises,

requires an ac adapter. Before proceeding further, open the secondary
cable of the adapter with a sharp knife and solder the conductors to
terminals on a circuit board. The ac voltage should be about 18 V rms.
You can measure this ac voltage using a multimeter on the ac voltage
range.

The construction of the power supply circuit in Figure 2.17 is shown

in Figure 2.18. The two diodes and two electrolytic capacitors should
be mounted on terminals that press fit into the board. The power diodes
can be a 1N1002 or 1N1003; this is a readily available component. The
100-µF capacitors can be rated any voltage greater than 35 V. A larger
capacitor value is acceptable: 200 .tE

Be careful to observe polarity on the capacitors and the forward

direction on the diodes. The diode bar goes to the plus capacitor
terminal.

(Continued)

The two dc voltages are the ac voltage times 1.414, less a diode drop of 0.6 V.
This means the dc voltages should be about 25 V plus and minus.

Observe the dc voltages using the oscilloscope with the input shield
connected to the 0 of potential or common. This is the conductor between the
two capacitors. Place 1,000-52 1-W resistors between the two dc voltages and
common and observe that the dc voltage drops slightly. Place a second 1,000-52
1-W resistor across each supply and again note the voltage change. Calculate the
source impedance. Calculate the power dissipated in each resistor. Notice the
ripple voltage (peak-to-peak ac voltage) across the capacitors for one set of
resistors and for the second set. To observe power supply ripple voltage on your
oscilloscope, it may have to be in the ac coupling mode.

When you build this power supply, do so on one end of the circuit board and
leave room for other circuits. We will be using it in future Learning Circuit
exercises. For ease in adding later circuits, use three long conductors that go
across the board. The top conductor is +25 V, the middle conductor is 0 V
(common or ground), and the bottom conductor is -25 V.

Schematics and Construction Diagrams

You may have observed that Figures 2.17 and 2.18 are very different drawings,
yet they both describe the same circuit. Figure 2.17 is what is called a schematic.
It shows only the actual components used in the circuit. Figure 2.18 is a
construction diagram, and shows how these circuits could be actually
constructed by being laid out on a circuit board. It is only one of many possible
layouts or arrangements. The schematic is unique to the circuit; the construction
layout is simply a suggestion of a possible way the circuit might be constructed.
In several previous drawings (e.g., Figures 2.9 and 2.13), I drew them both on
the same page, with the schematic above and the construction diagram below.
Now that you are building larger and more complicated circuits, I will need to
provide you with separate drawings-there will not be enough space to include
them both in one figure.

Figure 2.18 The construction of a dual dc power supply

Transformer secondary coils are often wound with a connection to the

midpoint. This midpoint on a secondary coil is called a centertap. If the total coil
voltage is 20 V, the winding is often referred to as 10 V-010 V. The midpoint is
often used as the zero voltage or reference conductor for the circuits that use this
winding for power. If the centertap is at 0 V, the top of the coil is positive when
the bottom of the coil is negative. The positive voltage can charge a capacitor
through one diode while the negative voltage can charge a second capacitor
through a second diode. On the next halfcycle the voltages change polarity, and
two more diodes can be used to charge the same two capacitors. Figure 2.19
shows this four-diode arrangement where the two capacitors are charged once
each halfcycle. This is called a full-wave rectifier circuit, as current flows in
each halfcycle. This is the most efficient way to use the transformer.
Unfortunately, most available adapters (transformers) are not centertapped. This
will not cause us a problem in our Learning Circuits.
 Figure 2.19 A full-wave centertap rectifier circuit

The circuit in Figure 2.19 can be used without a transformer centertap. The
two capacitors are then replaced by one capacitor that is rated for the full
voltage. The four diodes are the full-wave bridge rectifier mentioned earlier. The
transformer is connected to bridge terminals marked ac, and the other two
terminals are marked plus and minus. When a full-bridge rectifier is used in this
configuration, the current must flow through two diodes to charge the capacitor
on each halfcycle.

The Voltage Doubler

The circuit in Figure 2.16 shows that a series diode and capacitor rectify the
voltage and a dc voltage appears across the capacitor. If the positions of the
capacitor and the diode are reversed, a dc voltage will still appear across the
capacitor. One side of the capacitor is connected to the ac voltage source. The
other side of the capacitor has this same ac voltage plus a dc value. If a second
capacitor and diode are added, the result is rectification of the ac voltage
superposed on the dc output of the first diode and capacitor. The resulting
voltage is double the first dc voltage. This circuit is shown in Figure 2.20.

It is possible, through a chain of diodes and capacitors, to multiply the voltage

by a higher factor. The last diode and capacitor place the capacitor to common.
The first capacitor must be double the value of the second capacitor. The second
diode must be able to handle a larger reverse voltage. Doublers and triplers are
not very power-efficient, but if low current is required and the frequency is high
enough the circuit can be very effective.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 13

Building a Voltage Doubler

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and

measuring equipment):

3 1.0-gF capacitors

2 1N1002 diodes

1 100-kU resistor
 1 100-kU resistor

Build the voltage doubler circuit shown in Figure 2.20

(schematic) and Figure 2.21 (construction diagram.) Measure
the output voltage using the oscilloscope or voltmeter.

Figure 2.20 A voltage doubler circuit

 The circuit in Figure 2.20 requires dc to flow in the voltage source. If the
current requirement is small, the transformer supplying this current will not
saturate.

SELF-TEST

1. A dc voltage of 5 V across an inductor causes the current to rise at 1,000 A/s.

What is the inductance?

2. 10 V dc is impressed across a 2-mH inductor. How long does it take for the
current to reach 100 mA?

Figure 2.21 The construction of a voltage doubler circuit

3. A sinusoidal current is 3 A peak at 60 Hz. What is the maximum rate of

change of current?

4. What is the reactance of a 2-mH inductor at 50 kHz?

5. What is the reactance of a 50-µH inductor at 100 kHz?

6. Inductors of 1 mH, 2 mH, 3 mH, and 4 mH can be switched to provide all the
values from 1 mH to 10 mH. Is there another group of four inductors you can
use?

7. What is the parallel inductance of 1 mH and 500 pH?

8. What is the time constant for an inductance of 20 mH in series with a

resistance of 10 kit?

9. A relay coil has an inductance of 2 H and a coil resistance of 200 Q. How long
does it take for the current to rise to 63% of final value?

10. A resistor of 100 0 is in series with an inductor of 10 mH. What is the

impedance at 1.592 kHz?

11. If the source voltage in problem 8 is 10 V, what is the current in one time
constant?

12. In problem 10, what is the phase angle between the source voltage and the
current?

13. In problem 8, what is the impedance at dc?

14. A 100-52 resistor, a 10-mH inductor, and a 0.01-µF capacitor are in series.
What is the resonant frequency?

15. In problem 14, what is the reactance of the capacitor at this frequency?

16. In problem 15, what is the reactance of the inductor at one-half the natural
frequency?

17. In problem 15, what is the reactance of the capacitor at one-half the resonant
frequency?

18. What is the impedance of the circuit in problem 14 at resonance?

19. What is the impedance of the circuit in problem 14 at half the resonant
frequency?

20. What is the impedance of the circuit in problem 14 at twice the resonant
frequency?

21. A 1-mH inductor and a 500-pF capacitor form a parallel resonant circuit.
What is the resonant frequency?

22. In problem 21, 10 V is impressed on the circuit at resonance. What is the

current flow in the inductor?

23. In problem 21, the resistance of the inductor is 20 Q. What is the impedance
of the circuit?

24. The open circuit voltages on two coils of a 120-V transformer are 25 V and 8
V. What are the turns ratios?

25. The load resistors in problem 24 are 50 S2 and 16 Q. What is the primary
current? Neglect magnetizing current.

26. The magnetizing current in a transformer is 50 mA. The primary voltage is

120 V at 60 Hz. The coil resistance is 30 Q. What is the power dissipated?

27. In problem 26 the magnetizing current flows in a magnetizing inductance.

What is the value of this inductance?

28. In problem 26, what is the input impedance?

29. A transformer secondary is marked 15-0-15 V. What are the two dc voltages
that can be supplied?

30. A full-wave bridge is placed across the full voltage in problem 29. What is
the output dc filtered voltage?

31. A 10-V dc voltage sags 0.5 V in each halfcycle of 60 Hz. The current
averages 100 mA. What is the size of the filter capacitor?

32. A 10-V square-wave ac source is rectified. The frequency is 50 kHz. The

 load resistor is 200 Q. Current is supplied every halfcycle through a diode. If
the voltage can sag 0.1 V, what is the value of the filter capacitor?

ANSWERS

3. Maximum current = 2rzfip = 1,130 A/s.

4. XX=62852.

5. X.=31.4 Q.

6. 1,2,4,8.

7. % µH.

9. L/R = 0.01 s.

10. Both reactances are 100 ohms. Total is 141.4 Q.

11. Maximum / is 10 mA. 63% is 6.7 mA.

12. 45°.

13. 10 W.

14. 1.592 kHz.

15. 10,000 Q.

16. 5,000 Q.

17. 20,000 Q.

18. 1000.

19. 15 W.
20. 15 W.

21. 225 kHz.

22. XL=1,413 Q.1=7.1 mA.

23. Power equals 1.0 mW. At 10 V this is 100,000 Q.

24. If the primary has 1,200 turns, the secondaries are 250 and 150 turns.

25. The power is 16.5 W. At 120 V this is 0.137 A.

26. !2R=0.075 W.

27. X( is much greater than R, so XL = 120/0.05 = 2,400 Q. The inductance is

6.4 H.

28. 2,400 S2.

29. The peak value less the diode drop is ±20.6 V.

30. For a full-wave bridge, the voltage is 41.2 V.

Objectives

In this chapter you will learn:

• about the simplest semiconductors: diodes, zener diodes, and transistors

• how diodes and zener diodes are used to clamp and limit signals

• how transistors are used as emitter followers

• the use of transistors to provide voltage gain

In this chapter you will expand your knowledge of electronic components to

include semiconductors. In the 1950s, semiconductors were still an obscure
subject known mainly to Ph.D.s working in what was called "solid state
physics." In the 1960s they came out of the laboratory and into the marketplace,
and today semiconductors are used in almost every electronic device we have.
Their importance in electronics can hardly be missed.

The semiconductor components we will learn to use in this chapter include

the diode, the zener diode, and the junction transistor. The diode we used in
Learning Circuits 12 and 13 is the simplest of the semiconductor devices.
Transistors are slightly more complex. In chapter 5 we will study integrated
circuits, or ICs. An IC is a single component consisting of hundreds or perhaps
thousands of interconnected transistors and resistors. Integrated circuits perform
such tasks as amplification, timing, and waveform generation. Digital integrated
circuits provide us with entire computers, microprocessors, and memories.
Before we can understand ICs, we need to understand the way semiconductors
work.
What Is a Semiconductor?

The first step in understanding semiconductors is to understand the basic

materials from which they are made. The most common semiconducting
materials are silicon and germanium. They are both basic chemical elements,
and they are called semiconductors because they are halfway between being
conductors and being insulators. In most applications, silicon is used rather than
germanium because it can withstand higher operating temperatures. For this
reason we will confine our discussion to silicon. But there are a few areas in
electronics where germanium is used.

Silicon dioxide (the element silicon combined with oxygen) is the mineral
quartz, which makes up most of the rock and sand on Earth. Pure silicon is rare
in nature but can be grown as a crystal. A pure silicon crystal is an insulator. But
when a very small percentage of impurity atoms are added to the crystal, it
becomes a conductor. This is why it is called a semiconductor.

When phosphorous is added to the silicon crystal structure, a phosphorous

atom replaces a silicon atom. The phosphorous provides an extra electron that is
not needed in the bond that holds the crystal together. This electron is therefore
free to move in the crystal, making the material a conductor. This material is
called n-type silicon. The "n" refers to the free negative charge of the extra
electron. The added phosphorous is called a dopant and the silicon is said to be
doped.

When boron is added as a dopant, the silicon is called p-type, as the boron
atom provides spaces (holes) that electrons can use to move through the crystal.
P-type silicon is also a conductor.

Diodes

The diodes we used in chapter 2 were sandwiches of p-and n-doped silicon. In a

p-n diode, electrical pressure can move free electrons from the n region to the p
region. This is called the forward direction of the diode. In the other direction,
electrons cannot move, as there are no electrons in the p region to move into the
n region. This is called the reverse direction.

By convention, the direction of current flow is opposite to the direction of

electron flow So the direction of current flow is from the p to the n region of the
diode. This direction is indicated by the direction of the arrow on the diode
symbol; the arrow points toward the n material or cathode of the diode.

This limiting of current to one direction is the basis of diode action, which is
also called rectification. Figure 3.1 shows the voltage/current curve for a typical
silicon diode. Notice that a forward voltage of about 0.6 V is required before
current flows.

Figure 3.1 The current/voltage curve for a silicon diode

 Figure 3.2 A diode clamp for negative voltages

The Diode as a Clamp

One application of a diode is a voltage clamp. The diode acts like a switch
contact when it is conducting in the forward direction. The diode can act to
clamp a signal so that it cannot change. When a voltage is clamped, the diode
voltage drop is approximately 0.6 V whether the current is 1 mA or 1 A. In the
reverse direction there is no current flow for a voltage difference of 1, 10, or 100
V. This is the characteristic of an open circuit. Figures 3.2 and 3.3 show a circuit
that allows voltages greater than -0.6 V to pass and voltages less than -0.6 V to
be blocked (clamped).

Figure 3.3 The construction of the circuit in Figure 3.2

LEARNING CIRCUIT 14

Observing How a Diode Is Used to Clamp a Sine Wave

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and measuring
equipment) :

1 1-kQ resistor

1 1N4148 diode

1. Connect the diode and the resistor as shown in Figures 3.2 and 3.3 to
 the sine wave output of a function generator.

2. Use the oscilloscope to observe that the sine wave cannot go

negative. In other words, the negative voltage is clamped.

3. Reverse the diode and note that the positive voltage is clamped.

Note that from this point forward in the book, when two consecutive figures
show a Learning Circuit, the schematic drawing will be given first and the
construction diagram will follow.

In this circuit, the diode conducts only when the signal is more negative than
0.6 V relative to the common or reference conductor. If the diode is reversed in
direction, the circuit allows only voltages less than +0.6 V to pass.

When a diode clamps a voltage source, it acts as a short circuit. This short
circuit can cause overload or overheating if the source is a low impedance. In
this case a resistor is usually placed between the voltage source and the diode. If
the maximum voltage that can be tolerated is 10 V and the maximum current is
10 mA, the resistor must be 1,000 SZ or greater.

Diodes are often used to limit a signal voltage so it cannot exceed the power
supply voltages. This is done to protect the circuit against damage. In this case
the diode clamps are connected between the signal and the power supply
voltages. This circuit is shown in Figures 3.4 and 3.5. If the signal voltage is
between the limits of the power supply voltages, the signal is unaffected
(unclamped).

LEARNING CIRCUIT 15

Diode Clamping to a Power Supply

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and measuring
equipment) :
 2 9-V batteries

2 1N4148 diodes

1 1-ku resistor

Connect the circuit in Figures 3.4 and 3.5. Use a sine wave generator
to show that voltages above 9.6 V are clamped.
Figure 3.4 Diode clamps used to block signal voltages greater than the power
supply voltages
 Figure 3.5 The construction of the circuit in Figure 3.4

The Zener Diode

By proper doping of the pn junction, diodes can be designed with a controlled

reverse breakdown voltage. This kind of diode is called a zener diode. The
reverse voltage rating for a diode used in a power supply is often 400 V. In a
zener diode the breakdown voltage is specified and can range from 3.4 V to 100
V. The zener voltages in common use range from 5 V to 20 V. In the normal
range of operation, zener diodes are operated in the breakdown or reverse
direction. Both diodes and zener diodes conduct in the forward direction. Zener
diodes begin to conduct when the breakdown voltage is reached. The symbol for
a zener diode is shown in Figure 3.6.
 Zener diodes are typically % W components. A 10-V zener with 20 mA
reverse current dissipates 0.2 W The voltage across a zener diode varies over a
narrow range as the current changes. The circuit symbol for a zener diode is k .
The arrow is in the direction of zener current flow. A typical zener diode
voltage/current curve is shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 The voltage/current curve for a 10-V zener diode

 The flow of reverse current is the result of an avalanche effect. When a small
number of electrons start to flow, they knock loose many more and start the
avalanche. The ideal zener would have a very sharp transition between an open
circuit and the point where current flows. This transition region is called the
knee of the curve. In general, the knee is not very sharp for zener diodes rated
less than 4 V.

Zener diode voltages do change with temperature. The most stable range is
around 5.6 V. Zener diodes in this voltage range are often used as voltage
references because of their stability.

Zeller diodes should never be placed directly across a power supply. If the
voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage, there is a chance that the zener diode
will be destroyed or the power supply will be damaged.

Source Impedance

In chapter 1 we looked at the internal resistance of a battery. We also need to

know how to make this measurement for a zener diode. When we know how to
do this, we will be able to apply the same measuring method to circuits. The
circuit needs to be active or the component needs to be drawing current before
the measurement makes sense.

By definition, the source impedance of a circuit is the ratio of voltage change

to current change for sine waves. The term impedance is more general than
resistance, as it can include the reactance of an inductance or capacitance. In
most situations the resistance is all that is being measured. The internal
resistance of a battery is its source impedance. In many circuits that provide an
output voltage, the source impedance is called the output impedance or simply
the output resistance. All these expressions mean the same thing. If the measure
is not made using sine waves, then the term resistance rather than impedance
should be used. However, the language of electronics is not always perfectly
consistent, and this is a good example.

When the source resistance of a circuit is measured, the changes must be

within the normal range of operation. For example, an automobile battery has a
very wide range of operation. If a load resistor of 1.2 0 is applied across a 12-V
automobile battery, the voltage might drop to 11.8 V. The change of voltage is
0.2 V. The change of current is 10 A. The battery has an output resistance of
0.2/10 = 0.02 Q. But for electronic power sources, a 10-A current flow might be
outside the normal range of operation.

Output impedance can be measured dynamically by driving the circuit from a

sine wave signal generator using a series resistor. A coupling capacitor should be
used if there is an offset voltage. Assume the generator voltage is 10 V and the
resistor is 1,000 92. The resistor and the output impedance form a voltage
divider. The voltage at the output might be 0.1 V. The ratio of 10 V to 0.1 V is
an attenuation factor of 100. The output resistance is 1,000/100 = 10 Q. These
voltages can best be observed on an oscilloscope. The waveforms must both be
sine waves or the measurement is invalid. The reactance of the capacitor must be
small compared to 1,000 0 to make the measurement valid.

The Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

The voltage across a zener diode is nearly constant over a wide range of current.
This makes a zener diode useful as a voltage regulator. Figures 3.7 and 3.8 show
an application where a source voltage that varies from 9 to 18 V provides current
for a 5.1-V zener diode. The voltage across the zener diode varies less than 0.05
V. The zener voltage changes only 1% for a 100% change in source voltage.
This is a regulation factor of 100.
Figure 3.7 A zener diode voltage regulator
 Figure 3.8 The construction of the circuit in Figure 3.7

The source impedance of this zener voltage source can be determined by

placing a load resistor across the 5.1-V zener diode. If the load is 1,000 0 and the
voltage changes 0.03 V, the output impedance is 0.03/0.005 = 6 Q.

When a zener diode is used as a power supply, any added load current is
taken from the zener diode current. Assume that in Figure 3.7 the unloaded zener
diode current is 10 mA. If the added load resistor is 1,000 S2, the zener current
drops to 5 mA.

A zener diode can be used as a clamp so that a signal cannot exceed the zener
voltage. In the negative direction the forward direction of the zener clamps the
signal as a standard diode. To limit the voltage symmetrically, two zener diodes
can be used back to back. This circuit is shown in Figure 3.9. If the zener
voltages are 5.1 V, the clamping voltage is actually 5.7 V (the zener voltage plus
a diode drop of 0.6 V). In this example the signal voltage cannot exceed ±5.7 V.
Figure 3.9 Two zener diodes acting as a signal clamp

LEARNING CIRCUIT 16
 Observing Voltage Regulation Using a Zener Diode

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and measuring equipment):

2 9-V batteries

1 1-ku resistor

1 5.1-V zener diode

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figures 3.7 and 3.8, using two 9-V batteries in
series to supply current to a 5.1-V zener diode.

2. Measure the voltage across the zener diode.

3. Now use one of the batteries and note the zener voltage. What was the
regulation factor? The bar on the diode corresponds to the bar in the
schematic.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 17

Observing Voltage Clamping with Two Zener Diodes

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and measuring equipment) :

1 1-ku resistor

2 5.1-V zener diodes

Construct the circuit shown in Figures 3.9 and 3.10, placing two 5.1-V zener
diodes back to back along with a resistor across a sine wave voltage source.
Observe that the signal voltage is limited by the zener voltage to ±5.7 V.
 Figure 3.10 The construction of the circuit in Figure
3.9

The NPN Transistor

We will now take up the subject of transistors. Transistor are called active
elements, as opposed to resistors, capacitors, and inductors, which are passive
elements. Passive elements simply react to a signal without enhancing it, but
active elements like transistors use input from a power supply to enhance a
signal in some way. Diodes and zener diodes are considered nonlinear passive
elements, which means that they change the waveform but do not otherwise add
to it.

Figure 3.11 shows an npn transistor. This transistor is formed by placing p-

type material between two layers of n material.

The outer n layers are called the emitter and the collector. The p material is
called the base. The two n layers may appear to be symmetrical, but they are not;
they must be connected in the correct order as specified by the manufacturer. If
you interchange the emitter and the collector, you may damage the transistor. If
the base is disconnected, the pnp layers form two back-to-back diodes, which
means that current is theoretically blocked and cannot flow in either direction.

If current is caused to flow in the forward direction in the base/emitter

junction, the p material is supplied with electrons and the npn stack takes on the
character of all n material. If there is a collector voltage, a small flow of base
current will control the current that flows from the emitter to the collector. This
control of collector current is the essence of the transistor.

Figure 3.11 An npn transistor and its circuit symbol

 In a transistor, current flows in the forward direction in the base/emitter
junction. The collector current flows in the reverse direction through the
collector/base junction. When there is no base current, the collector/base
junction is a diode in the reverse direction. This junction must be designed to
withstand a reverse voltage equal to the power supply voltage, while the base
emitter junction does not ordinarily see a significant reverse voltage. In most
transistor designs the base/emitter reverse voltage is limited to a few volts. This
is the reason the emitter and the collector cannot be interchanged in function.

The relationship between base current, collector current, and collector voltage
in a typical npn transistor is shown in Figure 3.12. The individual curves
represent a fixed base current. Notice that the collector current is controlled by
the base current and not by the collector voltage.

Figure 3.12 The operating curves for a typical npn transistor

Transistor Gain

Transistors that operate along one of the curves in Figure 3.12 are operating in
their linear range. This is the operating range we will consider in this section.
There is a distinction between operating voltages and currents and signal
voltages and currents. A signal makes changes to the base current and voltage.
These changes result in new collector voltages and currents. The ratio of changes
to two parameters is called gain.

The ratio of a change of base current to the change in collector current is

called the (3 (beta) of the transistor. This is current gain. As an example, if the
base current changes from 1.0 mA to 1.01 mA and the collector current changes
from 10 to 11 mA, the value of 0 is 100. The distinction between signal voltage
and operating voltage is clear when the signal is a small ac voltage superposed
on the operating voltages.

Another measure of gain is the ratio of base voltage change to collector

current change. This is called transconductance. This measure of gain is often
given in transistor specifications. The higher the transconductance, the more
voltage gain the transistor can provide.

In most circuits it is desirable to have a voltage gain, not a current gain. The
transistor must be a part of a circuit so that the current gain ((3) of a transistor
can provide this voltage gain. Changes in collector current can be converted to
changes in voltage by using a collector resistor. Controlling the voltage
difference between the base and emitter is not as easy. To be effective, a circuit
must automatically set this difference voltage so that the transistor is operating in
its linear range. Attempts to obtain gain from a transistor by applying a voltage
between the base and the emitter will usually result in failure.

The Emitter Follower

The circuit in Figure 3.13 is called an emitter follower. The voltage between the
base and emitter is automatically set to provide the required collector current.
When the base moves one volt, the emitter follows by almost one volt. This
means the gain of the emitter follower circuit is very close to unity. This is a
good time to define the term voltage gain. Voltage gain is the ratio of output
voltage change to input voltage change.

In the circuit of Figure 3.13, assume the input base voltage is set to +2 V. The
emitter voltage follows and is at +1.4 V. The new emitter current is 11.4/2,700 =
4.2 mA. The new base current is 21.1 .iA. This means that the base has moved 1
V and the base current has changed 3.7.tA. The ratio between voltage change
and current change is called input impedance.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 18

Constructing an Emitter Follower

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and test
equipment):

1 2N3904 (npn) transistor

1 2.7-ku resistor

For this circuit, use the dc power supply you built in

Learning Circuit 12. Add the emitter follower shown in
Figures 3.13 and 3.14.

The current in the transistor is controlled by the base

voltage, the power supply voltage, and the emitter resistor. If
the base is at 0 V, the emitter is at about -0.6 V. The voltage
drop across the emitter resistor is the negative power supply
voltage minus 0.6 V. If the signal voltage is +10 V and the
resistor is 2,700 S2, the current is 9.4/2,700 = 3.5 mA. If the P
of the transistor is 200, the base current is 17.4 µA. This
signal voltage level can be provided by an external battery, or
you can use a square wave function generator at a low
frequency. Use the oscilloscope to verify that the emitter
voltage follows the base voltage except for a slight offset.

Leave this circuit connected to the power supply, as you

will also need it for the next Learning Circuit.
Figure 3.13 An emitter follower circuit using a dual voltage power supply
 Figure 3.14 The construction of the circuit in Figure 3.13

In the circuit shown in Figure 3.13, the ratio of changes is V/I = 1/3.7 x 10-6
Q = 270,000 0. (This measure assumes the 10-ki2 resistor is not present.) If the
transistor 0 is 400, the input impedance would be 540,000 Q. The input
resistance of a transistor that is not used as an emitter follower is typically
around 100 Q. (Note that this is an example of when you are likely to hear the
term impedance used in place of resistance. Impedance is incorrect, since sine
waves were not used in the measurement. However, in this circuit, measurement
using sine wave voltages would give the same result.)

In Figure 3.15, assume the base voltage has been adjusted so that the emitter
voltage is +5 V. A 100-52 load resistor R is placed between this emitter and the
common lead. The current in the resistor must flow in the transistor. This means
the base current must increase slightly. The emitter voltage might drop 0.05 V to
4.95 V.

In this example the voltage change is 0.05 V and the current change is 50 mA.
The output impedance is V/I = 1 Q. This example shows that an emitter follower
has a low output impedance.

Emitter followers have a gain very close to 1, a high input impedance, and a
low output impedance. In effect, an emitter follower is an impedance converter.
A voltage source with a high source impedance or with a limited ability to
supply current can be converted to a voltage source with a low source impedance
that can supply current. In our example, the input current is in the microampere
range and the output current is in the milliampere range. This multiplication of
current is one form of gain.
Figure 3.15 An emitter follower with a load resistor
 Figure 3.16 The construction of the circuit in Figure 3.15

The emitter follower follows an input signal no matter how slowly it changes.
Amplifiers that handle this type of signal are called dc amplifiers. An emitter
follower is a dc amplifier with a gain of 1. If the input voltage changes 1 V at dc,
the output voltage changes 1 V at dc. The 0.6-V voltage difference is an offset
signal. In applications such as audio amplifiers where only ac is of interest, a
capacitor can block the offset voltage. This capacitor and any terminating
resistor form a high-pass filter. The -3 dB point occurs at the frequency where
the reactance of the capacitor equals the terminating resistor.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 19

Observing the Output Impedance of an Emitter Follower

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and test equipment):

1 100-52, 1 2.7-ku, 1 1.0-kS2, and 1 3.9-ku2 resistor

1. Use your power supply and the emitter follower you built in Learning Circuit
18.

2. Add a voltage divider to set the input base voltage to +5 V as shown in

Figures 3.15 and 3.16. The voltage divider can be determined as follows: If
the power supply voltage is 25 V, set the divider current to 5 mA. The top
resistor is 4 kS2 (we use 3.9 kS2, as it is the nearest standard value), and the
bottom resistor is 1 kS2.

3. Measure the emitter voltage with respect to the common lead. It should read
about 4.4 V.

4. Place a 100-1 resistor from the emitter to common. This is resistor R in Figure
3.16.

5. Measure the emitter voltage. What is the output impedance? Save this circuit
construction.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 20
 LEARNING CIRCUIT 20

Measuring the Gain of an Emitter Follower

You will need:

The circuit from Learning Circuit 19

1. Use the circuit you built in Learning Circuit 19. Measure the input base
voltage and the emitter output voltage with respect to power supply common.

2. Use a clip lead to connect the base to the power supply common (this removes
the 5-V input base signal) and measure the emitter voltage. Use these voltage
measurements to determine the gain.

3. Remove the 100-0 resistor load from the emitter to the common.

4. Repeat these steps to obtain new voltages. What is the new gain?

The emitter follower in Figure 3.15 can supply current to a load resistor.
When the input voltage is positive, the output voltage follows. The load current
is added to the collector current. In the negative voltage direction, the current in
the load is subtracted from the collector current. In the negative direction the
emitter follower cannot support a load current that exceeds the nominal collector
current. The collector current for various output voltages is shown in Figure
3.17. In the next chapter we will discuss a circuit that does not have this
limitation.

The emitter follower circuit using a single voltage power supply is shown in
Figure 3.18. A voltage divider must be used to establish a base voltage so that
the transistor can draw current. This transistor current is determined by the base
voltage and the value of the emitter resistor. The voltage divider must supply any
required base current.
 Figure 3.17 The current and voltage in an emitter follower

It is a good idea for the voltage divider current in Figure 3.18 to be 10 times
the base current. If the base current is 100 µA, the divider current can be 1 mA.
Two coupling capacitors are required if the operating voltages are to be blocked.
In this circuit the input impedance is dominated by the voltage divider. This
impedance is equal to the two divider resistors in parallel. The value of the
output capacitor depends on the terminating resistor, not on the source
impedance.

You will see in chapter 5 that an integrated circuit can be used to build the
equivalent of an emitter follower. This approach is often less expensive and has
the additional advantage of having no offset problems. Emitter followers are still
used when the output current must be greater than that supplied by an IC
amplifier, for example in supplying current to a loudspeaker.
 Figure 3.18 An emitter follower and a single voltage power supply

Voltage Gain Using an NPN Transistor

The circuit in Figure 3.19 provides a negative gain of 3.0. In this circuit we make
use of a dual 25-V power supply, two zener diodes, resistor R, = 3.3 M, and
resistor R2 = 10,000 Q.

The two zener diodes are used to provide a -5.1-V power supply voltage. The
transistor current can vary, but the zener voltage stays con stant. When the base
voltage is 0, the emitter voltage is approximately -0.6 V. The voltage across the
emitter resistor is 4.4 V. The current in the emitter resistor is 4.4 V divided by R,
= 1.333 mA. This current flows in the collector resistor R2. The voltage drop in
this resistor is IR2 = 13.33 V. If the power supply voltage is 25 V, the collector
voltage is 11.7 V. These are operating voltages.
 Figure 3.19 A voltage gain using an npn transistor

If the input voltage rises 1.0 V, the new emitter voltage is +0.4 V. The current
in the emitter resistor increases to 1.8 mA. This current flows in the collector
resistor. The resulting voltage drop is 18 V. The new collector voltage is 8.7 V.
The collector voltage dropped 3 V. The gain is the ratio of output voltage change
to input voltage change, or -3 V/ 1.0 V = -3.00. This is also the ratio of R2/R,. If
the base voltage changes sinusoidally, the output voltage also changes
sinusoidally. When the sine wave has a peak value of +1.0 V, the output signal
has a peak voltage of -3 V.

Figure 3.20 The construction of the circuit in Figure 3.19

LEARNING CIRCUIT 21
 Obtaining Voltage Gain from a Transistor

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and test
equipment):

1 2N3904 transistor

1 1-ku, 1 3.3-ku, and 1 10-ku resistor

2 10-V zener diodes

1. Build the circuit shown in Figures 3.19 and 3.20, using the
circuit values indicated. Be careful to connect the transistor
correctly. A diagram of the transistor pin layout is shown in
the upper right corner of Figure 3.20. Check that the dc
voltages are correct.

2. Set the level of a sine wave signal generator to 1 V peak-to-

peak at 1 kHz. Verify this on your oscilloscope.

3. Connect the generator between the transistor base and the

power supply common.

4. Measure the peak-to-peak ac signal at the collector. Verify

that the gain is -3.

5. Disconnect the signal generator and turn off the power.

6. Change the 3,300-52 resistor to 2,200 Q.

7. Turn on the power and verify that the circuit gain is now
approximately 5.

Voltage Gain at AC
The circuit in Figure 3.19 can be modified to have a gain of 10 at ac but a gain of
less than 1 at dc. This circuit is shown in Figures 3.21 and 3.22. The collector
resistor is set to 10 W. The emitter resistance is made up of two resistors: R, = 1
kS and R3 = 22 W.

The capacitor across R3 has a reactance of 1 kQ at 159 Hz. At frequencies

above about 150 Hz the gain is the ratio of R2/R, = -10. Below about 10 Hz the
gain is less than 1. The circuit functions like a high-pass filter except that the
gain never falls to 0. The capacitor value is about 1µE

Figure 3.21 An npn transistor circuit with a gain of 10 at ac

 Figure 3.21 An npn transistor circuit with a gain of 10 at ac

In Figure 3.19 the zener diode held the emitter resistor return to -5 V at all
frequencies. In Figure 3.21 a capacitor holds the emitter resistor return fixed at
frequencies above 150 Hz. The advantage of this circuit is that the dc operating
conditions do not vary, as there is no gain at dc. This technique is used in high-
frequency amplifiers where dc gain is unimportant and stable operating
conditions are desirable.

Figure 3.22 The construction of the circuit in Figure 3.21

 Figure 3.22 The construction of the circuit in Figure 3.21

LEARNING CIRCUIT 22

Obtaining Voltage Gain from a Transistor at AC

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and test equipment):

1 2N3904 transistor

2 1-ku, 1 10-kS2, and 1 22-ku resistor

1 1-µF capacitor

1. Build the circuit of Figures 3.21 and 3.22.

2. Set the sine wave generator output to 0.5 V.

3. Test the gain at 100 Hz, 10 Hz, and 1 Hz.

4. Remove the capacitor and note the gain at 150 Hz.

 Figure 3.23 The structure and symbol for a pnp
transistor

The PNP Transistor

Figure 3.23 shows the structure and symbol for a pnp transistor. The outer two
layers of p-type silicon are called the emitter and the collector and the center n
silicon layer is called the base. This pnp transistor is very similar to the npn
transistor except that all the voltages are reversed. In the next section the pnp
transistor is used as an emitter follower.

The PNP Emitter Follower

The emitter follower using the pnp transistor is the mirror image of the npn
transistor. This circuit is shown in Figures 3.24 and 3.25.

Note that the offset voltage is +0.6 V instead of -0.6 V. In this circuit any
output load current for a negative output voltage is added to the transistor
current. In the positive direction the output load current subtracts from the
collector current. When the transistor current is zero the output voltage is at its
maximum.

Figure 3.24 The pnp emitter follower

LEARNING CIRCUIT 23
 LEARNING CIRCUIT 23

Observing the Gain of a PNP Emitter Follower

You will need:

The circuit you built in Learning Circuit 22

1 2N3906 transistor

Using Learning Circuit 22, modify the circuit to that shown in Figures 3.24
and 3.25. Go through the same steps as before. The pnp and npn transistors have
the same pin arrangement. Verify that the operating voltages are correct. Before
connecting the signal generator, verify that the signal level is 1 V peak-to peak.
Measure the ac gain with and without a load resistor of 100 Q.
 Figure 3.25 The construction of the circuit in Figure
3.24

Using the NPN and PNP Transistors Together

It is common practice in drawing circuits to draw the positive voltages as a

horizontal line across the top of the schematic. Similarly, the negative voltage is
a horizontal line at the bottom of the schematic. These parallel lines have
reminded people of railroad tracks. This is probably the origin of the term power
supply rails. The power supply rails are simply the conductors that carry the
power supply voltages. Another term used to describe a power supply lead that
runs through a circuit is a bus. The term probably started in the power industry
where large power conductors are used. The term extends to ground or other
common leads.

The convention of placing the positive power supply conductor at the top of
the page means that current always appears to flow from top to bottom. The
arrows on the emitters of npn and pnp transistors point in the direction of current
flow and thus they always point toward the bottom of the page. These
conventions make it easier to read a schematic.

An example of how npn and pnp transistors work together is shown in

Figures 3.26 and 3.27. In this circuit each transistor provides a gain of 3.03 and
the output collector is at the input signal common potential.

The base current for the pnp transistor is supplied by the collector of the
npn transistor. If the (3 of the pnp transistor is 200, this base cur rent is a small
fraction of the collector current. The overall gain of this circuit is +9.2. If the
first stage emitter resistor is shunted by 10 kS2, the overall gain will be very
nearly 10.
Figure 3.26 An npn and pnp transistor used to provide gain
 Figure 3.27 The construction of the circuit in Figure 3.26

The circuit of Figure 3.26 may have an offset of several volts. This offset can
be removed by injecting a small dc signal into the base of the second stage. A
zeroing control is provided, as the amount of offset is unknown. The control
component is called a potentiometer. It is a resistor with a slider that makes
contact along the resistance. The potentiometer forms an adjustable voltage
attenuator. In this circuit the slider provides any voltage from +25 V to -25 V.
This variable voltage changes the base current to the second stage and corrects
for the offset. Later, when we use an IC amplifier, this adjustment may not be
necessary. Offsets and dc drift are always a problem with circuits that amplify
both slowly and rapidly changing voltages. This is another example of a dc
amplifier.

The circuit in Figure 3.26 is an example of obtaining voltage gain using

transistors. This circuit is useful in learning about input and output impedances,
gain, and zero shifting. The preferred way to obtain this gain is with an IC
amplifier, which we will discuss in the next chapter. The circuits we have
studied so far are a part of the inner workings of an IC amplifier. Understanding
these circuits is a vital part of understanding electronics.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 24

Providing Voltage Gain Using an NPN and a PNP Transistor

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and test equipment):

1 10-ku potentiometer

1 2N3904 and 1 2N3906 transistor

3 10-V and 2 5.1-V zener diodes

2 10-kQ, 2 1.0-ku, 2 3.3-ku, and 1 100-kQ resistor

Note that on this Learning Circuit the power supply is no longer

shown. You are now building circuits that are more complex, and there
is not enough room on the diagrams to show it along with the new
circuit. On future Learning Circuits it will be assumed that a power
supply is present, but it will no longer be shown.
1. Build the circuit shown in Figures 3.26 and 3.27 on your power
supply board. Be careful to measure the voltages on the circuit after
the power has been turned on.

2. Set the sine wave signal to 0.2 V peak-to-peak. If this is difficult to

do, attenuate the signal generator by using a voltage divider of 1,000
S2 and 100 Q. Use the midpoint on the divider to provide a reduced
signal.

3. Measure the gain of the circuit using the oscilloscope. If the offset is
a problem, adjust the potentiometer to set the output voltage to 0.

SELF-TEST

1. The current in a 15-V zener diode is 10 mA. What is the power dissipation?

2. If the load resistor across the zener diode in problem 1 is 3 kS2, what is the
power dissipation in the zener diode?

3. The voltage across a zener diode is 9.75 V. When a 5-ku resistor is placed
across the diode, the voltage drops to 9.60 V. What is the source impedance?

4. The collector current in an npn transistor is 2 mA. The collector resistor is

2,000 Q. If the base current is increased by 2 gA and the collector voltage
changes 1 V, what is the P of the transistor?

5. The input to an emitter follower changes from -0.5 to 1.5 V. The emitter
changes from -1.2 to 0.75 V. What is the gain of the emitter follower?

6. The input current in problem 5 changes from 0.8 mA to 0.9 mA. What is the
input impedance?

7. An npn emitter follower supplies 12 V to a 200-0 resistor. The voltage

changes to 11.8 V when the second 200-52 resistor is added. What is the
output impedance?

8. In problem 7, if the collector current for no load is 20 mA, what is the

collector current when both loads are present?
9. A pnp transistor is used as an emitter follower. The output voltage for no load
is 30 mA. What is the maximum positive voltage that can be supplied to a
500-52 load?

10. The power voltage varies from 105 V to 125 V. An emitter follower requires
a minimum of 5 V dc from the collector to the emitter. A dual power supply is
used to supply voltages for an emitter follower. The emitter follower is used
to regulate 15 V dc. Allow for one diode drop and a 2-V drop in the
transformer coil plus a peak-to-peak ripple voltage of 1 V. What should the
unloaded rms voltage be for the secondary of the transformer for a nominal
voltage of 117 V? Hint: Add up the voltage drops at the lowest power line
voltage. Determine the minimum secondary voltage. Then correct for the line
voltage.

ANSWERS

1. 150 mW.

2. The current in the load is 5 mA. The zener current is reduced to 5 mA. The
dissipation is 75 mW.

3. The change in voltage is 0.15 V. The change in current is 1.92 mA. The
source impedance is 16.3 Q.

4. The collector current changes 0.5 mA. The base current changes 2 NA. The (i
is 250.

5. The output changes 1.95 V when the input changes 2 V. The gain is 0.975.

6. The ratio of voltage change to input current change is 2 V/0.1 mA = 20 W.

7. 3.4 Q.

8. Both loads take 118 mA. The total current is 138 mA.

9. 15 V. The emitter follower is cut off.

10. At the lowest line voltage the secondary voltage must be 15 V + 5 V + 0.6 V
+ 2 V + 1 V = 23.6 V. The line voltage correction is 117/105 = 1.114. The
secondary voltage should be set at 26.3 V.
Objectives

In this chapter you will learn:

• about stacked emitter followers

• how an emitter follower can be used to regulate voltage

• about constant current supplies

• how a differential input stage operates

• how a transistor is used as a switch

• about triacs, SCRs, and phototransistors

The Stacked Emitter Follower

Most amplifiers or circuits with gain provide output voltage to various loads.
These loads could be a speaker or a long cable. As we saw earlier, the simple
npn emitter follower must draw a steady average current in order to supply a
negative output voltage to a load. For a negative output voltage, the load current
is subtracted from the collector current. This is a drawback, but it can be avoided
by using two emitter followers, as shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2.

The top transistor is an npn type and the bottom transistor is a pnp type. The
top transistor supplies load current when the output voltage is positive, and the
bottom transistor supplies load current when the output voltage is negative. The
static current through the two transistors when the output voltage is 0 can be
limited to a few milliamperes. The symmetry of this circuit allows the output
voltage to be 0 when the input voltage is 0.

The operating voltage at the bases of the two transistors can be set so that a
small amount of collector current flows when the output is at 0 volts. This is
accomplished by a voltage divider using two low-current signal diodes and
resistors R, and R2. The forward drop in these diodes is sufficient to set the base
voltages to +0.6 V and -0.6 V. The midpoint of the diodes is the input terminal.
This input point is normally connected to a signal from another circuit. In the
Learning Circuit I have placed a resistor of 10 kS2 between the input and the
circuit common.
Figure 4.1 A stacked emitter follower
 Figure 4.2 The construction of the circuit in Figure 4.1

The two 10-Q emitter resistors R3 and R4 are required to avoid a possible
instability. It is good practice in electronics to avoid paralleling connections
between two or more active elements. In this circuit the transistor bases are
connected together though diodes. Tying the two emitters together would violate
this rule. The 10-Q resistors in the emitters are a safety factor to remove any
possible instability. The instability could be an oscillation above 20 MHz, which
could overheat the transistors and yet go undetected.
 The input impedance of the emitter followers is high compared to the
impedance of the voltage divider. If the I of the output transistors is 150 and the
maximum transistor current is 100 mA, the maximum base current is 0.66 mA.
The voltage divider current should be about 6 mA. If the divider resistors are 3.3
kS2, the input impedance is approximately 1,600 Q. As we will see later, a
standard IC amplifier can easily supply current to this load. A signal generator
with a peak-to-peak output of 20 V can drive this circuit to show its output
capability.

Emitter Followers as Voltage Regulators

An ideal constant voltage source is a voltage that does not vary with a change in
load current or a change in power supply voltages. In prac tice, voltage
regulators are not perfect. In many situations regulation to within 5% is totally
acceptable.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 25

The Stacked Emitter Follower and How It Functions

You will need (in addition to power supply and measuring

equipment):

1 TIP29A and 1 TIP30A transistor

2 1N4148 signal diodes

2 10-52, 2 3.3-kS, 1 10-ku, and 2 100-52 (not shown)

resistors
 1. Build the circuit of Figures 4.1 and 4.2 on the circuit board.
Check to see that the emitter followers are drawing current.
You can measure the current level by measuring the voltage
drop across the 10-52 resistors. If the static current is 10
mA, the voltage is 0.1 V. You can easily measure this using
your oscilloscope. This is too small a voltage to measure
using the dc scale on a multimeter. If there is no current,
then add a resistor of 100 S2 in series with each signal
diode (D101 and D102). This will increase the base
voltages, slightly allowing the transistors to conduct.

2. Connect a sine wave generator to the input and observe the

output voltage. The two signals should be the same.

3. Measure the gain and the output impedance. Try a square

wave input signal and note the rise time at 50 kHz. You
may want to leave this circuit connected so that you can use
it at a later time.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 26

Building a Positive Voltage Regulator

You will need (in addition to a power supply and measuring

equipment):

1 TIP29A transistor

1 15-V zener diode

1 100-.tF, 35-V capacitor

1-ku and 1 330-Q resistor

1. Add the positive voltage regulator of Figure 4.3 to your circuit
board. The construction is shown in the top half of Figure 4.4. You
now have a regulated 15-V source with respect to the common or
zero of the circuit. The base voltage is held at 15 V so that the output
voltage is also held to near this same voltage. Measure this voltage
using the oscilloscope.

2. Add a load resistor of 330 1 from the regulated output (emitter) to

the common. Note any change in voltage at the emitter.

3. Measure the power supply ripple at the collector of the pass element
(25 V). Note the power supply ripple at the output of the regulator.
Most of it should be removed. The voltage should not shift more than
a tenth of a volt; if it does, check over your connections carefully to
be sure they are correct.

You have already seen three examples of practical constant dc voltage

sources. The first example was the zener diode circuit of Figure 3.7. The output
voltage (the voltage across the zener diode) was fixed. The current for a load
was taken from the zener diode itself. In this circuit the zener current must be
greater than the maximum load current. If the power supply voltage changes, the
zener voltage remains essentially constant.

The second example of a voltage source was the emitter follower in Figure
3.15. Here the emitter output impedance was low If the base input voltage is
fixed, the emitter output voltage is also nearly fixed. If you give this same circuit
a fixed input voltage, it becomes a positive voltage regulator, as shown in Figure
4.3.
 Figure 4.3 A positive voltage regulator

LEARNING CIRCUIT 27

Building a Negative Voltage Regulator

You will need (in addition to a power supply and measuring equipment) :

1 TIP30A transistor

1 15-V zener diode

1 100-µF, 35-V capacitor

1-kS2 and 1 330-52 (not shown) resistor

Add the circuit of Figure 4.5 to your power supply. The construction is shown
in the bottom half of Figure 4.4. Now you have a regulated plus and minus 15-V
power supply. This negative voltage regulator should be tested the same way the
positive regulator was tested in Learning Circuit 26. Note the voltage at the
emitter follower before and after applying a 330-52 load resistor. Compare the
ripple reduction from the collector to the emitter on the pass element.
Remember, ripple voltage is the ac component riding in the dc power supply
voltage.

The zener current is supplied from the unregulated voltage source through a
resistor. This zener voltage defines the base voltage of the transistor. The emitter
of the transistor is the output voltage. The transistor functions as an emitter
follower, except with a fixed base voltage. When a TIP30A transistor is used,
this type of voltage regulator can easily supply 100 mA. The transistor is often
called a pass element, as the load current must pass through the transistor.

The third example of a voltage source was the pnp emitter follower in Figure
3.24. If the base voltage is defined by a zener diode, the output of the emitter
follower is regulated. Again the zener current is supplied from the unregulated
voltage source through a resistor. The transistor functions as an emitter follower
except that the base voltage is fixed. This circuit is shown in Figure 4.5. With a
TIP30A transistor, this voltage regulator can easily supply 100 mA. This
transistor is also called a pass element.
Figure 4.4 The construction of the circuits in Figures 4.3 and 4.5
 Figure 4.5 A negative voltage regulator

Voltage Sources

The ideal voltage source supplies a voltage that is independent of the load
current. The voltage source might be a dc value, or any waveform for that
matter. The load could be a resistor, an open circuit, or even a capacitor. If the
voltage waveform is a sine wave, then the concept of output impedance can be
used. In all practical circuits the regulation varies with frequency. If the source
impedance measures 1 S2 from dc to 100 kHz and is 10 S2, at 1 MHz, then the
source impedance is inductive. There is no physical inductor. The circuit simply
performs as if an inductor were present. In this example the inductance has a
reactance of about 10 S2 at 1 MHz.

Electronic voltage sources are different from batteries. It is possible to force

current to flow backward into a battery. This is not the case with a power supply
circuit involving diodes or transistors. These circuits do not allow current to flow
in the reverse direction.

Current Sources

Current sources are not as common as voltage sources. A current source supplies
a current that is independent of the load impedance. The load in this case might
be a short circuit or a resistor. A constant current source cannot function into an
open circuit, as the current cannot flow. The higher the resistance value, the
higher the voltage must be for the same current. If the circuit cannot supply the
voltage, the circuit cannot function. As an example, assume a constant current of
10 mA. If 10 mA flows in 100 S2, the voltage is 1 V. If the resistance is 1,000
S2, the voltage is 10 V. If the resistance is 10,000 Q, most circuits cannot
function.

Surprisingly, we have already encountered a current source. It is the

transistor. The collector current is almost independent of the collector voltage. If
the collector current is 10 mA, the voltage drop is 1 V for a collector resistor of
100 S2 and 10 V for a collector resistance of 1,000 Q. The impedance at the
collector is the ratio of voltage change to current change. As an example, assume
the voltage across a 100-Q resistor is 1 V and 9.99 V for a 1,000-a load resistor.
The change in voltage is 8.99 V. For the 100-52 load the current was 10 mA. For
the 1,000-52 resistor the current was 9.99 mA. The change in current is only
0.01 mA. The ratio of collector voltage change to current change is 8.99/10-' =
899,000 Q. This is the collector source impedance. The actual output impedance
is the collector impedance in parallel with the collector resistor.

Active Constant Current Sources

Two constant current circuits that are often used in design are shown in Figures
4.6 and 4.7. The first circuit uses an npn transistor to supply a constant current
from the positive supply to the common. The second circuit supplies a constant
current from the negative supply to the common. In both circuits an emitter
resistor and the zener diode voltage determine the current level. If the resistor is
470 S2, and the zener voltage is 5.1 V, the current is about 10 mA. This current
does not depend on the collector voltage, as long as the transistor is within its
normal operating range.

A constant current source is not affected by any voltages that are in series
with the load. If the resistor is terminated on an ac voltage source at 60 Hz, the
current in the resistor is still constant. The 60-Hz voltage cannot add current to a
current source. This means that the voltage across the resistor will not have any
60-Hz content.

Voltage sources have a similar quality. A voltage source holds constant for
any 60-Hz current that flows in the load. An external source of 60-Hz current
cannot change the voltage from a regulated voltage source. Both of these
statements are true as long as the circuits are within their normal range of
operation.
 Figure 4.6 Two constant current circuits

The constant current circuits shown in Figure 4.6 cannot be placed in series.
Any slight imbalance in the current levels will upset the circuits. To get around
this problem, a load resistor must provide a path for the difference current. There
is a similar problem with voltage sources. Voltage sources cannot be placed in
parallel without a connecting resistor. This resistor will limit current flow
between the voltage sources based on the difference voltage. Without this
resistor, voltage sources will overload or self-destruct. To review, current
sources cannot be placed in series and voltage sources cannot be placed in
parallel.

Figure 4.7 The construction of the circuit in Figure 4.6

(Continued)
 LEARNING CIRCUIT 28

Building Two Constant Current Sources

You will need (in addition to a power supply and measuring equipment):

1 2N3904 and 1 2N3906 transistor

2 470-Q and 2 1-ku resistor

2 5.1-V zener diodes

On your power supply board you now have two regulated voltages and a
stacked emitter follower. Now you need room for a constant current source. You
are going to use the two regulated voltages as the power supply for the constant
current sources. Use the circuits in Figure 4.6 and 4.7. The current for the zener
diodes comes from the 25-V power supplies. The collector resistors are 1,000
92. Measure the voltage drop across these resistors. Each current source has been
set up to be 10 mA. The voltage drop across the 1,000 S2 is 10 V. Now change
the resistor to 470 S2 and note that the voltage changes to 4.7 V. What happens
if the resistor is 2,000 fl? Can the resistor be 3,000 SZ?

The Differential Stage

The differential stage consists of two matched transistors. A typical circuit is

shown in Figures 4.8 and 4.9. This circuit is usually used as the input stage in
most IC amplifiers.
Figure 4.8 A differential stage and a constant
current source
 Figure 4.9 The construction of the circuit in Figure 4.8

We will call the transistor base on the left the input or first base. The two
emitters are connected to a constant current source, Q3. In this example the two
base voltages are connected to the zero reference potential through 10-ku
resistors. If the transistors are well matched, then half the available constant
current flows in each transistor. The voltage across each collector resistor is
equal to half the constant current times the resistance value. The collector
voltage is equal to the supply voltage minus this voltage drop. In Figure 4.8 the
total current is 1.0 mA. The collector resistors are 10 kS2s. The voltage drop
across each resistor is 5 V. If the supply voltage is 15 V, the collector voltages
are each 10 V.

The input base current is equal to the collector current divided by the beta of
the transistor. If the beta is 250, then the base current is 0.5mA/250 = 2 .tA. This
current must be supplied or the transistors cannot function. In this example the
input base could be supplied base current through a resistor connected to the
power supply. This resistor is R = 15/2 x 10-6 = 7.5 MQ. In most applications
this base current is supplied by the circuits that connect to the bases.

The operation of this differential stage can be demonstrated by applying

different voltages to the two input bases. If the two bases are set to +3 V, the
emitter voltages follow. The current is held constant so that the two collector
voltages remain at 10 V. In other words, there is no gain. If both base voltages
are set to -3 V, the emitters again follow and the collector voltages remain
unchanged.

If the first or input base voltage is raised to 0.01 V and the second base is held
at 0 V, the emitter voltage splits the different and rises to 0.005 V. The input
base emitter voltage is now 0.005 V and the second base emitter voltage is
reduced by 0.005 V. The result is that more current flows in the first transistor
and less current flows in the second transistor. Because of the constant current
source, the sum of the two collector currents is a constant. The change to the
collector voltages depends on the gain of the transistors. In this example, assume
the collectors change 0.5 V. The first collector voltage will drop from 10 V to
9.5 V and the second collector voltage will rise from 10 V to 10.5 V. With this
information we can calculate the voltage gain. The input changed 0.01 V and
each collector changed 0.5 V. This is a gain of -50 to the first collector and a
gain of +50 to the second collector. The gain is associated with an offset of about
10 V.

A matched pair of transistors can be purchased as a single component. This

matching can be significantly better than the matching provided by the transistor
pair at the input to a standard IC amplifier. The careful matching is necessary in
high gain amplifiers where dc drift must be very low. Some manufacturers of IC
amplifiers balance the input stages as a part of the manufacturing cycle.

The differential pair has no gain when both bases were raised or lowered in
potential by the same amount. A signal that is common to both inputs is called a
commonmode signal. In this circuit the commonmode gain is practically 0. In
effect, the commonmode signal is rejected. The gain to the difference signal is
called normal-mode gain.

To illustrate how a differential stage separates normal-mode signals from

commonmode signals, consider the gain to a signal where the input to base one
is 3.01 V and the input to base two is 3.00 V. The average input signal is 3.005
V. The gain to this commonmode signal is 0. The input difference signal or
differential signal is 0.01 V The gain to this difference signal is -50 to the first
collector and +50 to the second transistor.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 29

Building a Differential Input Circuit

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and measuring
equipment) :

3 2N3904 transistors

1 5.1-V zener diode

4 10-ku, 1 1-ku, and 1 470-Q resistor

Build the circuit shown in Figures 4.8 and 4.9. Note that it does not
require a matched pair of transistors to illustrate the principle. The
regulated ± 15-V power supplies are used for this circuit. The constant
current source is set for 10 mA. After you get the circuit built, make
sure that the two collector voltages are about 10 V each. Since the gain
can be 50, any input signal from a generator should be attenuated by
about 100:1 so that the signal level can be easily adjusted. A suggested
voltage divider for each base is a series 100-ku resistor and 1-kS2
resistor. This divider attenuates the signal from your function generator.
When a 1-V sine wave signal generator is applied between each 100-
ku2 resistor and common, the signal on that base is about 0.01 V. After
gain, the collector signal voltages should be about 1 V. The same signal
level should appear on each collector.

If your oscilloscope has A and B inputs, you can sum the two
collector signals. Be sure the oscilloscope inputs are ac coupled. If the
result is 0, it proves the signals are of opposite polarity or balanced. Tie
the two 100-kS2 resistors together and connect the signal generator
between these two resistors and common. Observe the collectors for
signal. This is the commonmode test. The collector signal should be
very small.

In our example of gain, the input to the first base is a signal with respect to
the zero reference conductor. This is called a single-ended signal. The two
collector signals are equal and opposite in polarity. Remember, we must ignore
the static operating voltage of 10 V. The input signal changes from 0 to +0.01 V
and the output changes ±0.5 V around the nominal operating voltage. The two
output signals are called a balanced signal. A balanced signal pair means that
one signal goes positive when the other goes negative. For a balanced signal pair
the average value is 0. Balanced signals are often used in driving long cables.
Certain kinds of noise coupling can be eliminated by using this technique.

Field Effect Transistors

So far we have considered junction transistors. Another form of transistor is

called the field effect transistor, or FET. This type of transistor is also formed
from p and n silicon material. The current path in a FET transistor is called a
channel. The channel can be all p or n material. There are no junctions through
which this current must flow. The channel current flows directly from the source
to the drain in the channel. The ends of the channel are called the source and the
drain. These designators correspond directly to the emitter and collector in a
junction transistor.

The controlling element is called a gate. The voltage between the gate and the
source controls the current flow through the channel. The gate is actually
insulated from the source and the drain. When the gate is formed as an insulated
junction, the device is called a junction FET, or a JFET. When the gate is
insulated by a metal oxide, the device is called a MOSFET or metal oxide
semiconductor field effect transistor. There is gate current, but it is usually
nanoamperes instead of microamperes. For an n-channel FET the drain voltage
is positive with respect to the source.

There are four basic types of FET devices. The conducting channel can be n
or p material and the devices can be enhancement or depletion types. The
enhancement FETs do not conduct unless there is a gate voltage. The depletion
mode devices allow current to flow at 0 gate voltage. Some devices have both
enhancement and depletion regions of operation. For all FETs, the gate voltage
controls the electric field along the channel. It is this field configuration that
controls the flow of current in the channel. The absence of a pn or np junction
means that the voltage drop from the source to the drain can be very small.
When the transistor is turned fully on, the channel is a low resistance. When the
channel is turned off, it is a very high resistance. This makes the FET an ideal
switching device.

A FET does not have beta, as there is no controlling gate current. The voltage
curves for a typical n-channel JFET device are shown in Figure 4.9. In most
circuits the FET can be treated very much as a junction transistor. There are FET
followers, FET gain circuits, and FET pass elements in power supplies. There
are IC amplifiers made from FET devices. If you understand how transistors are
applied to a circuit, the FET should offer you no difficulty. For this reason we
limit our Learning Circuits to transistors. A problem can arise in using depletion
mode devices. The needed gate voltage may extend beyond the available power
supply voltage. Typical operating curves for a FET transistor are shown in
Figure 4.10.

There are logic circuits made from FETs. In one family of devices both p and
n channel material are used in the form of stacked emitter followers. These
components are known as CMOS, which stands for complementary metal oxide
semiconductor.

The symbols used for FETs are sometimes confusing. Manufacturers attempt
to show the construction of the device in the symbol they use for it, but these are
not always quite clear. A few of the common symbols are shown in Figure 4.11.
 FET devices are particularly sensitive to handling; any slight electrostatic
discharge (ESD) can destroy the component. For this reason, FET devices are
shipped in conductive plastic to limit generating a charge when the components
rub on the plastic. An accumulated charge represents an electric field that can
cause arcing. The leads of a FET device should not be touched when handling. It
is bad practice to throw FET devices into a pile with other components and then
attempt to sort them out by hand.

Figure 4.10 The operating curves for an n-channel JFET transistor

Figure 4.11 Symbols used for FET devices

Light Emitting Diodes

When a pn junction is properly doped, the current in the junction can generate
light. Light results when electrons release energy upon returning to their normal
state from a higher energy state. The color of the light is directly related to the
energy levels associated with the two states. The light emitting diode or LED
operates in the forward direction of the diode. LEDs are not designed to
accommodate a high reverse voltage. Typical LEDs operate in the current range
5 to 20 mA. Figure 4.12 shows how a transistor can be used to turn on an LED.
The collector resistor is necessary to limit the LED current.

Figure 4.12 A transistor used to turn on an LED

LEARNING CIRCUIT 30
 Building a Transistor Switch

You will need (in addition to a power supply and measuring

equipment):

1 SPDT switch (used as a SPST switch)

1 2N3906 transistor

1 LED diode

2 10-ku2 resistors and 1 470-Q resistor

Construct the circuit shown in Figure 4.12. When resistor

R, is connected to the plus supply, the LED is turned on. I
have not provided a construction diagram, as you are now
experienced enough to lay out this circuit yourself.
Congratulations on reaching this milestone, which indicates
how much you have learned from carefully constructing the
circuits.

Phototransistors

When light strikes a semiconductor material, the absorbed light energy (photons)
can knock electrons out of their normal positions. In the base region of a
transistor, these free electrons allow transistor action. If there is a collector
voltage, then collector current results. This is the reason why semiconductor
devices are constructed in plastic in such a way as to limit any light entry.

A phototransistor is a device that intentionally uses light to control a

transistor. An LED is positioned to shine light into the base region of a
transistor. The light from the LED generates free electrons. The transistor reacts
to these free electrons as if there were base current.
 The LED is electrically separated from the transistor. In fact, the LED and the
transistor can be in completely separate circuits. It is possible for the transistor to
be associated with an ac power conductor and the LED to be associated with a
circuit on the secondary of a transformer. This separation in function makes a
phototransistor valuable. The voltage between LED and the transistor can be as
great as 500 V. Because of the separation, the LED and the transistor can be
drawn in separate parts of the circuit diagram. See Figure 4.13.

Figure 4.13 A phototransistor symbol

The Signal Controlled Rectifier or SCR

A diode always conducts in the forward direction. A signal controlled rectifier,
or SCR, functions like a diode with a control gate. SCRs find most of their
applications in ac power circuits. The gate can control the SCR so that current
can start flowing over any portion of the conducting halfcycle. Once current
starts to flow, the gate loses control until the current returns to 0.

The SCR is constructed of four layers of doped silicon. The layers are pnpn.
This arrangement of semiconducting material is known as a Shockley diode. The
outer two layers are the p and n material of a standard diode. The outer n
material is the cathode. The center np material is the SCR gate. The forward-
conducting direction of the diode is to the outer n layer. When the gate is made
positive with respect to the cathode, the SCR will conduct in the forward
direction. If the gate is at the cathode potential, the SCR will not conduct. The
symbol and the construction of an SCR are shown in Figure 4.14.

Figure 4.14 The symbol and structure of an 5CR

The Triac

A triac consists of two SCRs in parallel. The first SCR controls the first half-
power cycle and the second SCR controls the second half-power cycle. The gate
voltage must be positive with respect to the corresponding cathode to turn the
triac on in that halfcycle. The symbol and construction of a triac are shown in
Figure 4.15. The word "triac" is a coined word implying three states. These three
states are o/fand the two directions of on.

Triacs can be controlled by a phototransistor connected between the gate and

one of the triac terminals. When the LED emits light, the triac turns on. The
response time of the triac is in the order of microseconds.

Triacs are used in most household light dimmers. An RC delay circuit is used
to turn the triac on during each halfcycle. Changing the resistor value controls
the point in the cycle when the triac conducts. A simple version of this approach
is shown in Figure 4.16.

When the voltage between the gate and terminal 1 exceeds a threshold
voltage, the triac conducts. When the adjustable resistor (poten tiometer) is set to
0 0, the triac conducts for the entire cycle. As the resistance increases, the
capacitor delays voltage on the gate and the triac conducts later in each
halfcycle. The resistor and capacitor values must be set so that at maximum
resistance the triac never turns on. Note that during the time the triac is
conducting, the line voltage appears across the lamp and the capacitor is
discharged. There are many versions to this circuit, including a time delay using
two resistors and capacitors, bias voltages applied to the gate, and resistors or
zeners in series with the gate. These circuits are used to accommodate different
triac characteristics.
Figure 4.15 The symbol for a triac and its construction
 Figure 4.16 A light dimmer circuit using a triac

When a triac is turned on in midcycle, a step voltage is applied to the load.

This type of signal can cause interference in nearby electronic devices. For this
reason, line filters are often a part of a light dimmer design. The filter is often a
small series inductor and a shunt capacitor that slows the rise in load current.

Transistors as Switches

We have discussed the transistor as a component that can provide gain. When
the transistor is used at the extremes of its operation, it can serve as a switch.
When there is an excess of base current, the collector cur rent increases until
there is a small collector voltage. When the base current is 0, the collector
current is 0 and the collector voltage is at a maximum. This is the same as using
a mechanical switch. When the switch is open there is no voltage across the
resistor, and when the switch is closed the power supply voltage appears across
the resistor.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 31

Building a Switch Using a Transistor

You will need (in addition to a power supply and measuring

equipment) :

1 2N3904 transistor

1 1N4148 and 1 LED diode

1 1-kS2 and 1 10-kS2 resistor

Build the circuit shown in Figure 4.17 on your board, using your own layout.
Connect a square wave generator set to 3 Hz to the control resistor. If the square
wave is symmetric about 0 V, then clamp the input base so that it cannot go
negative. The arrow of the diode goes to common. The LED will turn on three
times per second.

A switch contact might easily handle several hundred milliamperes. In our

example this current level in a transistor might be damaging. An open switch
contact can easily handle 100 V. In a transistor this might exceed the collector
breakdown rating. In these two ways the mechanical switch is superior in
performance. But the transistor is faster and less expensive, and it also has a
longer life. A transistor switch can operate in a microsecond, while a relay
contact might take 5 ms. This is 5,000 times slower. The transistor is small, the
amount of operating power required is very low, and there are many switching
tasks that are within its rating. It is this switching ability that makes computers
possible. This will be discussed in chapter 6.

An example of a transistor switch is shown in Figure 4.17. The LED is turned

on when the input voltage is positive. The LED can be made to toggle on and off
by using a square wave voltage generator set to a frequency of 2 or 3 Hz. This is
a simple circuit that you can build and operate.

Figure 4.17 An LED that is toggled on and off using a

transistor switch

The Switching Power Supply

Transistor switches can be used to change a dc voltage into an ac voltage. The ac

voltage can be associated with a step-up or step-down transformer. If the
transformer has several secondary coils, then several new ac voltages can be
obtained. These secondary voltages can be rectified and used to supply dc power
to separate circuits. The circuit in Figure 4.18 uses two transistor switches and
one secondary voltage. Later we will discuss how the signals are generated that
drive the transistor switches.

When transistor Q1 is turned on, transformer terminal 1 is effectively

connected to the power supply common lead, or 0 V. The centertap 2 of the
transformer primary is connected to the positive supply. This places the power
supply voltage across one half of the primary coil. The B field in the core
material of the transformer starts to increase. In one halfcycle transistor Q1 is
turned off and transistor Q2 is made conductive. This results in placing the
power supply voltage between the centertap 3 and terminal 2 of the transformer.
The B field in the core now reverses direction. At the end of the cycle transistor
Q2 is turned off and transistor Q1 is again turned on. This constant toggling of
the two switches produces a square wave voltage across the transformer primary
coil.

When the voltage on terminal 1 of the transformer is at 0 V, terminal 2 is at

twice the power supply voltage. Current does not flow in this half of the primary
because transistor Q2 is turned off. On the next halfcycle the same thing happens
to transistor Q1. Terminal 2 is at double the power supply voltage when terminal
2 is at 0 V. The transistor must be rated to withstand double the power supply
voltage.

The square wave voltage on the secondary coil of the transformer can be
rectified to form a new dc power supply. If the ratio of secondary turns to
primary turns is 2:1, the new voltage will be double the original power supply
voltage.

This circuit is at the heart of many switching power supplies used in today's
electronics. The switching frequency can be 50 kHz, making the transformer a
small component. At this frequency the power supply filter capacitors can also
be fairly small.

There are several additional points regarding the circuit in Figure 4.18. On the
first cycle the core material starts out with the induction flux B = 0. The means
that the core material may saturate on the first cycle. Within a few cycles the B
field centers itself so that the field moves symmetrically between two limits. The
transformer must be designed so that the core material, the number of turns, and
the applied voltage result in a B field that never saturates the core material.
Typically, at 50 kHz the primary coil has somewhere between 10 and 20 turns.
With this small number of turns, in some cases it is possible to wind your own
transformers.

Figure 4.18 Two transistor switches used to convert dc to ac and back to dc in a

second circuit

The transistors will self-destruct if they are both turned on at the same time.
The transistors will overheat even if this time period is as short as 1 its. One
technique that is used is to slow down FET transistors by using a resistor in
series with gates. This makes use of the FET transistor gate capacitance to form
a low-pass filter.

When a transistor interrupts current flow to a transformer, there can be a

significant voltage overshoot. This excess of voltage can often be limited by
placing a damping RC circuit across the transformer. This excess voltage must
be considered in selecting the transistor voltage rating.

Digital Switching

The electronics we have been studying, and will continue to study throughout
this book, is known as "analog" electronics. Electronics also has a quite different
branch, called "digital" electronics, which is not part of this book. However,
analog and digital electronics are not completely separate in actuality. Every
digital device uses analog electrical signals, and there are countless areas where
the two branches of electronics must work together. It is often necessary to
convert analog signals to a digital format, and vice versa. For this reason, I have
included this brief section on digital switching, even though it is not our main
topic. Transistors used as switches often provide an interface to digital devices.
There are special IC components, made up of large numbers of transistors, that
perform these tasks. We will look at them in chapter 6.

"Analog" is defined (in the IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and

Electronics Ternis) as "describing a continuously variable physical quantity,
such as voltage ... that normally varies in a continuous manner." "Digital," by
contrast, proceeds through logic, in which change is considered as occurring in a
stepwise way, rather than in a continuously variable curve. The difference will
be clear if you think of two kinds of clocks, one with hands moving around a
face, and one with numbers. The clock with hands moving continuously is an
analog time-measuring device. Time moves continuously, and so does an analog
clock. The clock with numbers is a digital clock. This clock tells you the time is
2:46, until the moment when it suddenly tells you it is 2:47. There is nothing in
between; it's one time or the other. This is logic. Is it 2:46? One logic state,
called logic 1, says yes. The other logic state, logic 0, says no. If it is not 2:46,
then it is some other time completely.

In digital circuits, the signal is either on (logic 1) or off (logic 0.) There is no
current or voltage representing any intermediate state. There is no resistance,
capacitance, or inductance, or any of the analog concepts we have been studying
so far. However, any digital device still needs analog power to make it run. The
power supply running that digital clock is still basically the same kind of power
supply you have already studied-an analog device.

Electronic designers must provide many interfaces between analog and digital
signals. Digital designers tend to focus exclusively on their digital world, and
leave the problem of interface to analog designers. So, while we are studying
transistors as switches, it makes sense to take a look at the way transistors used
as switches can be used in these interface situations.

Digital signals are usually power supply voltages. A logic 1 might be the
positive 5 V and a logic 0, 0 V. The exact voltage is not important; a voltage of
+4.5 V would still be considered a logic 1 and a voltage of +0.5 V a logic zero.
A logic signal can be developed by turning a transistor on or off. As an example,
assume a transistor clamps a logic conductor + 5 V for a logic 1. When the
clamp is turned off, a resistor connects the conductor to 0 V, or logic 0. This is
known as a pulldown resistor.

The opposite is also possible. A transistor clamps a logic conductor to 0 V.

When the transistor is turned off, a resistor connects the logic to +5 V. This is
known as a pull-up resistor. The clamping action is what generates a logic
signal. If the conductor is not clamped in the first circuit, it can be clamped by a
second circuit. This allows the same logic conductor to receive logic rather than
send logic. A control line can be used to define the direction of transmission.
Obviously, a logic conductor cannot be clamped to two different voltages at the
same time. The rules at the interface must be understood before any connection
is attempted.

Within a logic circuit, a conductor carrying a logic signal may be connected

to several devices. Each connection may require current flow, depending on the
logic state. This is called fan-out. When a logic circuit must draw current from a
second device, the logic must be able to "sink" (accept current flow) current.
This is an important consideration when transistors are used as switches to
interface a logic circuit. Since there are many different logic families, there are
many interface problems.

Digital logic is usually controlled by a clock signal. Devices change state

when the clock voltage rises or falls. Clock voltages must rise and fall within a
given time period, or logical malfunctions can occur. For example, a clock
voltage that rises in 1 gs may be too slow to operate some types of logic. If for
any reason you must supply a clock signal to a logic circuit, the rise and fall time
specification is an important consideration.

SELF-TEST

1. A constant current source provides 5 V into 1,000 S2 and 9.992 V into 2,000
Q. What is the source impedance?

2. A constant voltage source provides 5 V into 1,000 S2 and 4.992 V into 500 Q.
What is the source impedance?

3. A 50-kHz square wave voltage at 10 V peak is half-wave rectified. How large

must the filter capacitor be if the voltage can sag 0.1 V in a halfcycle for a
200-mA load?

4. A differential stage has a voltage gain of 40 from each emitter to each

collector. The collector voltages for equal input signals are 9 V. The emitter
to base voltage is always 0.6 V. Assume the positive input is 2.5 V and the
negative input is 2.45 V. What is the emitter voltage without signal? What is
the emitter voltage with signal?

5. What are the two collector voltages in problem 4?

6. In problem 4, reverse the input signals. What are the two collector voltages?

7. Solve problem 5 assuming the positive input terminal is 2.55 V and the
negative input terminal is 2.50 V.
8. In problem 4, change the constant current source so that the collectors are 8 V.
What changes? What are the collector voltages when the signal voltages are
applied?

9. A constant current source supplies a current of 1 mA to a capacitor of 0.1 µF.

How long does it take for the voltage to change from 3 to 5 V?

10. A constant current source provides a sinusoidal current of 1 mA at 10 kHz.

What is the voltage across a 1-ku2 resistor? What is the voltage across a 0.01-
µF signal at 20 kHz?

ANSWERS

1. The voltage change is 5 V. The current change is 0.004 mA. The impedance is
1.25 MU.

2. The change in voltage is 0.008 V. The change in current is 5 mA. The

impedance is 1.6 Q.

3. The charge flowing in 10 gs is I x t = 0.2A x 10-Ss = 2 µC. The capacitance

equals q/V= 2 x 10-6/0.1 = 20µF.

4. The emitter voltage without signal is -0.6 V. With 2.5 V on each input, the
emitters are at 1.9 V. With 2.5 V on one base and 2.45 V, on the second base
the input signal to be amplified is 0.05 V. The emitters move half the
distance, to 2.475 - 0.6 = 1.875 V.

5. The difference signal at the input is 0.05 V. The signal change on the first
base is +0.025 V and on the second base, -0.025 V. The first transistor
multiplies this input signal change by -40. This means the first collector
changes from 9 V to 8 V. The second collector changes from 9 V to 10 V.
The collector signals are 1 V. The difference signal between the collectors is
2 V.

6. Reverse the input signal and the output signal then reverses. The two collector
voltages are 10 and 8 V respectively.

7. The answers remain unchanged. The new signal has added commonmode
 content, which is rejected.

8. The new collector voltage implies that the constant current source was
increased. The gains remain unchanged. The collector signals are still 1.0 V.

9. The charge difference is q = CV = 10-' x 2 = 0.2 microcoulombs. I x t = q. t =

qll = 0.2 x 10-6/10-3 = 0.2 ms.

10. The voltage across the resistor is 1 V. The reactance of the capacitor at 20
kHz is 796 Q. A constant current of 1 mA (rms) by Ohm's law implies a
voltage of 7.96 V (rms).
Objectives

In this chapter you will learn:

• about integrated circuit (IC) amplifiers

• the concept of feedback, and how it is used to obtain positive and negative gain

• how a differential amplifier works

• the way active filters are constructed using integrated circuits

In chapter 4 we completed our survey of the basic circuits that make up a

linear integrated circuit (IC) amplifier. These included the input circuit
(generally a differential transistor pair); the output stage (generally a stacked
emitter follower); and cascading pnp and npn transistors, which provide gain.
This configuration of components is useful in a wide range of applications. So
you might think that our next step would be to construct this useful amplifier.
However, we will not be doing this, for the simple reason that IC manufacturers
have designed literally thousands of circuits of this kind. They are small,
inexpensive, and easy to obtain, so there is no need for you to construct one
yourself. We studied the inner workings of the IC amplifier only so that you
would understand what is going on inside them, something even experienced
electronics designers do not always know.

IC manufacturers have designed circuits with variations to satisfy a wide

range of applications. Some of the designs are intended for highfrequency
applications such as video amplifiers used in TVs. Some of them have very low
dc drift, so these can be used for amplifying very small signals-for example, in a
postal scale. Some can operate using very low operating voltages; others can
operate using high-voltage power supplies. ICs are so common and so
inexpensive that designers rarely use a single transistor to obtain gain. You
would have a difficult time improving on the designs that are available.

Most linear integrated circuit amplifiers are general-purpose components.

They are not intended for applications where you connect an input signal to one
terminal pair and expect to get an output on another terminal pair. They need to
be a part of some additional circuitry in order to be useful. The resulting circuit
can satisfy a wide range of applications.

A typical IC has a gain from the input to the output that is often over a million
at dc. An input attenuator of a million to one would not be a good way to use this
huge amount of gain. It must be dealt with by imbedding the IC in a circuit that
regulates the gain. The method used for this purpose is known as feedback.

Manufacturers of IC amplifiers and designers who use them must be aware of

this problem of regulating gain. The manufacturer must design the IC amplifier
in such a way that feedback circuits can be used with it, and the user must
understand how to use feedback. Feedback provides so many benefits that it is
really worth learning how it works and how it is used.

Negative Feedback

We all use feedback systems automatically whenever we have something we

need to regulate or hold steady. For example, when driving a car, we use
feedback to hold the speed steady regardless of wind, grade, or road condition. If
the speed rises, we reduce the pressure on the gas pedal. Going uphill, when the
car slows we add pressure to the gas pedal. This is known as negative_ feedback
control, because the input is in the opposite direction to the way the car's speed is
changing. If the car is slowing, you make it go faster, and vice versa.

The basic requirements for a feedback control system are an objective, a

means to control the objective, and a way to measure the departure from the
objective. With speed control, your objective might be to drive the car at a
steady 55 mph. The means of control is the gas pedal, which controls the engine.
The departure from the desired speed is measured by the speedometer. In an
electronic feedback circuit these same three requirements must be present. The
objective might be to have an output from the circuit of 10 V. The means of
measuring the difference between the desired and the actual voltage (the error
voltage) is the amplifier, and the means of controlling the voltage is the gain of
the amplifier, which you use to increase or decrease the voltage as needed. If
there is enough signal gain, the error voltage can be kept very small.

The Language of Feedback

A feedback circuit is a way to use amplifier gain to meet a desired objective.

There is one more feature to a feedback circuit that is not part of ordinary
feedback systems such as our example of the car. It is this: A feedback circuit
provides a way to subtract or compare a fraction of the output signal with the
input signal. Analyzing the difference between a fraction of the output and the
input allows the feedback circuit to control gain by using resistors. The
difference signal is amplified by the gain of the amplifier to provide the desired
output signal. This technique enables you to use the high gain from the amplifier
to achieve accurate control of signal gain, as you will see from the following
discussion.

To be effective, feedback circuits should have a great deal of excess signal

gain. This gain is called forward gain. Another expression that is commonly used
is openloop gain. This is the signal gain if the feedback is removed. The gain
with the feedback present is called the closedloop gain. The openloop gain that is
a factor greater than the closedloop gain is called the feedback factor. As an
example, if the openloop gain is 1,000,000 and the closed loop gain is 100, the
feedback factor is 10,000.

The IC Package

Before we can proceed with our study of IC amplifiers, you need to become
fainiliar with the notation used in schematics for circuits that include them. The
symbol for a linear integrated circuit amplifier is a triangle, as shown in Figure
5.1.
 The two input terminals are labeled + and -. The power supply voltage
connections are usually not shown on this symbol. The output terminal is usually
taken from the right at the tip of the triangle. The internal components that make
up the IC are connected between the plus and minus power supply voltages. The
common power supply conductor is not connected to the IC amplifier. This
conductor is used in the external feedback circuit that supports the IC amplifier.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 32

Mounting an IC Amplifier DIP Socket

You will need (in addition to your circuit board):

1 8-pin DIP plastic socket for an IC

There are many package configurations for an IC amplifier.

The package we will use in our lessons is called a plastic DIP
with 8 leads. The acronym DIP stands for dual in-line
package. This IC component has two complete independent
IC amplifiers. It is normally inserted or mounted into plated
through holes in a circuit board and soldered. For this
Learning Circuit, simply plug the component into a standard
DIP socket. See the diagram for mounting the DIP on Figure
5.3. This allows you to solder to the leads of the socket, so
you can replace the IC amplifier without rewiring or soldering
to the actual terminals of the IC. Also, with a socket you are
less apt to overheat the IC. Use the regulated 15-V power
supply voltages. Check to see that the correct voltages appear
on the pins of the socket. Do not plug in the IC amplifier at
this point.
Figure 5.1 The symbol for an integrated circuit amplifier, and the packaging of a
dual amplifier

The Gain 1 Integrated Circuit Amplifier

The IC amplifier consists of a differential input stage, some intermediate gain,
and an output stage. The input terminals are marked + and -. The power supply
connections to the IC amplifier are plus and minus. For our example these
voltages are set to ± 15 V dc. We start with the simplest possible circuit, shown
in Figures 5.2 and 5.3.

Assume that the IC amplifier has an openloop gain of 1,000,000 at dc. In this
application the negative input terminal is connected to the output terminal. Next
we connect the positive input terminal to the power supply common through a
resistor of 10 M. We do this because the input terminals to any amplifier must
not be left open and undefined. This circuit arrangement is a positive "gain 1"
amplifier. The gain of 1 is measured from the positive input terminal to the
output terminal. If the positive input signal is set to +2 V, the negative input
terminal and the output terminal must rise to 2 V less 2 .tV. The circuit is in
balance because the 2 tV of difference signal is the right signal to be multiplied
by 1,000,000 for an output of 2 V. To be accurate, the gain is actually 0.999999.
If the input is set to -2 V, the output terminal will adjust to -2.0 V plus 2 µV, or
-1.999998 V
Figure 5.2 A gain 1 feedback amplifier
 Figure 5.3 The construction of the circuit in Figure 5.2

The circuit in Figure 5.2 has 100% negative feedback. The positive input
terminal to the IC is the input terminal to our circuit. This configuration is called
potentiometric feedback. To see how this circuit operates dynamically, place a
+2-V signal on the positive input terminal. The output starts to rise. As the
output nears 2 V, the negative input nears the value of the output. Remember,
this amplifier reacts only to differences. If the output were exactly 2 V, the input
signal difference would be 0. This implies that the output is also 0. In fact, the
output can only rise to a final value of 1.999998 V. Obviously, this is very close
to the right answer.

The output voltage of this gain 1 amplifier will follow the input voltage as
long as the voltage is within the performance specifications of the amplifier. If
the voltage is a square wave or sine wave, the output will follow. The circuit acts
like a very accurate emitter follower. The output of this IC amplifier will supply
up to ± 10 mA and ± 10 V.

The input impedance to this circuit is very high. When the input base changes
1 V in potential, the emitter also changes 1 V to within a microvolt. The input
signal current hardly changes when the input voltage changes. This is a high-
input impedance circuit by our definition. There must be base current, but this
does not count as signal current.

In the circuit diagram there is a series output resistor of 10 Q. This resistor is

protection against instability. More will be said about this resistor later. An input
resistor connects the input terminal to the common. This resistor is provided so
that when you are not using the circuit there will be a dc path for base current in
the input differential pair. Without this path the IC amplifier cannot function.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 33

Constructing and Testing a Gain 1 IC Amplifier

You will need (in addition to your circuit board with mounted socket
and your measuring equipment):

1 10-Q and 1 10-kQ resistor

1 LF353 IC amplifier

1. Add the circuit shown in Figures 5.2 and 5.3 to your circuit board.

2. Plug the IC amplifier into the socket.

3. Turn on the power. Note the output voltage of the IC amplifier with
your oscilloscope. The output voltage should be very close to 0 V.

4. Connect a function generator between the positive input terminal and

the common. Always make sure the common of the function
generator connects to the common of the power supply.

5. Set the input voltage to 2 V at 1 kHz. Use your oscilloscope to verify

that this same voltage appears on the output of the IC.

6. Increase the signal level to 20 V peak-to-peak. Verify that the output

voltage is the same.

7. Place a 1,000-52 resistor between the output terminal and the

common. The signal voltage should remain unchanged. If you can
measure the output impedance, you will probably measure 10 Q.
This is the resistor we added in series with the output terminal.

This circuit has a gain of 1, a high input impedance, and a low output
impedance. These are the characteristics of a stacked emitter follower. This
circuit is better than a stacked emitter follower; it is less expensive, smaller, and
more accurate. This assumes that the output current and voltage are adequate.

Positive Gains Greater than 1

The circuit in Figure 5.2 can be modified to have any gain from 1 to about 100.
Higher gains are possible depending on the type of IC amplifier being used. For
the moment, a gain of 10 will demonstrate how the feedback circuit works.

In the circuit of Figure 5.4, an output voltage divider attenuates the output
signal by a factor of 10. This voltage attenuator is called a feedback divider.
Figure 5.4 A positive gain 10 circuit using an
IC amplifier
 Figure 5.5 The construction of the circuit in Figure 5.4

When the circuit processes a signal, the output signal voltage must adjust
until the two base voltages are equal. If one-tenth of the output is fed back to the
negative input base, the output voltage must increase by a factor of 10 to cause
equal signals to appear on the two bases. If the attenuation factor is 20:1, the
gain will be 20. The rule to calculate this is as follows: Place an input signal on
the input base. Calculate the output level that is required so that this same
voltage will appear on the second or feedback base. The gain will be the
reciprocal of the output attenuation.

The higher the gain, the larger the gain error. As an example, if the gain is 1,
and the input signal is 1 V, the error signal is 1 µV. The ratio of input signal to
error signal is 1,000,000:1. Assume the output signal is still 1 V. If the gain is
20, the input signal is /,, the previous value, or 0.05 V. The difference signal on
the differential stage must still be 1 .tV. Remember, the open-circuit gain is still
1,000,000. The ratio of input signal to error signal is now 50,000:1. This means
that the signal gain error is one part in 50,000. This is still a small error, and it
can be neglected. As you can see, excess gain (feedback factor) provides
accuracy. By requiring a gain of 20, the excess gain has been reduced by a factor
of 20 and the circuit is not as accurate. In a practical sense, the accuracy is
limited by the resistor values and not by the feedback factor. This type of
feedback circuit cannot have a gain of less than +1. Of course, an input
attenuator can always be added to limit the gain, but this solution has drawbacks,
as the input impedance must be reduced to form a practical voltage divider.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 34

Using Feedback and an IC Amplifier to Provide Positive

Gain

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and measuring
equipment):

1 LF353 IC amplifier

1 10-52, 1 1-k1 , 1 9-kS (make from two 18-ku resistors in parallel),

and 2 10-ku2 resistors

Add the output attenuator in Figure 5.4 to the circuit you built in
Learning Circuit 33. Show that the gain is now +10. If your signal
generator does not have an output level adjust, it may be necessary to
reduce the generator output by using an attenuator. A series 10,000-a
and a 100-Q resistor can serve as a voltage divider to attenuate the
generator signal for our lessons. The reduced input signal is taken
across the 100-52 resistor.

The gain of the circuit in Figures 5.4 and 5.5 can be changed to
about 20 by paralleling the 1,000-52 resistor with a second 1,000-a
resistor. Observe this gain change using your oscilloscope. Be sure the
output signal at a gain of 20 is kept less than 10 V peak. You may have
to reduce the level of the input signal.

Feedback and a Negative Gain

Gain is the ratio of change between an output signal and an input signal.
Negative gain means that the output change is in the opposite direction. For
example, if the output changes 2 V for a 1-mV input change, the gain is +2,000.
If the output changes -2 V for an input change of 1 mV, the gain is -2,000.

To obtain negative gain using feedback, the positive input terminal is

connected to the common. A feedback resistor is placed from the output terminal
1 to the negative input terminal 2. A second input resistor is connected from the
negative input terminal 2 to the input of the circuit. This circuit is shown in
Figures 5.6 and 5.7. The negative gain amplifier responds when a voltage is
placed between the input and the common. As we saw in the last section the
largest signal difference that is permitted in the differential input stage is 10 µV.
Since the positive input terminal is at 0 V, the negative input terminal can only
move ± 10 .tV. When gain is calculated, it is safe to assume that this point does
not move. For this reason, this point is called a virtual ground. It is also called
the summing point. This type of gain control is called operational feedback. The
feedback resistor is R2 and the input resistor (which is also a feedback resistor)
is R,. When a signal voltage is placed on R1, current flows to the negative input
terminal of the amplifier. Since this point cannot move more than 10 µV, the
input current is known. The input current is:
Figure 5.6 A negative gain feedback amplifier
 Figure 5.7 The construction of the circuit in Figure 5.6

Where does this current go? There is no path into the base of the input transistor,
so it must flow in resistor R2. In fact, the output of the amplifier will adjust so
that the input voltage is essentially 0. The output voltage is equal to the input
current times the feedback resistor with a minus sign. This means that:
 But I equals VIN/RI. Therefore:

The voltage gain of the amplifier with feedback is the negative ratio of
resistors, or -R2/R,. If RI = 10 kSZ and R2 = 100 kS2, the gain will be -10.

The voltage at the negative input terminal of the IC is the error signal. The
negative input terminal to the IC is the summing point. If the gain is 1,000,000,
this signal is always less than 10.tV. If the gain is 1, the largest input signal is 10
V. The error signal at the summing point is 10 gV. If the gain is 100, the largest
input signal is 0.1 V and the error signal is still 10 µV. For this smaller signal,
this error is one part in 10,000. Just like the circuit using potentiometric
feedback, the percentage error depends on the excess gain or feedback factor.
For all practical purposes, the summing point does not move. This is why it is
called a virtual ground. Later we will see why the error voltage increases at
higher frequencies. You may try to look at the summing point with your
ocilloscope, but you will be disappointed. You will add noise to the circuit, and
the signal will be too small to observe.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 35

Constructing and Testing a Negative Gain IC Voltage Amplifier

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and measuring
equipment) :

1 LF353 IC amplifier

1 10-a, 1 10-ku, and 1 100-ku resistor

1 1.5-V battery

1. Modify the circuit board using the feedback circuit shown in Figures
 5.6 and 5.7. Set R2 = 100 kS and RI = 10 kQ. Connect a sine wave
signal at 0.5 V 1 kHz between the input terminal and the signal
common. Adjust this signal level until the output signal of the
amplifier is 5 V. Now change the signal to a square wave and note
the same gain. Use a load resistor of 1 W.

2. Set R2 = 10 M. Place a 1.5-V dry-cell battery in series with the

signal generator lead. Note that the output signal is offset by -1.5 V.
Reverse the polarity of the battery and note the new offset.

In potentiometric feedback, the excess gain kept the two input bases at the
same signal potential. In the operational feedback circuit, the same thing is true
except that one of the bases is connected to 0 V. The excess gain requires that
the negative input terminal stay near 0 V.

Operational feedback circuits can have a negative gain of less than 1. If R2 =

10 kS2 and R, is 100 kS2, the gain will be -0.1.

The input impedance of an operational feedback amplifier is the value of the

input feedback resistor R1. It is desirable in most designs to use an input resistor
that is greater than 10 W. At a gain of 100, the feedback resistor would have to
be 1 M. It is good practice to avoid using feedback resistors that are greater than
1 MS2, because the circuits become noisy. Using a voltage divider in the
feedback path can solve this problem. This circuit is shown in Figure 5.8.
 Figure 5.8 Operational feedback using a voltage divider

The values of the various feedback resistors can be determined as follows:

Suppose the gain is to be -100. Select an arbitrary input voltage such as 0.1 V
The output voltage VouT equals -10V The input current is IIN = 0.1 RI. The
current in R2 must equal the input current. This defines the voltage V2.
Arbitrarily pick a value of R3. The current in R3 is 13 = V2R3. The output of the
amplifier must supply both the feedback current and the current into R3. The
voltage across R4 is (VOUT - V2). The current in R4 is (IIN + 13). The resistor
R4 must equal ( VOUT - V2) / (IIN + 13)

To work an example, let R, and R2 be 10 W. Assume an input voltage of 0.1

V. The input current is 0.1/10,000 = 0.01 mA. The voltage V2 = -0.1 V. Select
R3 = 100 Q. The current in R3 is 1 mA. The voltage across R4 is (10 V - 0.1 V)
= 9.9 V. The feedback current plus the current in R3 is 1.01 mA. Using Ohm's
law, R4 = 9.9/0.00101 = 9,802 Q. The circuit gain is 100 and the largest resistor
is 10 M.
 Two integrated circuits can provide a positive gain less than unity (a gain less
than 1). The first amplifier attenuates the signal and changes polarity. The
second IC is a unity gain of -1. The combination provides a positive gain less
than unity.

Using Feedback to Correct for Errors in the Signal Path

Feedback circuits are self-adjusting. The signal voltages in the circuit adjust until
there is a balance at the error point or summing point. As an example, suppose a
load resistor demands more output current. This greater current must flow in the
internal resistance of the output circuit. This requires a larger drive signal. In a
feedback circuit, the error signal increases by a small amount and supplies this
extra signal. The result is that the output voltage does not appear to change. A
signal source that does not change when there is a change in output current has a
low output impedance. For most IC amplifier circuits, the output impedance is in
the milliohm range. This is a very low value that is often hard to measure.

The stacked emitter follower circuit in Learning Circuit 25 had a problem:

The diodes that determined the base voltages set the static cur rent level in the
two transistors. If the base voltage to emitter voltage is too low, the transistors
will not conduct. In this case, the input signal has to be large enough to turn the
transistor on before there can be an output signal. The resulting output signal for
a sine wave input is shown in Figure 5.9.

This problem is avoided by placing the stacked emitter follower inside a

feedback circuit. This circuit is shown in Figure 5.10.

The output signal will be a clean sine wave. The signal internal to the
feedback structure can be nonlinear. The signal driving the emitter followers will
exactly compensate for the diode problem. The output of the IC amplifier will
have a steep waveform around the zero crossings that exactly corrects for the
inability of the output stage to conduct current.

This circuit has the advantage of limiting power dissipation. When there is no
signal, there is no current in the stacked emitter portion of the circuit. When
there is a signal, the circuit will deliver this signal to the load without significant
distortion.
Figure 5.9 The distorted voltage waveform for a stacked
emitter follower
 Figure 5.10 A feedback circuit using the stacked emitter
followers as an output circuit

Feedback Correction of Internal Distortion

The way feedback corrects for internal distortion can be shown by modifying the
circuit shown in Figure 5.2. Normally the feedback is taken from the output
terminal of the IC amplifier. As an experiment, we are going to intentionally
distort the gain by placing back-to-back parallel signal diodes in series ahead of
the load resistor. This circuit is shown in Figures 5.11 and 5.12. A distorted sine
wave with a horizontal flat segment around each zero crossing occurs at terminal
B. If the feedback is taken from the load resistor with the diodes in place, the
distortion is removed. The diodes are now inside the feedback loop.
 Figure 5.11 The signal patterns in a feedback circuit with added diodes

LEARNING CIRCUIT 36

Using Feedback to Correct for Signal Distortion

Your will need (in addition to your circuit board and measuring equipment) :

1 LF353 IC amplifier

2 1N4148 signal diodes

(Continued)

1. Build the circuit shown in Figures 5.11 and 5.12.

2. Connect the feedback to point A.

3. Set the signal to 2 V peak at 1 kHz. Observe the signal at the output of the
amplifier ahead of the diodes and after the diodes.

4. Reconnect the feedback to point B, the output load resistor.

5. Observe the signal at points A and B. The signal at A will have a very steep
transition around the zero crossings. This is the error signal multiplied by the
gain of the amplifier.
 Figure 5.12 The construction of the circuit in Figure 5.11

Feedback and Stability

Negative feedback requires the subtraction of signals at the input. In a feedback

circuit, the signals of interest must pass through gain stages (forward gain) and
then return to the input. There is an issue that we have been ignoring up to this
point: the phase shift and time delay inherent in all circuits.

When we studied passive circuits, we used a pointer system to show the effect
capacitance had in delaying a sine wave. We also saw that sine waves that are
shifted in phase do not add and subtract directly. All circuits have small
capacitances that limit their amplitude response as a function of frequency. This
means that phase shift and delay are a part of every circuit design. A feedback
signal cannot subtract from an input signal unless the two signals are in phase.
Even a few degrees of phase shift creates a problem.

The openloop gain (gain without feedback) of an IC amplifier is very

carefully controlled. The phase shift for openloop gains greater than unity is
limited to 90°. If the closedloop phase shift ever reaches 180° and there is still
gain, the circuit with feedback can oscillate in some configurations. As you will
recall, phase shift is proportional to attenuation factor. If the amplitude decreases
proportional to frequency, the phase shift is 90°. If an amplifier has an open loop
gain of 1,000,000, it takes six decades of frequency for the gain to reach 1.

To control and limit the phase shift, the openloop gain of the amplifier must
begin to lose gain at a very low frequency. As an example, suppose the gain is
1,000,000 as it starts down at 10 Hz. The gain will be 100,000 at 100 Hz and
10,000 at 1 kHz. To maintain this same slope, the gain reaches unity at 10 MHz.
This does not mean that the amplifier can handle 10-MHz sine waves. It only
means that the openloop phase character is controlled to this frequency. An
amplifier with this controlled phase shift is called an internally compensated
amplifier. Fortunately for the user, this difficult problem has been solved by the
IC designer.

In the previous example, if the feedback resistors are set to provide a

closedloop gain of 100, the amplifier has no excess gain above a frequency of
100 kHz. At 10 kHz, the excess gain is 10, and at 1 kHz, the excess gain is
approximately 100. At 1 kHz the error signal must be equal to the output signal
divided by 100.

The bandwidth (the highest response frequency) of an IC amplifier depends

on the closedloop gain. Gain is obtained at the expense of bandwidth. This is one
reason why an individual IC amplifier should not be used to supply all the gain.
If more gain is required, then two IC amplifiers can be cascaded (placed in
series).

The openloop phase shift of a compensated amplifier is limited to 90°.

(Designers use a few tricks to increase this phase shift over a limited part of the
spectrum.) A phase shift of 180° in a negative gain amplifier results in an output
signal that is in phase with the input signal. When this signal is fed back, it is
called positive feedback.

To understand positive feedback, imagine that if your car was going faster
than you wanted, you responded by increasing rather than decreasing its speed.
The car would then go faster and faster until it broke down or ran out of gas. If
the car was going slower than you wanted, positive feedback would be required
to further decrease the speed until the car stopped. In electronic circuits, positive
feedback generally results in an oscillation. The circuit goes in one direction
until it can't go any farther, and there is a sharp change to the opposite direction-
this is the oscillation. In circuits with too much phase shift, there may be no
oscillation, but the circuit might border on instability. An unstable response is
shown in Figure 5.13.

If you add a capacitive load to the output of an IC amplifier (e.g., as a

shielded output cable such as an oscilloscope probe), it can disturb the internal
compensation. This capacitance adds phase shift to the openloop response, and
the total phase shift can exceed 180°. The problem is more apt to appear when
the closedloop gain is unity. This chance of instability is the reason for the 10-0
resistor added to the output of the feedback circuits. This resistor provides an
additional margin of safety.

The phase shift in a closedloop feedback system is 90° divided by the

feedback factor. At the -3-dB frequency there is no more feedback (no excess
gain), and the phase shift approaches 90°. Above this frequency there is no
excess gain and the phase shift can continue to increase. As an example, at a
lower frequency where there is a feedback factor of 100, a phase shift of 90°
would be reduced to 0.9°.

Instability problems are most apt to occur when the bandwidth and the
feedback factors are high. If there is an instability, the oscillation can be low-
amplitude at a frequency above 10 MHz, which might go unnoticed. It is always
a good idea to test a circuit for stability using a square wave voltage. The circuit
should be able to accept a capacitance load and not show signs of oscillation. To
check for stability, it is a good idea to try several values of capacitance loading
from 100 pF to 0.01 .tE When a circuit is close to being unstable, there is
"ringing" (the oscillation shown in Figure 5.13) on the leading edge of the output
square wave. Designs with ringing are undesirable. A change in temperature or a
change in load could take the circuit over the edge.

Figure 5.13 A response to a square wave voltage

indicating a very unstable condition

Testing for instability should involve full-scale signals as well as small

signals. Large signals can sometimes operate the circuit where the openloop gain
is lower. This reduces the feedback factor and gives the appearance of stability.
Small testing signals are more apt to show any instability. A better test is to
superpose a small square wave signal on a large sine wave signal. This provides
the most visibility for problems. The large signal requires the full range of output
operating points, and the small signal indicates any sign of instability over the
operating range.

Single Supply Operation

In the circuits we have discussed so far, the power supplies have been
symmetrical about a midpoint. This midpoint has been associated with the input
circuit common and with the feedback design. Remember, this midpoint is not
connected to the IC amplifier. In effect, the amplifier operates from a single
potential difference.

The voltages on the input terminals of an IC amplifier must be in the range of

the power supply. Further, the input voltages must not approach the power
supply voltages or the input stage cannot function. The manufacturer of the IC
amplifier is careful to specify these voltage limits.

One way to solve this problem is to use a voltage divider on the positive input
to the IC amplifier. Feedback forces the negative input to be near this same
potential. The voltage divider establishes a common or zero for the circuit.

If one side of the power supply is grounded, the voltage divider can still be
used. The potential at the positive input is the reference potential for the
amplifier. In effect, the input and output signals are referenced to this potential.
If the signals originate referenced to the power supply common, then a coupling
capacitor can be used to block any offset. A typical circuit is shown in 5.14.
 Figure5.14 An amplifier circuit using a single supply voltage

The Differential Amplifier

Noise and interference problems are often encountered in interconnecting signals

from different devices. The problem often appears as a difference in potential
between signal commons. Often the interconnecting signal cable will provide a
path for unwanted current flow. If this current flow adds to the signal, the
resulting interference can be objectionable.

A differential amplifier can limit this current flow and at the same time reject
the difference in potential between reference conductors. This circuit is shown in
Figures 5.15 and 5.16.

Figure 5.15 A differential amplifier

 Figure 5.16 The construction of the circuit in Figure 5.15

This circuit has four feedback resistors. The resistor values are selected so
that R,/R2 = R3/R4. In the circuit analysis we will use, all the signal voltages are
referenced to the power supply common. The gain to B is R2/R,. This requires
the signal A to be 0 V. The gain to A is -R2/R,. If A = B, then the two signals
cancel and the output signal is 0. There is only gain to the difference between A
and B. This gain is the ratio of R2/R1. The amplifier responds to the difference
signal and ignores the average signal. This is the meaning of the term differential
amplifier. If the resistors are matched to 1% resistors, the average value will be
rejected to within 1%. The rejection of the average value is called commonmode
rejection.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 37

Building and Applying a Differential Amplifier

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and measuring equipment):

1 LF353 IC amplifier

1 10-52, 4 330-52, 2 1-k1 , and 3 10-ku resistors

1. Build the circuit shown in Figures 5.15 and 5.16. Use R2 = R., = 10 kS2 and
R, = R3 = 1 W.

2. Build a voltage divider across the power supply to obtain several voltages.
The resistors can be 10 kS2 and four 330 Q. The voltage across each 330-52
resistor is about 0.437 V.

3. Connect the IC amplifier input terminals across any one of the 330-a
resistors. The gain is 10, so the output voltage should be 4.4 V. You should
get the same result regardless of which resistor you select.

4. Reverse the leads and notice that the output voltage reverses polarity. Leave
the input terminals connected to one of the bottom three 330-Q resistors.

5. Place the signal generator with a 1-V sine wave at 100 Hz across the top 330-
Q resistor. Notice that this signal does not appear in the output. This signal is
added to both inputs and is rejected.
 6. Turn off the power supply. The gain of the amplifier is 10.

7. Switch resistors R, and R2.

8. Switch resistors R3 and R.,. The gain should now be 0.1.

9. Turn on the power supply.

10. Place the input leads across one of the power supply diodes. Observe the
signal at the output of the amplifier. This signal is the voltage across the
diode attenuated by a factor of 10, referenced to the common conductor of the
power supply. Do not attempt to measure the diode voltage by placing the
oscilloscope across the diode. The generator and the oscilloscope can both be
safely grounded, and this will short out the transformer secondary winding.
This ability to look at signals anywhere in a circuit is a valuable asset.

This circuit can be used to measure the voltage across any circuit element,
including the diodes in the rectifier circuit. Here the commonmode voltage can
be 50 V peak. To use the amplifier for this application, the gain must be less than
1. If R2/R1 = 0.10, the differential amplifier can accommodate this 50-V signal.

Active Low-Pass Filters

The IC amplifier can be used to provide low-pass or highpass filtering. In

Figure 1.18 we saw the amplitude and phase response of an RC low pass filter.
This type of filtering is often used in attenuating highfrequency interference. In
some applications it is desirable to have more attenuation above the cutoff
frequency.
Figure 5.17 An active second-order low-pass filter
 Figure 5.18 The construction of the circuit in Figure 5.17

The circuit in Figures 5.17 and 5.18 provides an attenuation slope that is
proportional to the square of frequency. Stated another way, the attenuation
slope is 40 dB per decade. At 10 times the frequency, the attenuation factor is
100. This is called a second-order filter.

LEARNING CIRCUIT 38

Building and Testing an Active Second-Order Low-Pass Filter

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and measuring
equipment) :

1 LF353 IC amplifier

2 10-ku resistors

1 0.01-µF and 1 0.02-µF capacitor (you can use two 0.01 µF

capacitors in parallel)

1. Build the circuit shown in Figures 5.17 and 5.18.

2. Set the two resistors equal to 10 kS2 and the capacitors equal to C2 =
0.02 tF and C, = 0.01 µE Check the frequency response using sine
waves. Note the -3-dB point, the frequency where the attenuation
factor is 0.1, and the frequency where the attenuation factor is 0.01.

3. Double the value of C2 and notice that the frequency response has a
significant peak. Also notice that the overshoot for a square wave has
increased.

This filter has the same characteristics as the RLC circuit described in Figure
2.9. This is an example of where an active circuit has the same response as a
passive circuit using an inductor. However, this circuit can be made to operate at
frequencies as low as 1 Hz, which is almost impossible with inductors. Inductors
saturate, and they have their own natural frequency. They are bulky and
expensive. The circuit approach has the further advantage of providing a low
output impedance.
 The circuit can be designed to have different cutoff frequencies and different
amplitude responses near the cutoff frequency. The exact -3-dB frequency
depends on the ratios between capacitors and resistors. A good approach in
design is to set the two resistors equal. When C2/ C, = 2 and R, = R2, the
frequency response is near optimum and the square wave response will have a
7% overshoot. If C2/C1 = 1, the square-wave response will have no overshoot.
The -3-dB point will be approximately

A fourth-order filter can be built by cascading two second-order filters. The

amplitude response will fall off proportional to the fourth power of frequency.
The terminal slope will be 80 dB per decade. The individual second-order
characteristics can be adjusted to provide optimum flat frequency response,
minimum square wave overshoot, or a very sharp knee. These are all topics in
filter design taught to engineers.

Active HighPass Filters

When the capacitors and resistors in Figure 5.17 are reversed, a highpass filter is
formed. The filter is optimum when the capacitors are equal and the resistors
have a ratio of 2:1. The terminal slope for this filter is 40 dB per decade. This
filter is shown in Figures 5.19 and 5.20.

(Continued)

LEARNING CIRCUIT 39

Building and Testing a HighPass Circuit

 Your will need (in addition to your circuit board and
measuring equipment) :

1 LF353 IC amplifier

2 0.01-µF capacitors

1 10-kS and 1 20-ku resistor (you can use two 10-ku

resistors in series)

1. Build the circuit shown in Figures 5.19 and 5.20.

2. Set the capacitors to 0.01 pF and the resistors to R, = 10 kS2 and R2

= 20 W. Measure the frequency response and note the -3-dB point. It
should be very close to the same cutoff frequency in the previous
learning circuit. Note the frequencies where the signal is attenuated
by a factor of 10 and a factor of 100.

3. Test the circuit using a square wave signal. Note the response
waveform. When the input waveform goes positive, the output
follows and immediately returns to 0 overshooting 0. The same thing
happens when the input wave goes negative. These undershoots and
overshoots are characteristic of highpass filters. A highpass filter
cannot pass dc, so the average voltage in the output must be 0.

The cutoff frequency for this filter is given by the equation

Figure 5.19 An active second-order highpass filter
Figure 5.20 The construction of the circuit in Figure 5.19

SELF-TEST

1. An IC amplifier has an openloop gain of 200,000. The closedloop gain is +1.

What is the maximum error signal at dc for 10-V output?
2. In a potentiometric feedback circuit, the output feedback attenuator is 3,000
S2 and 1,000 Q. What is the closedloop gain? What is the gain if the resistors
are reversed?

3. In an IC amplifier, the output is connected to the negative input. What is the

gain from the positive input terminal?

4. An operational feedback circuit has an input resistor of 200 kc2. The feedback
resistor is 560 kS2. What is the gain? Indicate the gain polarity.

5. The input resistor to an operational feedback circuit is 50 kS2. The feedback

resistor is also 50 42. The output feedback attenuator has a bottom resistor of
200 Q. What is the top resistor if the gain is to be -30?

6. An IC amplifier has an openloop gain of 100,000 that starts losing gain at 100
Hz. The closedloop gain is 20. What is the feedback factor at 10 kHz?

7. Estimate the closedloop phase shift in problem 6 at 10 kHz.

8. In problem 6, what is the estimated bandwidth?

9. The bandwidth of an operational amplifier is 50 kHz. Estimate the phase shift

at 5 kHz and at 50 kHz.

10. An output emitter follower circuit has 3% distortion. The feedback factor at
1 kHz is 200. What is the expected distortion in the output waveform?

11. An operational feedback circuit has an input 100-ku resistor. If the maximum
output voltage is 10 V and the gain is 10, what is the maximum input current?

12. A differential circuit uses four equal 20-ku2 resistors. What is the gain to the
difference signal? What is the commonmode gain?

13. A low-pass second-order filter uses 20-kc resistors. What are the capacitor
values if the -3-dB frequency response is to be at 2 kHz?

14. In problem 13, what are the capacitor values if the -3-dB frequency is to be
20 kHz?
15. A highpass second-order filter uses 0.1-µF capacitors. What are the resistor
values if the -3-dB frequency is to be 20 Hz?

ANSWERS

1. 10 V/200,000 = 50 µV.

2. The attenuation is 1,000/4,000 and the gain is 4. For reversed resistors, the
gain is 4/3.

3. 1.0.

4. The gain is -2.8.

5. Assume the input is 0.1 V. The output voltage is 3 V. The voltage at the
junction of the feedback attenuator is -0.3 V. The voltage across the top
resistor is 2.9 V. The current in the 200-i2 resistor is 0.1/200 = 0.5 mA. The
current in the 50-kQ resistor is 0.1/50,000 = 2 I.A. The total current in the top
resistor is 502 µA. By Ohm's law, the resistor is 2.9/0.000502 = 5.776 W.

6. The ratio of 10 kHz to 100 Hz is 100. The openloop gain is only 1,000. If the
closedloop gain is 20, the feedback factor is 50.

7. The phase shift is 90°/50 = 1.8°.

8. The bandwidth is 50 x 10 kHz = 500 kHz.

9. The phase shift at 50 kHz is approximately 90° and at 5 kHz, 9°.

10. 3%/200=0.015%.

11. The maximum input voltage is 1.O V. The input resistance is 100 k12. The
maximum input current is 10 µA.

12. The gain to difference signals is 1. The gain to commonmode signals is 0. It

does depend on accuracy of the resistors.

13. The capacitors are both 0.004 µF.

14. At 20 kHz the nominal capacitor values are 0.0004 µF. To allow the ratio of
capacitors to be 2:1, multiply C2 by \ and C, by 1/V. The result is C, _
0.00283 hF and C2 = 0.00586 µF.

15. The nominal resistor values are 79.6 W. To allow the ratio of resistors to be
2:1, multiply R2 by V and multiply R, by 1/N/-2. The result is R, = 56.25 kit
and R2 = 112.58 W.
Objectives

In this chapter you will learn:

• about voltage and current regulators

• how a comparator circuit functions

• how to generate a sawtooth waveform

• about bistable and astable multivibrator circuits

• the principles of A/D and D/A converters

Integrated circuits are used to perform many tasks besides the one we looked
at in chapter 5, providing voltage gain. They are used in waveform generation,
timing circuits, voltage regulators, signal measurement, oscillators, comparator
circuits, switching, and buffering, to mention just a few applications. Units with
highfrequency performance are used to process signals in radio and television. In
fact, the majority of today's electronic designs make use of integrated circuits. In
many mass-produced products, several circuit functions are even combined into
one IC. In this chapter we will examine several of these applications in more
detail.

Voltage Regulators

Threeterminal IC voltage regulators are the simplest way to obtain a regulated

voltage for a circuit. Components are available that provide standard plus or
minus voltages. Typical voltages are 5 V, 10 V, and 15 V These ICs provide
regulation plus overload and overtemperature protection, and have their own
internal reference zener diodes. They provide excellent performance and are
quite small and inexpensive. The user must provide an electrolytic capacitor
from the output to the common to guarantee dynamic stability. Versions are
available that allow the user to set the regulated voltage by adding two external
resistors. You may wish to buy 15-V threeterminal regulators and use them in
your circuit board, although this is not required.

To learn about voltage regulators, you are going to build one. A typical
positive 5-V regulator circuit is shown in Figure 6.1. This circuit is far more
stable than the emitter follower circuits you built in chapter 4. The output
voltage adjusts so that the signals on the inputs of the IC are equal. The voltage
divider determines the regulated voltage. A negative power supply is
unnecessary because all of the operating voltages of the IC are positive. This
circuit should always have an electrolytic capacitor connected from the regulated
output to the common. A typical value might be 10 tE This is also required for a
threeterminal regulator.

Figure 6.1 A positive voltage regulator using an IC

amplifier
Figure 6.2 The construction of the circuit in Figure 6.1

LEARNING CIRCUIT 40

Building and Testing a Regulated Power Supply

 Building and Testing a Regulated Power Supply

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and measuring equipment):

1 LF353 IC amplifier

1 TIP29A transistor

1 5.1-V zener diode

1 2.2-k12, 1 4.7-ku, 1 470-52, 1 10-W, and 1 100-52 resistor

1 0.01-µF and 1 100-µF capacitor

(Continued)

1. Build the circuit shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2.

2. Measure the ripple on the regulated output when the power

supply is unloaded and then when it is loaded with 100 92.
Note the regulation.

3. Measure the output impedance. Be careful to measure the

output voltage where the feedback resistors make contact
with the output lead.

A Current Source for Signals

Feedback can be used to make an IC amplifier into a current source instead of a

voltage source. An input voltage is used to provide a proportional amount of
current. The output voltage depends on the load resistor. For example, if a
feedback circuit provides 1 mA per volt of input signal, the output is 2 V if the
load resistor is 2 W. This feedback circuit is shown in Figure 6.3.
 Figure 6.3 A current source

The current sensing resistor is R1. The unity gain differential stage measures
the voltage drop across this resistor and feeds this signal back to the negative
input. This is an example in which the feedback path has an active circuit. This
circuit will overload without an output load resistor. If the sensing resistor is
100Q and the input voltage is 1 V, the output current will be 10 mA. If the load
resistor is 500 S2, the output voltage will be -5 V. The output voltage is -6 V if
the load resistor is 600 Q. This circuit provides a current source for ac and dc
signals.
 A constant current source that is often used in industrial measurement is
shown in Figure 6.4. A sensor that measures pressure or flow has an internal
current amplifier. The load resistor for the output of this amplifier is placed at
the end of the signal loop, which might be hundreds of feet away.

The load current must flow in resistor RFB. This is the current sensing
resistor. The feedback circuit requires that the voltage across RFB equal the
input voltage. This means that LOUT = VIN/RFB. The voltage across the load
resistor changes with resistance value. As an example, assume that RFB = 100
Q. If the input voltage is 1 V, the current in the output is 10 mA. A load resistor
of 500 S2 will have 5 V across its terminals. If the load resistor is 400 S2, the
voltage is only 4 V. The voltage drop across the connecting wires is ignored.

Figure 6.4 A constant current loop used in measurement

A differential amplifier that is associated with a second signal reference

common (ground) senses the voltage at the load resistor. The ground differential
in potential between the sensing circuit common and the output reference
common can be several volts. This potential difference is a commonmode
voltage. The differential amplifier we discussed in the last chapter is used to
reject this commonmode signal.
The Integrator

A constant current flowing into a capacitor causes the voltage to increase at a

constant rate. This is analogous to putting money into the bank at one cent per
second, so that the money in the account increases at a steady rate. These are two
examples of integration. The voltage on the capacitor is the integral of current
flow, and the balance in the account is the integral of money flow.

In an operational feedback circuit, the summing point does not move. If the
input voltage is constant, the current to the summing point is also constant. If the
feedback element is a capacitor, this constant current must flow into the
capacitor. The result is a steady increase in voltage across the capacitor. This
voltage is also the output voltage. The output voltage is the integral of the input
voltage. This integrator circuit is shown in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5 A voltage integrator circuit

The output of the integrator circuit inverts the sign of the integral. To see the
uninverted integral, a second unity gain inverting amplifier can be placed after
the integrator. It is helpful to see graphically what the ideal integral is for various
input voltage waveforms. At t = 0, the capacitor is assumed to have no charge on
its plates. The charge is added or subtracted by the feedback amplifier. These
integrals are shown in Figure 6.6.

Consider an input voltage that is 1 V for 0.1 second. Assume the output
voltage is a ramp that goes minus to -1.0 V. If the input voltage then returns to 0
V, the output must stay at -1 V Will the integrator hold the voltage for a minute
or an hour? In practice, an IC integrator will begin to drift away from its proper
value after a few seconds.
 Figure 6.6 The integration of various waveforms

An explanation that provides some insight into the problem involves the
circuit response at low frequencies. Assume the closedloop gain at 100 Hz is 10
and the reactance of the capacitor is 100 ki2. At 10 Hz the reactance is 1 MS2
and the closedloop gain of the circuit is 100. Consider a frequency as low as 0.1
Hz. The closedloop gain is 10,000 and the reactance is 100 M. It is easy to see
that as the frequency gets lower and lower, the closedloop gain will eventually
reach a limit. It cannot exceed the openloop gain, and this is the point where
there is no feedback. In other words, the integrator is no longer functional.
Another thing happens: there is input base current. This current is no different
from input signal current except it is much smaller. The result is an error in the
integral that grows with time.

The integrator in Figure 6.5 is a valuable tool, but its use has a time
constraint. Before the error becomes too large, the charge on the capacitor must
be removed and the integration must start over. A digital up-down counter is also
an integrator. The last count can be held in a register until the computer is turned
off. This is one advantage a digital integrator has over an analog integrator.

The Comparator

An IC amplifier responds to the difference signal at its two inputs. Suppose the
negative input is held at 4.5 V. If the positive input is greater than 4.5 V, the
output is positive. If the positive input is less than 4.5 V, the output is negative.
If there is no feedback and there is a great deal of openloop gain, the output will
respond with a full-scale signal for a very slight change in the input signal at
right around 4.5 V. The IC amplifier is functioning as a comparator. This circuit
is shown in Figure 6.7.

An IC amplifier that is internally compensated has a great deal of loop gain at

dc and an openloop response that starts to attenuate signals at perhaps 10 Hz.
These are not the characteristics needed to perform a fast comparison. A
different IC design is needed. The openloop frequency response might start
down at 1 MHz, not 10 Hz. Comparator amplifiers share some of the same
internal construction as an IC amplifier, but they meet entirely different
specifications.
 Figure 6.7 A comparator circuit using an
IC amplifier

A Sawtooth Voltage Generator

A sawtooth voltage waveform is shown in Figure 6.8. The signal voltage

starts at 0 V and ramps positive at a fixed rate. At a critical voltage, the voltage
returns to zero and the voltage ramps positive, repeating the cycle. A negative
going ramp with a rapid return to zero is also a sawtooth waveform. A sawtooth
voltage is used to deflect the electron beam in an oscilloscope. It is also used to
move the electron beam on a television screen. In this case one sawtooth signal
moves the beam across horizontally and another moves the beam vertically. The
combination of two sawtooth signals generates a series of parallel lines called a
raster.

Figure 6.8 A sawtooth voltage waveform

 Figure 6.9 A sawtooth voltage generator circuit

A circuit that generates a positive sawtooth voltage is shown in Figure 6.9.

The circuit consists of a current source, a capacitor, a transistor clamp, a

comparator circuit, and a buffer stage. The constant current is always flowing.
This current flowing into the capacitor causes the volt age across the capacitor to
ramp up. The positive input to the comparator is connected to the capacitor
voltage. The negative input to the comparator is set to 5 V on a voltage divider.
When the capacitor voltage reaches 5 V, the comparator output voltage changes
from a negative voltage to the plus power supply voltage. The output of the
comparator is connected to the base of the clamping transistor through a series
resistor. When the clamping transistor is turned on, it discharges the capacitor.
This of course resets the comparator, which turns off the transistor, and the
capacitor again ramps up in voltage. The steady rise in voltage followed by a
rapid discharge is the sawtooth waveform we are looking for.
Figure 6.10 The construction of the circuit in Figure 6.9

LEARNING CIRCUIT 41

Building and Testing a Sawtooth Voltage Generator

 Building and Testing a Sawtooth Voltage Generator

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and

measuring equipment) :

1 LF353 IC amplifier

1 5.1-V zener diode

1 1N4148 diode

1 2N3904 and 1 2N3906 transistor

2 10-ku, 2 5.6-ku2, 1 1-kQ, and 1 10-Q resistor

1 0.01-µF capacitor

Build the sawtooth generator in Figures 6.9 and 6.10. Use a

charging capacitor of 0.01 µF. The charging current is about 1
mA if the reference voltage is 5 V. Estimate the sawtooth
frequency.

It is a good procedure to build and check each part of the

circuit as you go. Build the constant current source first.
Check the current level using a test resistor and a voltmeter.
Add the clamping transistor so that it clamps the test resistor.
Connect the base resistor of the clamping transistor to the
common or to the positive supply voltage to turn the clamp off
and on. Verify that the voltage across the capacitor is near 0
when the clamp is turned on.

Now complete the circuit. Observe the sawtooth waveform

on the oscilloscope. Reduce the input resistor and observe that
the frequency increases. Add to the capacitor and observe that
the frequency decreases. Use the oscilloscope to measure the
time it takes to discharge the capacitor. Estimate the current
level during discharge.
Timing Circuit

The integrator circuit can be used to provide a time delay. The circuit in Figure
6.11 has a short across the charging capacitor.

When the switch opens, the voltage across the capacitor begins to ramp up.
When this voltage reaches the comparator reference voltage level, the
comparator output goes positive and can operate an LED, a relay, or another
transistor. The integrator resistor and capacitor control the delay time. A time
delay is sometimes required for power-up, to limit access time, operate a
temporary light, or control exposure time in photography. With the right IC
amplifier, if the capacitor leakage current is low and the capacitance is high
enough in value, the time delay can extend to several minutes.
 Figure 6.11 A time-delay circuit

Trigger Circuit

When a slowly changing signal hits a critical level, it is often desirable to make a
positive decision to do something. The situation might be the overheating of a
bearing. A trigger circuit responds to the critical temperature level and
transitions from 0 to the plus power supply voltage. This voltage can then
operate a relay to sound an alarm. The output will not transition back to 0 unless
there is a significant reduction in the input signal. For example, in Figure 6.12
the negative input voltage is set to 5 V.

If the signal voltage reaches 5 V, the trigger circuit output goes from 0 to 15
V. If the signal falls below 3 V, the trigger circuit output transitions back to 0.
The gap between 5 V and 3 V is called hysteresis. This circuit is known as a
Schmidt trigger.

After the threshold is reached, the positive feedback from the output increases
the input signal to 7 V. The circuit cannot reset itself until the input voltage
drops back to 3 V. This hysteresis stops the trigger circuit from oscillating
around the transition point. If there is oscillation the trigger voltage would be
unusable.

A capacitor can be used to maintain hysteresis for a limited time. When a

very short pulse triggers the circuit, the output voltage is held positive by
hysteresis. After the capacitor charges, the hysteresis is removed and the trigger
circuit returns to its initial state. The pulse width is controlled by the size of the
capacitor. This type of circuit is called a one-shot.
 Figure 6.12 A trigger circuit to sound an alarm

The Multivibrator

A class of circuit can be made from IC amplifiers or transistors that have two
operating states. As an example, an output voltage could be stable at 0 V and
+15 V These two voltages are often near the limits of the power supply.
Multivibrator circuits that change state in response to a pulse or an input signal
are called bistable multivibrators or "flip-flops." Circuits that have voltages that
constantly transition back and forth between two end states are known as astable
multivibrators. They are a class of oscillator.

Circuits that have two stable states are used extensively in digital logic. It is
worth noting that digital ICs are made from analog circuits that include gain,
output drivers, comparator clamps, zeners, and diodes. In the early days of
digital electronics, all of the logic functions were built from discreet transistor
circuits. These circuits are still useful, and it is helpful to know how they
operate.

In the following sections we will discuss two circuits, the bistable and the
astable multivibrator, which are analog circuits used in digital design. A
multivibrator circuit can be recognized by its structure. It usually consists of two
gain elements that are cross-coupled-gain element A drives gain element B and
gain element B drives gain element A. The coupling is such that one of the gain
elements conducts while the other is turned off. In the bistable multivibrator an
input pulse will cause the gain elements to change roles. In the astable
multivibrator the roles change automatically. After a transition a capacitor
discharges, allowing the next transition.

The Bistable Multivibrator

Two cross-coupled transistors can form a bistable multivibrator. This circuit is

shown in Figures 6.13 and 6.14.

Assume transistor Q 1 is turned on and its collector voltage is low This

collector voltage couples to the base of Q2 through a resistor divider and keeps
Q2 turned off. The high collector voltage of Q2 in turn keeps Q1 turned on. (We
could also have started by assuming that transistor Q1 is turned off, in this case
the roles of the two transistors would be reversed.)

A positive pulse at the input terminals couples to both bases. The pulse cannot
add to the current in Ql, because the transistor is already fully conducting. The
pulse can, however, cause Q2 to conduct. The collector voltage of Q2 drops. The
voltage divider to the base of Ql couples this voltage drop and reduces the
current flow in Q1. The rise in the collector voltage of Ql further increases the
base voltage of Q2. The end result is that transistor Qi is turned off and transistor
Q2 is turned on. From symmetry, a second input pulse causes Ql to conduct and
Q2 to be turned off. In this way the circuit can be made to flip-flop back and
forth.

Figure 6.13 A bistable multivibrator

 Figure 6.14 The construction of the circuit in Figure 6.13

LEARNING CIRCUIT 42

Observing the Operation of a Bistable Multivibrator

You will need (in addition to your circuit board and measuring equipment) :

2 2N3904 transistors

2 1N4148 diodes

1 0.001-µF capacitor
 1 0.001-µF capacitor

3 1-ku, 2 2.2-kL, and 1 1-Mf resistor

1. Construct the bistable multivibrator in Figures 6.13 and 6.14.

2. Measure the voltage on the two collectors and determine which transistor is
turned on.

3. To change the state of the mutivibrator, touch point C to the plus 15-V. This
generates a pulse to change the state of the multivibrator.

4. Touch point C to the power supply a second time. The circuit should again
change state. Verify this by observing the collector voltages.
Figure6.15 An astable multivibrator

The Astable Multivibrator

An astable multivibrator can be built from two IC amplifiers or two logic

functions. The circuit shown in Figure 6.15 may not work all of the time, but it
illustrates the principle. A breakdown occurs if both transistors happen to
conduct equally at power-up. If this happens, just restart the power supply.

The moment Q1 starts to conduct, its collector voltage falls to near zero. The
base voltage on Q2 also falls to a negative value. This is because Cl and R1
make a highpass filter and the leading edge comes straight through this filter. As
capacitor Cl charges through R1, the base of Q2 rises in voltage. When the base
of Q2 is positive with respect to the emitter of Q2, it starts to conduct. The
collector voltage on Q2 starts to fall, and this turns off transistor Q1. This double
action causes the state of the mutivibrator to switch. During the time C1 is
charging, C2 is discharging, and during the time C2 is charging, C1 is
discharging. The RC time constants determine the frequency of oscillation.

Crystal Oscillators

The operation of most digital circuits depends on an accurate clock signal. A

clock signal is a square wave voltage that transitions between the limits of a
power supply at a known frequency. The multivibrator circuit described
previously can be used as a clock signal. The frequency is determined by resistor
and capacitor values. However, the operating frequency is difficult to adjust
using this approach.

A crystal is a thin layer of quartz. Quartz has the property that a voltage is
developed between two surfaces when pressure is applied. If a voltage is placed
across the conductive surfaces, a strain results. If the surfaces of the crystal are
plated, then the voltage resulting from a strain can be easily sensed with a high-
input impedance voltmeter. A wafer of quartz with conductive surfaces has all
the characteristics of a capacitor.

The quartz crystal is a mechanical structure that can store potential energy.
The potential energy is stored in stress. This potential energy can transfer to
kinetic energy when the crystal moves. All the elements of an oscillator are
present. The crystal mass stores potential and kinetic energy. If energy can be
supplied per cycle, the mechanical vibration can be sustained. The result is a
sinusoidal voltage across the plates of the crystal. The crystal oscillator
frequency is very stable, and very little energy must be supplied per cycle to
sustain an oscillation. A typical circuit is shown in Figure 6.16.
 Figure 6.16 A crystal oscillator

The signal from a crystal oscillator is sinusoidal. To make a

useful clock signal, the sine wave needs to be converted to a
square wave. This can be done by using a comparator circuit
at the oscillator output.

The 555 Timer

Several IC manufacturers produce a universal timing circuit. For example,

National Semiconductor makes a component known as an LM555. This
component can serve as a trigger, an astable or bistable multivibrator, and much
more. The astable circuit can be used to change states after a given time. The
technical literature shows how to add external resistors and capacitors to
configure this device. Just like the IC amplifier, designers have considered many
subtle factors and have produced a very useful and reliable component. The
timer is inexpensive, compact, and very versatile.
Analog and Digital Representation

A voltage or a current level can represent parameters such as air pressure

(sound), temperature, weight, speed, or time. These voltages or currents are
called analog signals. Numbers that are stored digitally can represent these same
parameters. Converting back and forth between analog and digital formats is an
important part of electronics. These conversions occur so often that designers
have created integrated circuits that perform the entire function.

An A/D converter is a circuit or component that converts analog (A) signals

to digital (D) signals. A D/A converter is a circuit or component that converts
digital signals to analog. Before we can discuss these converters, we must
discuss how a voltage is represented digitally.

Counting digitally requires eliminating all the number symbols except 0 and
1. The first sixteen numbers are 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, 1001,
1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, and 1111. Note that one of the numbers is a zero.
Nothing is changed if we add leading zeros, so the sequence can also be written
as 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111, 1000, etc. In a digital
circuit, bits are represented by the states of transistors. A bit is a single logic
state, a 0 or a 1. For example, if the transistor is turned on, it might stand for a 1,
and if it is turned off, it might stand for 0.

Each digital position is called a bit. In this example, we have a fourbit number
and we have counted from 0 to 15. If the counting had continued to include 8
bits, then we would be able to count to 255. Eight bits are called a byte. A string
of 1s and Os is called a digital word. A single bit could be 5 or 10 V, depending
on the type of logic involved. The voltage itself has no meaning. The presence of
a voltage represents a logic 1 and the absence of voltage represents a logic 0.

Consider a signal that varies from 0 to 6.4 V. We want to represent this

voltage digitally. If we have a 4-bit digital word we can count to 16, so we can
divide the 6.4 V into 16 parts. Each number represents one division, or 0.4 V.
The number 0001 represents 0.4 V, and the number 0010 represents 0.8 V. The
number 1110 represents 5.6 V, and the number 1111 represents 6 V. If one of the
digital values is 0, then the largest decimal count is 15. The number 16 would be
represented by all zeros and a carry bit. This is the same kind of carry we use in
simple addition. Digitally the number 16 is represented by 0001 0000.

In order to represent voltages less than 6.4 V more accurately, more bits are
required. If 8-bit words are used to cover the range 0 to 6.4 V, then an increment
of 1 bit represents a change in voltage equal to 0.025 V.

The problem of converting a digital word into an analog voltage is one of

converting a word like 1001 0011 into a voltage. Assume the least significant bit
(the bit to the far right) represents 0.025 V. Each bit as we progress to the left
represents a factor of two in voltage. The bits represent 0.025 V, 0.05 V, 1.0 V,
0.2 V, 0.4 V, 0.8 V, 1.6 V, and 3.2 V. The digital number 1001 0011 is the sum
of 0.025 V, 0.05 V, 0.4 V, and 3.2 V. This sum is 3.675 V.

The R-2R Ladder

A very useful resistor network provides the basis for converting digital signals to
analog signals. This network in Figure 6.17 is called an R-2R ladder. There are
two values of resistor. The accuracy of the resistors is not as important as the
ratio between them.
 Figure 6.17 An R-2R ladder network

Typical resistor values might be 10 kQ and 20 W. Each of the voltage sources

l1, V2, and V3 circulate currents that flow in the ladder network. Each of these
currents is independent, so we can look at them one at a time. The voltage source
V1 is shown in series with R,, a 20-kS2 resistor. The current I that flows in this
resistor splits equally between R9 and R,,,. The voltage source V2 is in series
with resistor R2. The current in R2 splits equally between R8 and R9. The
current that flows in resistor R9 splits equally between R10 and R1. The current
in Ro is proportional to the current from V1 and is one-half the current from V2.
This process can be extended to V3. The current in RO is proportional to the
current from VI, one-half the current from V2, and onequarter the current from
V3.

Now assume all of the voltages are equal. This ladder circuit allows us to sum
a group of currents from a fixed voltage source and attenuate these currents by
factors of two. If the ladder has eight entry points, then the current that flows can
be increased in steps where the largest step is 1 and the smallest step is 1/256. As
an example, if the first current is 1 mA, the second current is / mA, and the third
current is 4 mA. Our problem is to control which voltages are to be connected.
The maximum current in this arrangement is 1.996 mA. The R-2R ladder will
only work if the voltage sources are set to 0 V when they are not used. A voltage
source of 0 V is a short circuit.

The D/A Converter

Circuits that convert digital signals to analog signals are called D/A converters.
The conversion can be accomplished using an R-2R network. The currents that
flow in this network can be controlled by a set of transistor switches. The
switches connect the 2R resistors to either a reference voltage or to 0 V (circuit
common). The switches are controlled directly by the logic levels of the digital
word. When the logic is a 1, the switch is turned on and a weighted current flows
into the summing point. The amplifier responds to the sum of the network
currents with a negative voltage that represents the digital word. A fourbit
version of this D/A is shown in Figure 6.18.

The full-scale voltage for the D/A converter can be set by the reference voltage
or by the gain of the operational amplifier. If a count of 15 equals 10 V, then
each count represents 0.666 V.
 Figure 6.18 A fourbit D/A converter

AID Converters

There are several techniques available for converting an analog signal into a
digital word. Accurate conversions at a rate exceeding 200,000 samples per
second are practical. At these high speeds there is little time available to take a
series of logical steps. This makes a high-speed A/D converter a very
sophisticated circuit.

An analog signal to be converted to a digital word must first be sampled. The

digital measure is made of the sample, not of the changing data. A sample-and-
hold circuit provides the digital circuit a steady signal for conversion. The
sampling circuit might consist of a switch, a capacitor, and a buffer amplifier
that measures the voltage on the capacitor.

A very simple way to determine the digital value for an analog signal is to
advance a digital counter through its set of values. A digital counter is a circuit
that stores a set of bits in a circuit called a register. An external pulse advances
the binary number stored in the register. The bits in the counter are converted to
an analog signal (D/A converter) by using an R-2R network and an operational
amplifier. This D/A converter output is compared with the sampled voltage.
When a comparison is reached, the counter is stopped and the stored digital
count is the correct digital word. There is always a round-off error, as there are
only so many values available, depending on the number of bits.

Faster A/D Converters

Flash A/D converters are very fast. A sample-and-hold signal is applied in

parallel to a number of comparators. It takes 15 comparators for a 4bit A/D
converter and 255 comparators for an 8-bit converter. There must be a
comparator for every possible digital value. For example, if the resolution is
0.025 V and a voltage of 3.0 V is sampled, 120 comparators show a 1 and 135
comparators show a 0. This grouping of comparator signals is logically
converted to an 8-bit word. This word is the desired digital value.

Another type of A/D converter is called a pipeline flash converter. The sampled
signal is applied in parallel to a group of comparators. This results in an
approximate measure of the signal. The output of these comparators is connected
to a D/A converter. The output of this D/A converter is subtracted from the
initial signal. The difference signal is amplified and again sent to the
comparators. The output of the comparators is again connected to the D/A
converter. The output of the D/A is again subtracted from the input. This process
is repeated until all of the bits in the A/D converter have been determined. This
pipeline approach takes more time than the true flash system, but it provides for
a great deal of accuracy.

Successive approximation is another technique that is often used. The signal

is sampled as before. The most significant bit in a digital register is placed in a
D/A converter and the comparator is monitored. If the comparator indicates that
the analog signal is too high, the bit is removed and the second most significant
bit is tried. If the comparator says the compare signal is too small, this bit is left
in place. This process is repeated for each bit in the digital word until the least
significant bit is set.

The Wheatstone Bridge

Four resistors arranged in a square form a Wheatstone bridge. This configuration

of resistors is used to make many measurements. The scales that weigh a loaded
truck or the scales in the post office that weigh letters and packages both make
use of this type of bridge. This bridge configuration is also used to measure
strain, stress, and shear in mechanical systems. Other applications include
vibration and temperature measurements. A typical bridge circuit is shown in
Figure 6.19.

A dc voltage is placed across one diagonal of the bridge. This voltage is

called the bridge excitation voltage. The difference voltage measured across the
other diagonal is the signal of interest. If all four resistors are equal, this
difference signal is 0 V. If one of the resistors changes value, a differential signal
voltage results. Because the resistance from each signal connection to common
is nearly the same, this signal is a balanced signal. If the excitation voltage is 10
V, the voltages at the two signal leads are 5 V. This average voltage is a
commonmode voltage and must be rejected by any subsequent amplification.
Only the difference signal is of interest.

One, two, or four arms of the bridge can be active. An active arm changes
resistance when the parameter of interest changes. If one arm is active, then the
other three arms are usually passive resistors. The resistors that make up the
passive arms must not change value when the temperature changes.
For stress and strain measurements, the active arms are made from a long strip of
thin resistance wire that is fan-folded and bonded to a plastic carrier. This active
arm is called a strain gauge. It is oriented and bonded to a structure so that if the
structure changes dimension, the gauge wire is stretched or compressed. The
change in dimension changes the resistance of the strain gauge. If this gauge
element is one arm of a Wheatstone bridge, a difference signal is generated
across the signal terminals of the bridge. Strain gauge elements can have a
resistance in the range 50 to 300 Q. Under stress, these resistors might change 1
or 2%.
 Figure 6.19 A typical Wheatstone bridge circuit

The signal voltage from a bridge is proportional to the bridge excitation

voltage and the percentage change in each resistance. The equation for the
output voltage difference for one active arm is
where AR equals the change in resistance, Vs;g is the bridge signal, and VE is
the excitation voltage. The excitation voltage is a separate and well-regulated
power supply.

A strain-gage element is calibrated in terms of resistance change per micro-

inch of strain. This allows the mechanical engineer to equate a signal voltage to
an actual dimensional change in a structure. Mechanical engineers select the
points on a structure that should be monitored. As an example, two strain gauge
elements can be placed in a bridge configuration to separate elongation from
bending. In bending, one side of a beam stretches and the other side compresses.
If gages are placed on opposite arms of a bridge, the bending changes the
resistances but leaves the bridge balanced. If these same gauges are placed on
adjacent arms of the bridge, the bending signal is reinforced and the elongation
signal is canceled. In another application, it is possible to mount strain gauges to
separate shear from strain.

The signal that is developed across a bridge is greatest when all four arms are
active. Two gauges must increase in resistance and two must decrease in
resistance to produce an optimum signal. If all gages increase in resistance by
the same amount, the gauge remains balanced.

A strain gauge bridge can be used to measure large mechanical forces. An

example might be a scale used to weigh a truck. A weighing platform is mounted
on four support points called load cells. Four cells are required because the truck
may not be centered on the platform. Each load cell is a full-strain gauge bridge.
The signal from each load cell is amplified and summed at a central point. The
total signal is a measure of the truck weight.

A strain gauge bridge located on a diaphragm can be used to measure

pressure. As the pressure builds, the diaphragm expands, changing the balance in
the bridge.

A piezoelectric resistor changes resistance depending on pressure. The

pressure can result from the forces of acceleration. A group of these pressure-
sensitive resistors in a bridge configuration can be used to measure vibration in
large structures such as aircraft wings, buildings, and suspension bridges.
 In some testing it is desirable to know the distance between two points. In
automobile testing it might be desirable to measure the distance from an axle to
the body of the car. A telescoping tube with a slider on a long resistor can be
used to form two resistances in a bridge. When the slider is in the middle, the
resistors are equal and the bridge is balanced. As the parts move, the slider
moves, unbalancing the bridge. The resulting signal indicates the spacing
between the objects.

A differential amplifier must be used to amplify the signals from a Wheatstone

bridge. When the gain that is required is less than 20, then an amplifier similar to
the one shown in Figure 5.15 can be used. For higher gains, a variety of
instrumentation-type IC amplifiers are available on the market. Technical notes
are available that show the user how to balance the bridge and provide needed
input protection.

SELF-TEST

1. The current source in Figure 6.2 has a 200-0 sensing resistor. The input
voltage is 3 V at 1 kHz. What is the output current? What is the output
voltage if the load resistor is 500 S2?

2. In problem 1, what is the output voltage if the load resistor is 400 S2?

3. A current source in Figure 6.2 has a 400-52 sensing resistor. The input voltage
is -4 V at 3 kHz. What is the output current? What is the output voltage if the
load resistor is 400 S2 shunted by 0.1 µF?

4. An integrator circuit uses a 0.1-µF capacitor and a 1-Mil resistor. A 2-V dc

input signal is applied. How long will it take for the voltage to reach 10 V?

5. A 20-Hz 10-V square wave signal is placed into the integrator of problem 4.
What is the output waveform? What is the peak-to-peak output voltage?

6. A 350-Q bridge is used to measure strain. The excitation level is 10 V. When

the gage changes resistance by 1.5%, what is the differential signal?

7. In problem 6, how much gain is required to produce a 10-V signal?

8. In problem 6, if the strain measure must be 0.1% accurate, how much offset
voltage is permitted?

9. A strain gage bridge uses 400-Q resistors. The excitation is 5 V. Diagonal

resistors are active. The first resistor increases 1 % and the second resistor
decreases by 1 %. What is the bridge signal? Hint: Assume the signals are
additive.

10. An 8-bit digital word represents voltages from -10V to +10 V. What is the
digital value for 10 V?

11. In problem 10, if all Os represent -10 V, what does the digital value 1000
0000 represent?

12. In problem 10, what is the voltage difference for the least significant bit?
Hint: The count maximum is 28 = 256.

13. Can the first bit be used to tell the sign of the voltage?

14. Can you find a way to use a digital representation of a voltage and separate
the sign of the voltage from its magnitude of the voltage?

ANSWERS

1. 15 mA. For 500 0 the voltage is 7.5 V.

2. 6V.

3. The current is 10 mA. The impedance at 3 kHz is 267 Q. The voltage is 2.7 V.

4. Q = CV= 0.1 x 10-6 x 10=1 µC. 1 V flowing in 1 MU for 1 second is 1

microcoulomb. 2 V applied for A second is also a charge of 1 µC.

5. The waveform is triangular. 10 V for 1 second is 10 µC. A half-cycle at 20 Hz

is 25 ms. For 25 ms the charge is 0.25 µC. The voltage on 0.1 µF is q/C =
0.25/0.1 = 2.5 V. This is the peak-to-peak voltage.

6. The voltage is onequarter the percentage resistor change times the excitation,
or 62V2 mV.
7. The gain is 160.

8. The offset is 0.1 % of 10 V, or 1 mV.

10. 0000 0000 with a carry bit.

11. o v.

12. The range of voltage is 20 V. One part in 256 is 0.078 V.

13. Yes. When the first bit is 0, a negative number is represented.

14. To obtain the magnitude of the negative number, swap 'Is for Os and add 1.
This is called the 2s complement.
Objectives

In this chapter you will learn:

• how electric and magnetic fields affect circuits

• some techniques for laying out circuits to avoid noise and interference

• how transmission lines function

• how a coaxial cable carries power to an antenna

We have now covered many basic circuits and seen how they operate. Of
course, we have only been able to touch upon our subject, and have not been
able to go into details of constructing these circuits. If you continue your study
of electronics you will come to appreciate that in many applications performance
depends on the exact arrangement of components. In other words, the
component geometry is an important part of the design.

Particularly in designs that require long cables or the interconnection of many

pieces of hardware, problems can arise related to interference, accuracy, or
stability. In this chapter we will touch upon a few of the problems. These topics
are important in understanding electronics, but they are not easy to demonstrate.
Learning Circuits are not practical on this level-I can hardly ask you to build an
antenna or install a long power line. Nor are the kind of demonstration problems
I have given you at the end of the previous chapters practical on this level.
However, I have chosen to discuss these topics anyway, even though without
Learning Circuits or practice problems, the discussion may appear somewhat
abstract. Still, the advice you will find in this chapter is the result of a great deal
of experience. I hope you will continue with your study of electronics and that
this advice will be useful to you.

Circuits and Fields

The circuits we have studied can be analyzed using Ohm's law, plus an
understanding of transistors and integrated circuits, the components that allow us
to amplify, rectify, control, and monitor various electrical signals. However, in
many situations, circuits include structures that are not under our control. The
earth, for example, is a conductor that is shared by all users. It has resistance, but
it is not a resistor. The conduit in a building or residence may be grounded (tied
to earth) along with our electronics. The interconnection of equipment grounds is
not a part of any schematic.

Space can support radiation, but it is not a conductor, a capacitor, or an

inductor. The behavior of an antenna cannot be described in terms of a circuit.
Receiving a radio or television signal cannot be described in terms of
components. Lightning is electrical, but there is no circuit to draw and analyze.
Transporting signals in a long cable cannot be analyzed using simple circuits.
These are all areas where circuit diagrams are simply not available. To
understand them, you must have an understanding of electricity itself.

The next chapter discusses the basics of electricity. You will find that voltage
is defined in terms of the electric field. Another field, the magnetic field, exists
whenever there is current. Capacitance is the ability to store electric field energy,
and inductance is the ability to store magnetic field energy. Whenever there is a
voltage there is an electric field, and whenever there is a current there is a
magnetic field. A changing electric field in a capacitor is a current, and a
changing magnetic field in an inductor is a voltage. Both fields are present if
there is any electri cal activity. These fields exist inside components, but they
also exist around all conductors involved in electrical activity.

In the circuits we have studied, the electric and magnetic fields outside of the
components can be ignored. But when the frequencies extend beyond 1 or 2 MH,
or if high accuracy is required, these fields cannot be ignored. When circuits
extend between remote points, then fields cannot be ignored. Trying to draw
circuits that describe the activity of fields is almost impossible. Getting a broad
understanding of how fields behave is not difficult, but it can be elusive. Some
of the problems encountered in building practical circuits involve electric fields.
For this reason, it is important to appreciate how fields and circuits relate to each
other.

Electrical Transport

All electrical activity involves both the electric and the magnetic field. The
power that is sent to us by the utility company is carried not on the power wires,
but in the fields between the wires. This may come as a surprise, but it is the
only explanation that can be used to understand the many problems that do
occur. In all circuits, fields carry all power and all signals. The conductors are
guides that direct the path of signal or energy flow It is difficult to use this
viewpoint to design circuits, yet if we do not embrace it on some level, many
interference processes will stay a mystery.

Electric fields store energy. Nature is always looking for ways to let energy
flow to a lower state. An analogy with water may be helpful here. Water in a
water tower stores energy of position, and will flow down to earth if there is a
path. If the path involves turning a turbine, then the stored energy can do work.
In the same way, stored electric field energy will follow conductors as a way to
reach a lower energy state. The energy stored in a capacitor will heat a resistor if
the resistor shunts the capacitor. A television signal is a field traveling in space.
A television antenna provides a path so that some of this energy will flow to the
receiver circuit. The field takes this path because it is flowing to a lower energy
state.

The space around us is filled with fields. These fields include utility power,
radio stations, television, radar, cell phone signals, telephones, and ham radios.
Lightning and static discharge generate fields. As these fields travel in space,
they can couple energy to conductor pairs and follow these paths into circuits.
This is nature running downhill. A circuit operates on this same principle.
Energy from the power supply is running downhill through the components to do
our bidding. There are power leads and signal cables connecting to our circuits.
Nature will couple field energy to these conductors. The coupled energy goes in
both directions on every conductor pair, and some of this energy can enter our
circuits. A power cable can carry power into a circuit, and at the same time it can
transport interference in or out of a piece of hardware. The interference field can
be transported between the power conductors or between the power conductors
and earth.

In power transport from the generator, the neutral is connected to earth at

many points. The majority of the power is carried in fields between the "hot"
conductors. Some small percentage of the power is transported in the field
between the power conductors and the earth. This means there is earth current
involved in power transport. If there are buried conductors in the earth such as
fences or gas lines, the current will tend to concentrate in these conductors. This
means that power fields exist between the "hot" conductors and earth. This is the
reason there is a concentration of power-related fields in all areas that use utility
power. This explains why there will always be current flowing in the structural
steel in buildings or in the conduit associated with residential construction.
These currents have fields that extend into most electronic hardware. They
originate from grounding or earth connections, so more earth connections
provides very little relief.

If power could be transmitted coaxially (see the following section on

transmission lines), the fields would be confined to the inside of a cable and
could not get out. But this is not economical. Besides, there are always ways to
solve power-related problems without resorting to coaxial power transport.

The Electric Shield

The simplest shield is a metal enclosure. The enclosure can take on many
shapes; often it is a woven braid that extends over wires in a cable. The shield
material can be aluminum, steel, or a conductive paint. If the shield surrounds a
circuit, the electric fields associated with voltages in the circuit will be confined
to the enclosure. Electric fields that are external to the shield will stay outside.
Inside the enclosure, the effect of the electric fields can be equated to
capacitances from the circuit to the shield surfaces. These capacitances function
just like circuit components, allowing current to flow. The shield is usually
connected to the circuit common to avoid unwanted coupling and capacitive
feedback. If the shield is not connected and left floating, it functions as a
capacitive divider and external fields can add signal to the circuit.

In an ideal shield enclosure, the fields outside the box are reflected and do not
enter the enclosure. Of course, the ideal perfect enclosure rarely exists. Fields
enter via the power leads and cross through the transformer coils. Fields enter on
input and output leads. At high frequencies the fields can enter through seams
and holes. Shielding that is effective at 60 Hz against the electric field may be
ineffective against a magnetic field.

In many circuits it is only necessary to shield the input signal right up to the
input of the circuit. This is electric field shielding. The rest of the circuit is often
relatively insensitive to coupling. If the input stage adds gain and has a low
output impedance, then coupling to the second stage can be ignored. It is often
desirable to add a small RC filter right at the input terminals as added protection.
Typical values might be a series RC circuit consisting of a 10042 resistor and a
100-pF capacitor.

The metal enclosure that surrounds a circuit is often connected to safety

ground. In stand-alone hardware this green wire connection is required by the
electrical code as protection against electrical shock. When a circuit enclosure is
left ungrounded, it assumes a potential determined by the transformer and its
many internal capacitances. This often causes the circuit to be very noisy. When
an external ground is added, the noise appears to go away. This reduction in
noise often leads to the conclusion that circuits perform best when they are well
grounded. This in turn leads to elaborate grounding schemes for facilities.
Unfortunately, grounding does not eliminate the fields that are the source of
interference. It makes more sense to solve the problem for each signal than to try
to find a global solution in terms of grounding.

Integrated circuits have the advantage of being very compact. This means that
the component itself is relatively immune to external fields. This places the
coupling burden on supporting components and on the cables that carry signals
in and out of a circuit.

Common-Impedance Coupling
The power supply circuits that we have considered have diode rectifiers and
electrolytic capacitors. It is not uncommon for currents in the electrolytic
capacitors to be several amperes. This current can cause a voltage drop in the
wiring. As a result, the common side of the capacitor may not be at the same
potential as the centertap of the transformer. If a conductor has a resistance of 10
mQ, a peak current of 2 A will develop a peak signal of 22 mV. If this signal is
added to an input signal and amplified, the resulting hum can be very
objectionable. Adding more capacitance will not cure the problem.

The power supply should be built so that the leads that carry the filter current
are not a part of any signal circuit. Figure 7.1 shows a proper and an improper
connection to a power supply.

Once an objectionable signal is mixed with a desired signal, it cannot simply

be removed.

The common lead in a circuit is called the reference conductor. This

conductor is often a trace with a very limited cross-section. A conductor is a
reference conductor only if there is no significant voltage drop along the
conductor length. In a circuit with a power supply, the reference point must be
taken after the filter capacitors and after the regulators.

The wiring resistances between components can influence the performance of

a circuit. It is usually possible to interconnect the components so that these
resistances have little or no effect. If the resistance adds unwanted feedback or
couples an unwanted signal, then the circuit operation may be unsatisfactory.

In a power amplifier output stage where there is feedback, the voltage drop in
a common lead can actually change the feedback signal. In some cases this
unwanted feedback can result in an instability. This problem can occur in output
circuits that supply high current. The solution involves wiring the circuit so that
the feedback signal does not sense the load current. Figure 7.2 shows a proper
and an improper feedback connection in a power amplifier output.

Microphone cable consists of a center conductor and an outer braided

conductor. This type of cable is a good example of the outer conductor serving
as a shield and a signal conductor. If unwanted current flows in the shield it can
generate a voltage that is added to the signal. In audio work very small amounts
of interference can be disturbing. The problem is apt to be severe if the signals of
interest are small and require later amplification.

Figure 7.1 Power supply wiring

Figure 7.2 Feedback taken from different points in a circuit
 Figure 7.3 Connecting power to a circuit

It is good practice in a circuit layout to connect the output

stage directly to the power supply. This way the output stage
current does not flow in the common connections associated
with the input. Power should flow from the output of the
circuit toward the input, and the signal should flow from the
input of the circuit toward the output. This approach allows
additional filtering for the input stages if it is needed. This
technique is shown in Figure 7.3.

Separate circuits that demand extra current should be connected directly to

the power supply. This technique reduces the risk of adding interference to
sensitive circuits.

Star Connections
The conductors that are considered at 0 V can be numerous. The connections can
include an input shield, an output shield, an input common, an output common,
emitters, a transformer centertap, electrolytic capacitors, feedback connections,
filter connections, a safety ground, and connections to the chassis. There are
many ways to connect these grounded conductors together. One approach is to
select a single point for grounding and bring all of these conductors to this
common point. This is called a star connection. The idea is to eliminate any
common resistance in the paths between various grounds. If there are no external
grounds except the safety connection, then this idea can work. If the input shield
is grounded at a remote point, current can flow in the input shield to the safety
ground, and the star connection does not work. As indicated earlier, shield
current can couple interference to an input signal if the shield is one of the signal
conductors.

Single-point grounds are impractical in most circuit designs. The use of

printed wiring precludes this kind of construction. The preferred approach is to
arrange the connections so that interfering currents do not flow in sensitive
circuits. Generating a star connection adds many loop areas to the signal path.
These loop areas can couple to fields, and this can be another source of
interference. We will examine this point in the next section.

The Signal Path

The signal of interest in an electronic circuit is a potential difference. The signal

is always measured with respect to a reference conductor. As the signal
progresses through the circuit, the reference conductor should follow the signal.
In one sense the signal is funneled through the circuit in the area between the
signal path and the reference conductor. The ideal design keeps this area
minimized. The most critical areas involve the smallest signals. The theory is
very simple: interference processes are proportional to area. Limiting the area in
the signal path limits interference coupling. Circuit components that attach to the
signal path should fan outward, leaving the signal loop area small. This
arrangement is shown in Figure 7.4.
 Figure 7.4 The proper way to arrange a signal path

Transmission Lines

In the circuits we have considered, all power and signals are transported between
two conductors. The signal is the potential difference between the input lead and
the signal common. Power is also the potential difference between two
conductors. As we have seen, power and signal can sometimes share the same
conductors. Every pair of conductors is a potential transmission line. The power
and signal voltages move so fast that for all practical purposes the time of
transmission can be considered zero. But there are many situations where this
viewpoint is inadequate. For this reason, a brief discussion of transmission lines
is important.

The simplest transmission line, shown in Figure 7.5, consists of two parallel
conductors and a load resistor. We are interested in what happens the moment
the battery is connected to the line. We know that after a few microseconds the
power supplied to the resistor is V z/R. Before this can happen, field energy
must travel along the transmission line to get from the battery to the resistor.

A fundamental property of nature makes it impossible to move energy in zero

time. The presence of a field means there is energy stored in that field. The fields
along the transmission line must start at 0. The moment there is a voltage placed
across the transmission line there is some electric field. This field starts to move
at about one-half the speed of light. In the first nanosecond the field covers the
area between the conductors and extends 6 inches.

Figure 7.5 A transmission line

The capacitance per foot of line determines the charge that must be supplied
to the conductors in that first nanosecond. Assume the capacitance is 10 pF per
foot. If the voltage is 1 V, the charge q in the first nanosecond is 5 x 10-12 C.
This means a current must flow equal to q/t = 5 mA. In the second nanosecond
the field has moved a total of 1 foot. The same current flows in that second
nanosecond. The current that flows implies that a magnetic field is associated
with the moving electric field. This combination of electric and magnetic field is
called a wave. The wave front moves down the transmission line at about one-
half foot per nanosecond. The current supplied by the battery is steady. This
means that the battery reacts as if a resistor of V/I = 200 S2 were placed across
its terminals. This value is called the characteristic impedance of the line.

If the line is 10 feet long, the wave reaches the terminating resistor in 20 ns. If
the terminating resistor is 200 0, the battery continues to supply 5 mA into the
transmission line until the switch is opened. The energy that leaves the battery is
converted from chemical energy to field energy before it is carried and
dissipated in the resistor. It is important to realize that the fields carry the energy
from the battery to the resistor. The wires direct where this energy is to flow.
The wires do not carry the energy. The field pattern along the transmission line
is shown in Figure 7.6.

Figure 7.6 The electric and magnetic field lines around a

transmission line

The fields associated with the transmission line in Figure 7.6 extend out into
space. Some of this field energy escapes and does not return to the circuit.

Coaxial Cable

Another kind of transmission line geometry is the coaxial cable. The two
conductors involved in transmission are the center conductor and the outer
cylinder. This geometry is shown in Figure 7.7.

Figure 7.7 A coaxial transmission line

In this transmission line the fields cannot leave the confines of the cable.
Open wires are acceptable where the intent is to radiate the energy. The open
parallel wires will also accept higher operating voltages than a coaxial cable.

The coaxial transmission line looks a great deal like a shielded cable. When it
is used as a transmission line, the currents associated with the movement of the
field flow on the inner surface of the sheath. This means that both ends of the
sheath must be connected to allow this current to flow. If the cable is used for
shielding against external electric fields, the outer covering may be connected
(grounded) at one end.

Transmission Line Reflections

If the resistor in Figure 7.5 is removed, the transmission line is unterminated.

When the switch connects the battery to the line, the wave propagates to the
right at the same 6 inches per nanosecond. The energy moving in the line cannot
be lost or stopped. When the wave reaches the open circuit, it must turn around
and head back along the same path. There is no way for this energy to leave the
confines of the transmission line.

Energy is now traveling in both directions at the same time. Because of the
open circuit, the wave that is returned must cancel the current as it progresses
back along the line. The voltage of the reflected wave adds to the voltage of the
forward wave. An oscilloscope placed along the line would show double the
battery voltage during the period of the first reflection. The battery continues to
supply energy to the line until the reflected wave returns to the battery. At the
battery, the returning voltage is incorrect and the wave is again reflected. This
time the battery is shut off as the second reflection sends the first wave forward a
second time.

If there were no losses in the transmission line, the energy would continue to
travel back and forth forever. What really happens involves heating losses,
radiation, and wave distortion. After a few round trips the reflections attenuate
and the steady battery voltage appears along the entire line.

If the transmission line is terminated in a short circuit, the first reflected wave
cancels the voltage at the end of the line. Wave energy is still returned to the
source in the reflected wave. (Energy cannot be dissipated in an open or short
circuit.) This time, when the returned wave reaches the voltage source, the
battery must add more energy to the wave. The second reflection requires a
battery current that is three times the initial current. Upon the fourth reflection,
the current is multiplied by five. It is obvious that the current builds on each
return reflection until a fuse blows or the conductors melt. This is the way
current builds in a short circuit.
Sine Waves and the Transmission Line

When a sine wave voltage is applied to a transmission line that is terminated in

its characteristic impedance, the voltage across the terminating resistor is the
same sine wave, only delayed by the time of transit. If the transmission line is
not terminated properly, the reflections return energy to the source. If the transit
time is greater than one-twentieth of a cycle, the returning signal will modify the
input impedance of the line. The input impedance then depends on frequency
and the length of the transmission line. If the transmission line is terminated in
an open circuit or a short circuit, the input impedance will be either a reactance,
a short circuit, or an open circuit. If energy is to be transported effectively to the
load, the characteristic impedance of the transmission line should equal the load
resistance.

Common Transmission Lines

Considering transmission lines leads to an understanding of how signals and

interference are transported. Nature makes no distinction between types of
signals. We are the ones with a preference. We prefer clean information over
noise; nature couldn't care less. The open conductors in a transmission line carry
power or signals between two points. These same conductors can couple to any
passing fields. This coupling may not be efficient, but it can add interference to
the signals of interest. Coupled signals travel in both directions. Nature uses this
coupling to conductor pairs to run downhill. It requires less energy to use the
conductors than to stay in space.

There are many conductor pairs that nature can use. These conductors include
the earth, shields, metal surfaces, conduits, oceans, and any open conductors, as
well as our circuit conductors. Nature never reads labels, color codes, or
directions. The available conductor pairs are not necessarily parallel, nor are
they properly terminated. Some of them are brought directly into our hardware,
and others add to the general ambient activity. The result is that coupled wave
energy reflects and bounces around these conductors in a very complex and
uncontrolled manner. It is much like the way light reflects and is absorbed by
objects inside a room. The patterns are extremely complex.
 Fortunately, most of the circuits we build cannot respond to these fields
because the fields are changing so rapidly. Circuits are built to respond only to a
particular portion of the coupled energy and ignore the rest. If we were building
a cell phone, for instance, the circuit would be designed to respond only to the
signal that carries the information the phone needs to function. This is the beauty
of filters and resonant circuits. It allows the circuit to be very selective in how it
responds.

Power lines that cross the space between buildings can couple to any radiated
energy sharing the same space. The power conductors entering a circuit carry
any and all types of signals. They can carry this signal right down the center of
the conduit. These signals cannot do any work for us, but they can add to the
interference that enters our circuits. The signals riding the power signals can be
reflected or absorbed by line filters, provided the filters are properly installed.

Field Coupling

The most important tool in avoiding field coupling is to avoid a coupling area.
Two conductors spaced 1 inch apart will couple to field energy proportional to
the spacing and to the length of the run. To reduce the coupling, simply move
the two conductors closer together. If the length of the run can be reduced, this is
in the right direction.

In an earlier section we discussed how to route a signal and reference

conductor in a circuit to reduce loop area. If the signal path and the reference
conductor are kept close together, the loop area is automatically controlled. This
practice will reduce coupling from the fields of nearby transformers or the fields
from switching regulators as well as any fields that happen to enter the circuit.

If the fields are intense, then the next line of defense is to place the circuit
inside a metal enclosure. A shield around a cable or around a circuit can be very
effective. If the unwanted field enters the cable at either end, the shielding will
be ineffective. Interference can use the space inside a cable for transmission just
as easily as a desired signal can. If shielding is to be effective, all the points of
entry must be considered. The problem is similar to the leaky boat. If some of
the holes are plugged, the boat will still sink. All of the holes must be
considered.

Here is a short story to illustrate the nature of the cable problem. A circuit
consists of a sensor, a cable, and an amplifier. The connecting cable is shielded,
and the shield is bonded to the metal boxes that contain the sensor and the
amplifier, yet every time a nearby relay is operated, the circuit malfunctions.
What was the design error? It turns out to be quite simple. A wire was placed
inside the cable that connected the two metal boxes together. When this wire was
removed, the circuits functioned properly.

But why did this wire cause a problem? Because the relay contact that opened
created a field that used the cable and the earth as a transmission line. The
current in this loop would normally stay on the outside of the shield used to
cover the connecting cable. By adding a wire inside the cable, some of current in
this loop used the wire. This created a field inside the cable that coupled to the
sensor signal pair. When the relay opened, the sensor line sensed a signal that
was coupled to the amplifier. By removing the wire, the interference field stayed
outside the cable.

Radiation

Most of the circuits we have considered in this book operate at frequencies

below 1 MHz. They transport energy between components and along a signal
cable. These signals and their fields stay confined to the wiring. At 60 Hz most
of the energy that leaves a generator reaches the expected load. If power were
generated at 1 MHz and placed on the power grid, most of the energy would
leave the confines of the conductors in the first 100 feet. Of course, this energy
would disperse in all directions and would not be available to do the things we
want to do with utility power. If we wanted to transport power between two
conductors over any distance at 1 MHz, a coaxial cable would be needed.

When a transmission line is terminated in an open circuit, the energy that

reaches the end of the line is reflected. If the center conductor extends beyond
the shield, energy can leave the confines of the cable and it cannot get back in.
This extended center conductor is called a half-dipole antenna.
 The antenna radiates most effectively when the antenna length is a quarter-
wavelength Energy leaves the antenna at the speed of light, which is 300 meters
per microsecond. At 1 MHz a quarter-wavelength is 75 meters. This is the length
of an antenna used to broadcast an AM radio signal. These large antennas are
often seen as vertical structures on the outskirts of a city. A cell phone operating
at 500 MHz would have an antenna that is 5.9 inches long. Such transmitters are
now part of our everyday life. Antennas poke out from behind people's ears as
they walk on the street or ride in their cars.
 Figure 7.8 The half-dipole antenna

The radiation from antennas is a very important part of electrical engineering.

In most cases the person entering electronics for the first time is trying to avoid
building a radiator. It is important to recognize how a radiator functions.
Recognizing the effects of radiation comes from experience. It is hoped that the
circuits that you will build do not radiate or couple to radiation unless this is
your design objective.

The half-dipole antenna is not the only conductor geometry that radiates. The
other basic geometry is a loop of wire. If the current loop is a quarter-
wavelength in diameter, the loop will radiate energy very efficiently. The high
current requirements make this a less desirable antenna design. This is another
reason why loop areas in a signal path are undesirable. They can function as
radiators.

Circuits that do not confine their fields will radiate. The radiators might not
be efficient, but they can interfere with nearby pieces of electronics. The main
reason the FCC requires radiation testing on electronic devices is to make sure
they do not interfere with radios and television reception. The standards used in
Europe go far beyond this requirement. Circuits will not radiate efficiently
unless there is frequency content above 1 MHz. This can occur with certain
types of switching regulators or with circuits that are oscillating. When there is
arcing, there is usually radiation. Digital circuits with their high-speed logic can
also radiate.

In Conclusion

This last chapter has touched upon many new areas, and includes topics that
form the subject of many different books. If your interest is caught by this kind
of discussion, you might enjoy two more of my books, The Fields of Electronics
and Grounding and Shielding, 4"' Edition (both published by John Wiley &
Sons). They are written for electrical engineers, but you should now have
enough experience with basic electronics to be able to read them if you wish.

If you've enjoyed building the Learning Circuits and found the discussions
interesting, electronics could be a good career choice. However you decide to
pursue your interest in electronics, I hope this book has given you a good start,
and that you've had some fun along the way.
Introduction

To understand electronics, the study of electrical circuits in which voltages and

currents perform useful tasks, you need some familiarity with electricity itself.
This chapter is a review of electrical concepts, but if you are completely
unfamiliar with them, the material here may not be sufficient. If so, I recommend
that you read my companion volume to this book, Basic Electricity. This book is
also part of the Self-Teaching Guides series, and will give you a step-by-step
course in the subject, with problems in each chapter to help you become familiar
with the material.

In addition to an understanding of basic electrical concepts, you also need

some knowledge of algebra to understand this book. In any study involving
electricity, concepts are often expressed in the form of algebraic equations. In
other words, letters and symbols are used to represent components and variables
used in electronics. I have also provided a brief review of simple algebra in
appendix II. Again, if you are completely unfamiliar with algebra, the material in
this appendix may not be sufficient. There are many books on algebra to help
you get started, and many courses available on the high school and college level.
In addition, some understanding of trigonometry will be helpful in sections of
the book, but it is not required.

Electrons, Conductors, and Insulators

The story of electricity starts with the electrical forces that hold all atoms
together. One of these forces is the electric force. This force exists between the
electrons and protons in every atom. Molecules are formed when outershell
electrons are shared between atoms. In metals, atoms are packed tightly together
and the electrons are not shared. For this reason, the outershell electrons can
easily move between atoms. These are known as free electrons. Materials with
free electrons are called conductors. The most common conductors used in
electronics are copper, aluminum, and iron. Materials whose electrons cannot
move freely are called insulators.

Electrons have two qualities: an electrical charge and an electric field. The
electric field is a region of influence (force) that can move other electrons.
Within an atom the fields from the electrons are exactly balanced by the fields
from the positive charge of the protons in the nucleus. When there are extra
electrons, their electric fields combine to form a larger field. This field extends
outside the atoms into the space around the object.

A group of excess electrons is also called a negative charge. The number of

electrons that participate in electrical activity is a very minute fraction of the
electrons that are available. The electric force is a very potent force. If 1% of the
electrons in a human were to be active, the force they represent would be
sufficient to move Earth out of orbit. This implies that in all electrical activity a
very small fraction of the available electrons are involved.

When two insulators are rubbed together, charges can rub off one surface and
deposit on the other. For example, rubbing a silk cloth over a plastic rod will
cause some electrons to move from the cloth to the rod. Once electrons are
added to the rod, they can be transferred to other objects through a contact.

If two conductors that hang from a string are touched, they will repel each
other. This repelling force is attributed to the electric fields that surround these
added electrons. This repelling force field acts at a distance on every electron in
the vicinity. Free electrons in nearby conductors will move as a result of this
force.

The absence of electrons also has an electric field. The absence of electrons is
equivalent to a positive charge. Two objects with a positive charge will repel
each other. Objects with a negative charge will attract objects with a positive
charge.
 If a negatively charged object is brought near a conductor, the free electrons
on the conductor will be influenced by the external electric field and move away
from their points of equilibrium. These electrons will move until there is a
balance of forces between the displaced electrons and the external field. The
electrons that move away from a part of the surface leave behind a field that for
all practical purposes behaves like it is associated with positive charges. These
pseudo-positive charges have the same mobility as actual electrons. It is possible
to have areas of positive and negative charge on the same conductor.

In a static situation, extra electrons on a conductor distribute themselves on

the surface of the conductor. If there were a field inside the conductor, then free
electrons would be in motion, and this is not a static condition. Similarly, in a
static situation there can be no electric field parallel to the surface of a conductor
as this would also cause electrons to move on the surface. The number of
electrons that are involved in any electrical activity is a fraction of those
available.

Charge and the Electric Field

The unit of charge is the coulomb, abbreviated C. The letter q or Q is often used
to represent a given charge. One coulomb of negative charge is 6.28 x 1018
electrons. In most circuits the amount of charge involved is expressed in gC,
which is 10-6 coulombs.

The field that surrounds a charged object is called an E or electric field. This
field can exert a force only on another field. To measure the strength of a field, a
second charged object must be used. The charge on the second object must be
very small compared to the initial charge, or the field being measured will be
modified. The field is measured by noting the force on this small test object. At
every point in space the force has a direction. If arrows are used to represent the
direction of the force, the stems of the arrows can be interconnected to form
electric field lines. By convention, field lines start on positive charges and
terminate on negative charges. These field lines can be used to map the character
of the field between charged objects.
Work and Energy

Energy is stored in capacitors and inductors. This energy can do work by heating
a resistor or turning a motor. Voltage is defined in terms of work. Before we can
define voltage, we must define work.

The definition of work is "force times distance." The direction of the force
must be along the path of motion. When a mass is lifted on Earth, the work is
equal to the mass times distance. When 1 kilogram of water is lifted 1 meter, the
work done on the water is equal to 1 kilogrammeter. This work is stored as
potential energy or energy of position. Potential energy has the same units as
work. The energy stored by the water can be used to do work by releasing the
water and letting it turn a water wheel.

A force acting on a mass can also accelerate that mass. An example is a car
on rails. The work done on the car is again force times distance. In this case the
motion of the car stores energy. Energy of motion is called kinetic energy. The
units of kinetic energy are the same as the units of work. This energy of motion
could be converted to energy of position by letting the car roll up an incline.

In electrical systems the electric field exerts a force on a charge. If a force

moves this charge over a distance, work has been done on the charge, and
potential energy is stored in the system. In electricity the unit of work is the
joule. One joule is equal to 0.102 kilogrammeters (a force of 0.102 kilogram
acting over a distance of 1 meter).

Voltage-A Field View

The definition of voltage involves moving electrical charges in an electrical

field. Referring to Figure 8.1, assume a negative charge -Q (electrons) is moved
from the top conducting plate to the bottom conducting plate. These added
electrons will spread out over the bottom surface. The absence of electrons
(positive charge) will spread out over the top surface. This conductor geometry
provides a near uniform electric field between the two conductors.

Consider a charge q that is much smaller than a charge Q. If

the charge q is placed on a test object and the test object is placed in an elec tric
field, the force in the object is the intensity of the electric field strength times the
test charge, or

Figure 8.1 The electric field between two conductors

In Figure 8.1, the E field is uniform and the force on the test object is constant.
The work required to move the test object between the two conductors is f x d
where d is the spacing. The work W is therefore

where E is the field strength, q is in coulombs, and d is in meters. By definition,

the ratio of work to charge is the voltage V. In equation form:

where V is the voltage difference between the conductors, W is in joules, and q

is in coulombs. Since E x d must have units of volts, the E field must have units
of volts per meter. A voltage difference is a measure of the work required to
move a charge between two points.

In most circuits, the E field is not a part of the calculation. However, you
should realize that charges respond to the E field and not to voltage.
Voltage (Electrical Pressure)

Voltage is electrical pressure. A voltage difference implies an electric field. The

field actually provides the force that moves electrons. It is customary to say that
voltage causes electrons to flow in the conductors and components of a circuit.
Any point in a circuit can be called 0 V. This simply means that voltages only
exist as differences. If a point is at 10 V, then some other point is being used as
the 0 or reference point.

Voltage differences are also called potential differences. The term

electromotive force (emj) is sometimes used instead of voltage. Voltage
differences can exist in space. Voltage is not limited to points on conductors. Of
course, the measurement is hard to make, but it is a part of the definition of
voltage.

The definition of voltage involves an electric field and charges on the surface
of the conductors. If there is a voltage difference, then a field and a charge
distribution must be present on conductors. The two go together and cannot be
separated.

The voltages in electronics can cover a wide range, and many units are used
in order to cover this range. The millivolt or mV means 0.001 V. The microvolt
or tV is 0.000001 V. The kilovolt or kV is 1,000 V. The megavolt or MV is
1,000,000 V.

Current

Current is the motion of electrons. To get electrons to move in a conductor, they

must be in an electric field. The electric field exerts a force on the electrons that
causes them to accelerate. This is comparable to a mass in a gravitational field.
A free mass will accelerate until it hits the earth. An electron in an electric field,
say, one inside a television tube, will accelerate until it strikes the phosphor on
the screen.

An electric field will cause free electrons in a conductor to accelerate. They

cannot accelerate far, however, as they will immediately collide with atoms. In a
conductor, electrons can achieve an average velocity, but they cannot accelerate.
The energy they gain in acceleration is immediately given up in agitating atoms.
An increase in atomic motion is the same as a rise in temperature.

A steady flow of electrons is a current. A steady current in a conduc tor uses

the entire cross-section of the conductor. This flow of charge is not limited to the
surface. The unit of current is the ampere. One ampere is 1 coulomb of charge
passing a given point in 1 second.

The equation for current is

where I is in amperes, q is in coulombs, and t is time in seconds.

The letter A is often used as an abbreviation for current. A power breaker

might be rated 10 A, which is read as "ten amperes." In a circuit the usual
abbreviation for current is the letter I. A varying current is often given the letter
symbol lowercase i. The units of current used most often in electronics are the
milliampere or mA, which is 0.001 A, and the microampere or µA, which is
0.000001 A.

The Direction of Current Flow

Electrons are attracted to a positive potential. It would seem natural to say that
the direction of current flow is the same as the direction of electron flow.
Historically, however, the opposite convention was established, and it has
persisted. In all circuit analysis, current is said to flow from a point of positive
potential to a point of more negative potential. Electrons flow in the opposite
direction, to points of higher positive potential.

The Resistor and Ohm's Law

A resistor is a component that limits the flow of free electrons. Resistors play a
central role in all electronics. When a voltage is placed across the terminals of a
resistor, the electric field in the resistor causes electrons to move. The average
electron velocity will depend on the materials used to form the resistor.

There are many types of resistors, depending on application. The common

carbon resistor is made from a mixture of powdered carbon and a nonconducting
filler. The resistance is varied by changing the percentage of filler. This mixture,
along with two connecting copper leads, is compressed into a small cylinder. A
plastic housing with a resistance color code is then molded around the cylinder.

The unit of resistance is the ohm. When an electrical pressure (voltage) of 1 V

is placed across a 1-ohm resistor, 1 A will flow. When an electrical pressure of 1
V is applied to a 2-ohm resistor, the current is 39-A.

The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance is Ohm's law. This
relationship can be written in three different equations:

where I is in amperes, V is in volts, and R is in ohms.

The common carbon resistor covers the range from 10 S2 to 22 MU, which is
22,000,000 Q. The Greek capital letter omega (S2) is the abbreviation for ohm.
The other standard abbreviations are kQ for 1,000 ohms, MS for megohm, and
mS2 for thousandths of an ohm.

The circuit symbol for a resistor is:

Power

Power is the rate of doing work. In equation form this is

where Pis power in watts, W is work in joules, and t is time in seconds. The
work in moving a charge through a potential difference was given by W = qV. If
both sides of this equation are divided by time, then W/t equals power P and q/t
equals current I. This means that

where P is in watts, V is in volts, and I is in amperes.

Power Dissipation in Resistors

The power dissipated in a resistor can be determined from Equation 8.9 if you
substitute current or voltage from Ohm's law. Since V = IR or I=V/R

Capacitors

A capacitor is a component that has the ability to store a charge that is

proportional to the applied voltage. The parallel plates in Figure 8.1 represent a
simple capacitor. Capacitance is the ratio of charge to voltage, or

where C stands for capacitance in farads, Q is charge in coulombs, and V is

voltage in volts.

The use of the letter C for both capacitance and charge can be confusing.
Which meaning is intended can always be inferred from context.
 The circuit symbol for a capacitor is:

The farad is a very large unit, and it is common to use one-millionth of a

farad, abbreviated .tE Even this unit is often too big. A smaller unit is the pF
(picofarad), which is one-millionth of a .tE In exponential notation, 1µF = 10-6
F and 1 pF = 10-12 F.

The voltage across the plates of a capacitor implies that there are charges on
the plates and that there is an electric field between the plates. If the charge
increases linearly, then the voltage also increases linearly. If both sides of
Equation 8.11 are divided by time t, the term Q/t is current and the equation
becomes

This equation states that a steady current flowing into a capacitor results in an
increasing voltage. If 1 A flows into a 1 F capacitor, the voltage rises at 1 V per
second. If 1 µA flows into a 1 tF capacitor, the voltage rises at 1 V per second.
When V/t changes, the current adjusts to the new value.

The Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The conductors shown in Figure 8.1 form the plates of a capacitor. To calculate
the energy stored in this capacitor for a given voltage, we divide the stored
charge Q into many smaller charges q. The plan is to move the charge across the
space in small increments. When the charge on the plates is 0, it takes no work to
move the first charge from the top plate to the bottom plate. The second charge q
takes a small amount of work, as there is now an electric field. From Equation
8.3, the work required to move the last charge q is qV. The total work is the
average work, or
This equation can be related to the capacitance by substituting Q from Equation
8.11:

Capacitors store energy in the electric field between the plates. This energy is
not dissipated. It is stored as potential energy-that is, energy that can do work
later. The ideal capacitor will hold stored energy until a path is provided for the
charge to leave. A parallel resistor can provide this path. The stored energy will
simply heat the resistor.

Practical Capacitors

The plates in Figure 8.1 would form a very small capacitor. Capacitance
increases with larger surface area and reduced spacing between the plates. The
capacitance also increases if the space between the plates is filled with an
insulating dielectric rather than air. Typical dielectrics are glass, mica, Mylar,
and polypropylene. The increase in capacitance brought about by using one of
these materials is called the dielectric constant.

The required plate area is often obtained by rolling a sandwich of two

metalized dielectrics into a tight cylinder. Capacitors larger than 1 µF are often
made using a polarized dielectric. These dielectrics can only be used for one
polarity of voltage, such as found in a power supply. These components are
called electrolytic capacitors.

The Inductor and the Magnetic Field

An inductor is a circuit component that stores magnetic field energy. To

understand an inductor, it is necessary to understand the magnetic field. When
current flows in a conductor, there is a magnetic field around that conductor.
This field can be demonstrated by noting the movement of a compass needle
near the conductor. The magnetic field from a current is called an H field. When
the conductor is wound around a cylinder (solenoid), the magnetic field is
increased by the number of turns. When current flows, the magnetic field threads
through the coils along the axis of the cylinder. Many inductors are
manufactured by wrapping coils of wire over a small cylinder.

Magnetic flux is the magnetic field intensity times a cross-sectional area. It is

represented by field lines that close on themselves. The total magnetic flux that
is developed is proportional to the number of turns in the inductor, and to the
current. In the solenoid, when the current increases, the flux that threads the
turns increases. This increasing flux develops a voltage at the terminals of the
solenoid that opposes the change in current flow. The opposing voltage is
proportional to the rate of change of current and to the inductance of the
solenoid. This effect is known as Lenz's law. In equation form:

where V is in volts, current is in amperes, time is in seconds, and L is inductance

in units of henries. This equation states that if the voltage is constant across an
inductor, the current must increase at a fixed rate. This is directly analogous to
the capacitor. A steady current flowing into a capacitor will result in a voltage
rising at a fixed rate. If the voltage rises at a faster rate, then the current must
increase.

A magnetic field can be described two ways. One way is the induction or B
flux, and the second way is the H flux that is created by current flow. The
changing induction flux induces the voltage stated in Lenz's law. For a given
current, the induction flux can be increased by placing magnetic material in the
flux path. This is exactly analogous to the increase in charge storage when a
dielectric is added to a capacitor. The ability of a material to increase the
induction or B flux is called permeability. Iron has a permeability that can
exceed 10,000. This property of iron makes transformers and motors practical at
60 Hz. By having iron in the magnetic path, the current required to establish the
induction flux can be held to practical limits.

The circuit symbol for an inductor is

Typical values of inductance are the millihenry, abbreviated mH, and the
microhenry, abbreviated µH. 1 mH = 0.001H. 1 µH = 0.000001H.

The Energy Stored in an Inductor

The energy stored in an inductor can be calculated by considering a fixed

voltage placed across the terminals. The energy for the first increment of time is
V x i x tl (this is power times time). The energy for the last increment of time is
V x I x t„. The average current is 1/2. The total energy is the sum of all the
increments of energy, or W = XV X I x t. The steady voltage by Lenz's law is V
= L X I/t. Substituting this value yields

This energy is stored in the magnetic field. The energy is constant as long as the
current is sustained. In practice, however, a sustained current can only occur in a
superconductor where the resistance of the coil is 0. If the energy stored in a
capacitor is considered potential energy, then the energy stored in an inductor by
a current can be considered kinetic energy. The moving charges store the energy.

Transformers

A transformer is an electrical component that couples voltages by using a

changing magnetic field. It consists of coils of wire wrapped around a magnetic
path, usually made up of iron. A voltage on the first or primary coil creates a
changing magnetic field in the iron. The flux from this magnetic field threads
through a second coil. This changing flux induces the same voltage waveform on
the second coil.

The voltage is proportional to the number of turns. If there is 1 V per 30 turns

on the primary coil, there will be 1 V per 30 turns on the secondary coil. If there
are one-half the total number of turns on the secondary, the voltage induced on
the entire secondary will be halved.
 Practical transformers have many limitations. A magnetic material can
support only a limited amount of induction flux before it saturates. The turns of
wire offer resistance. The current that creates the induction flux can affect the
voltage waveforms. Power transformers will only function over a very limited
frequency range.

The symbol for a transformer is

Semiconductor Materials

Electronics today is dominated by semiconductors. Components like transistors

and diodes are made from semiconductor material. This same material is used to
make integrated circuits or ICs, which may incorporate over 1,000,000
transistors. Integrated circuits provide many of the functions that at one time had
to be built out of separate components.

The most common semiconductor material is silicon. Silicon is an element

found in most of the rocks on Earth. Crystals of nearly pure silicon can be grown
as ingots, which are then sliced into thin wafers. Thousands of components can
be fabricated on one wafer. Fabrication consists of many steps that include
vacuum deposition and etching using different optical masks.

A pure silicon crystal is an insulator. This is because the outershell electrons

of the silicon atoms are shared to form the crystal. A phosphorous atom has one
more electron than a silicon atom. If an atom of phosphorus is added to the
silicon crystal, the extra electron becomes a free electron, and the silicon
becomes a conductor. The addition of phosphorous atoms to silicon is called
doping. The crystal is said to be doped with a donor atom. The doping levels can
be as small as one part in 10 million. A crystal doped with phosphorous is called
n-type silicon.

If boron is used as the dopant, then the material becomes p-type silicon.
Boron has one less electron than silicon, so instead of providing a free electron,
it provides a receptor site. The absence of an electron is called a hole. P-type
silicon is also a conductor, as the holes behave very much like the pseudo-
positive charges on a conductor.

If a sandwich of p and n silicon is created, the junction between the p and n

material forms a diode. The diode is a common electronic component. Electrons
in the n material can easily cross over into the p region if the E field is in that
direction. In the opposite direction there are no free electrons in the p region to
move into the n material, so in this direction the material behaves like an
insulator. Conduction in one direction only is called rectification. The direction
of easy current flow is called the forward direction. The direction of no current
flow is called the reverse direction.

A sandwich of pnp or npn material forms a transistor. The outer two materials
are called the emitter and the collector. The center material is called the base. If
an electric field is impressed across the sandwich, the two diodes inhibit current
flow in either direction.

In an npn transistor, the electrons flow in the forward direction through the
base emitter diode, and then the sandwich acts like all n material. Electrons flow
across from the emitter to the collector. This assumes there is a collector voltage.
There is a multiplication effect by which a small amount of base current results
in a significant amount of emitter to collector current. This multiplication of
current is called transistor action. In a pnp transistor the exact same
multiplication occurs, except that all the current directions are reversed. This
action of transistors makes them very important components in electronic
circuits.

Radian Measure of Angle

In electricity the measure of angle is the radian. Consider an arc on a circle equal
in length to the radius r. Now form an angle by connecting radial lines to the
ends of this arc. The angle formed this way is 1 radian. Since the circumference
is 21t X r, there are 2n radians in 360 degrees. it is a constant equal to 3.1416.
One radian is equal to 57.29 degrees.

The angles that are frequently used in electricity are 45°, 90°, 180°, and 360°.
When measured in radians, these are n/4, n/2, it, and 2n radians.

Frequency

The unit of frequency used in electronics is the hertz. One hertz is equal to one
cycle per second. The cycles can be of any recurring event. The abbreviation for
hertz is Hz. The expression kHz is read kilohertz and means 1,000 cycles per
second. The abbreviation MHz is read megahertz and the expression GHz is read
gigahertz. One GHz is equal to 1,000 MHz.

Sine Waves

Sine wave voltages and currents play an important role in all electronics. Circuit
analysis uses sine waves, as this is the only waveform that remains unchanged
throughout most circuits. Sine waves are also used as carrier signals in most
communications channels.

The sine function is one of the trigonometric functions. It is defined using a

circle with a radius of 1. The radius of the circle forms an angle O with the
horizontal axis. The sine of the angle is the height of the radius tip above the
horizontal axis. As the tip rotates counterclockwise, the height h varies in a
sinusoidal manner. Mathematically this is stated as

The sine wave and a rotating radius are shown in Figure 8.2.
 Figure 8.2 The sine wave function using a rotating radius

If the angle in Figure 8.2 increases with time, the value of h will move
between + and -1 during every revolution. If the angle increases 360 degrees per
second, then the height at any time t is equal to

If the angle makes two revolutions per second, then the frequency f is 2 Hz The
height h for any frequency f and for any value of time is

where f is frequency in Hz and t is time in seconds. For example, if f equals 10

where f is frequency in Hz and t is time in seconds. For example, if f equals 10
Hz and t = 0.025 seconds, the angle is equal to 90° (n/2) and the value of h is 1.

We can use this sine function to represent any parameter that changes
sinusoidally. For example, a sinusoidal voltage v is represented by the
expression

The voltage v reaches a peak value of + V once per cycle. If f = 20 Hz, then v
varies between + V and -V 20 times per second.

Using radian measure for the angle, a sinusoidal voltage at a fre-quency_f is

given by the expression

where V is the peak value of voltage, f is the frequency in Hz, and t is time in
seconds.

Rotating Pointers for Voltage and Current

Voltages or currents that vary sinusoidally are represented by a rotating pointer

system. Each pointer rotates once per cycle. When a pointer points right, the
voltage or current is 0. When that pointer is vertical, the current or voltage is
maximum. The length of the pointers represents the peak value of the voltage or
current.

It is easy to consider the pointers as rotating but being viewed by a strobe

light. The strobe light is adjusted until one of the pointers points straight right.
This pointer will be the reference pointer. The direction of the other pointers will
show the timing relationships between various currents and voltages. If a pointer
for current is vertical when a voltage pointer is horizontal, the current has
reached its peak 90 electrical degrees ahead of the voltage. The angle between
the voltage and the current is called a phase angle.

In circuits with resistors, capacitors, and inductors, the voltages and currents
peak at different times. This is represented by pointers that are separated by
phase angles.

The Current in a Capacitor

When a sinusoidal voltage is placed across a capacitor, the current that flows
depends on how rapidly the voltage is changing. For a sine wave voltage, the
voltage changes most rapidly at the zero crossing of voltage. The maximum rate
of change is 2nf Vp where f is frequency and Vp is the peak voltage of the sine
wave. The peak current that flows from Equation 8.12 is

The current that flows is also a sine wave where Ip is the peak value. The ratio of
peak voltage to peak current is called the reactance of the capacitor and is

where Xc is the reactance in ohms, C is capacitance in farads, and f is frequency

in Hz.
 Figure 8.3 The rotating pointer system showing the timing relationship
between current and voltage in a capacitor

The current in a capacitor for a sine wave voltage is always maximum when
the voltage is 0. Figure 8.3 shows the timing relationship between current and
voltage in a capacitor. Using the pointer system, you can see that the current
leads the voltage by 90 electrical degrees. This relationship holds for all
capacitors at all frequencies. Energy is stored in a capacitor when there is
voltage. This means that peak energy is stored twice per cycle. Energy is stored
in a capacitor; it is never converted to heat in a capacitor.

The Voltage across an Inductor

The voltage across an inductor is given by Equation 8.15. This voltage depends
on the how rapidly the current is changing. If the current is sinusoidal, the
maximum rate of change of current occurs when the current goes through 0. The
maximum voltage occurs at this time. The resulting voltage is also a sinusoid,
and the maximum voltage is

The ratio of peak voltage to peak current in an inductor is called inductive

reactance. The equation for inductive reactance is

where XL is the reactance in ohms, L is the inductance in henries, and f is

frequency in Hz.

Figure 8.4 uses the pointer system to show the timing relationship between
voltage and current in an inductor. If the voltage is selected as the reference
pointer, then the current pointer points straight down. This means that the current
in an inductor lags the voltage by 90 electrical degrees. This relationship holds
for all inductors at all frequencies. Energy is stored in an inductor twice per
cycle when the current is at maximum. Energy is stored in an inductor; it is
never lost as heat.
 Figure 8.4 The timing relationship between current and
voltage in an inductor

The Meaning of AC and DC

The abbreviation dc stands for direct current. Direct current means that the
voltage or current does not vary. A battery voltage is an example of dc voltage.
If one ampere is drawn from the battery, this current is also called dc. Although
the word "current" is present in the abbreviation, it is not always appropriate, as
dc refers to both voltage and current.

The abbreviation ac stands for alternating current. The power voltages that we
use are 60 Hz ac. Alternating current is a varying voltage or current. Again, the
word "current" in the abbreviation may not be appropriate.

The Meaning of RMS

Voltages and currents are usually referred to in terms of their heating ability.
At dc, the power dissipated in a resistor is V2(dc)/R. It is very convenient if an
ac source with the same measure provides the same heat. In other words,
V2(ac)/R should provide the same heat. But when an ac voltage heats a resistor,
the power varies during the cycle. The average squared value of a voltage is one-
half the peak value. Thus we could say that power is equal to Vp2/2R. Rather
than involve this factor of two, the accepted practice is to refer to sine waves in
terms of their peak value divided by the V. This is their rms, or root mean square
value. In this book all the ac voltages and currents are assumed to be rms values
unless otherwise stated.

If V is the rms value of a voltage, the peak voltage is 1.414 V. The peak-to-
peak value is 2.818 V. In our homes the rms value of voltage is 120 V. This is
169.7 V peak or 339 V peak-to-peak.

Square Waves

A square wave is a waveform where the voltage (current) transitions between

two values. A typical symmetrical square wave might go from 10 V positive to
10 V negative at 10 kHz. Square waves do not have to be symmetrical; their
average value may not be 0. For example, some square waves are at 0 V half the
time.

Useful square waves must transition between voltages in a very short time.
These transitions are called rise and fall times.

The rms value of a symmetric square wave is the peak value. If the square
wave is 0 half the time, the heating value is one-half. This makes the rms voltage
the peak value divided by the square root of two.
 Square waves are a valuable tool for testing circuits. A square wave is made
up of many sine waves. By using a square wave to test a circuit, the response can
yield information not available by using a signal at one frequency.

The sine waves that make up a symmetrical square wave

are called harmonics. The sine wave at the square wave repetition rate is called
the fundamental. The next higher harmonic has a frequency three times the
fundamental at one-third the amplitude. The harmonics are all odd multiples of
the fundamental that have ever-decreasing amplitude. The next harmonic is five
times the fundamental frequency at one-fifth the amplitude.

When a circuit is tested using a square wave, the response is to the

fundamental and all the harmonics superposed. The peak amplitude of the
fundamental sine wave is 2/7c times the peak-to-peak value of the square wave.

Decibels

In electronics we often refer to ratios. The ratio might be of voltages at two

different frequencies. It might be the voltage attenuation ratio in a filter. The
ratios can sometimes involve very large or very small factors. The decibel
provides a convenient way to handle these ratios. To understand the decibel, it is
necessary to be familiar with logarithms.

The logarithm of a number is the exponent of 10 needed to equate to the

number. 102 = 100, so the logarithm of 100 is 2. The logarithm of 1,000 is 3, as
10' = 1,000. Similarly, 10-2 = 0.01, so the logarithm of 0.01 is -2. Logarithms
squeeze the range of numbers between onebillionth and one billion into the
range -9 to +9. The number to which the exponent is applied, in this case the
number 10, is called the base for these logarithms. "The logarithm of 102" is
written log 102 = 2.

In the early days of the telephone, a unit was invented that represented the
smallest detectable change in sound power level. This unit was called a decibel.
The term bel was used to honor Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the
telephone. The bel is the logarithm of the power ratio. The decibel was defined
as 10 log P1/P2 where P, and P2 are these power levels. When measured as
voltages, this power ratio becomes 20 log V,/ V2. For 1 decibel, the ratio of
voltages is equal to 1.122. This assumes the voltages are applied to the same
resistance. This logarithmic measure of ratios has come into common use, and
the original power definition is sometimes lost. A circuit with a gain of 100 is
said to have a gain of 40 decibels, abbreviated 40 dB. This measure has nothing
to do with power.

In some areas of electronics, voltages are given in terms of dB volts. In this

case the reference value or V2 would be 1 V. 20 dB volts is simply 10 V. The
same idea can be used for amperes or electric field strength. If the reference level
is 1 mV, then 20 dB mV is the same as 10 mV.

The beauty of the decibel in describing performance is that decibels add while
gain factors multiply. For example, if two circuits have a gain of 23 dB and 12
dB, the combined gain is 35 dB. If a circuit attenuates a signal by 45 dB and the
gain following is 60 dB, the overall signal gain is 15 dB. If the initial signal was
5 dB volts, the resulting signal would be 20 dB volts or 10 V The dB makes
calculations very simple. See the table showing dB values.

Frequency Response

The response of a circuit to sine wave voltages depends on frequency. Usually a

voltage amplitude is plotted on the vertical axis against frequency on the
horizontal axis. Correctly speaking, this is an amplitudeversus-frequency
response curve. It is often referred to simply as a frequency response curve.
 The frequency axis is often logarithmic to accommodate a wide range of
frequencies. Major scale divisions can represent factors of 10. The spacing
between 1 and 10 Hz would equal the spacing between 100 kHz and 1 MHz. The
vertical scale can represent gain, or it can represent relative amplitude. If the
vertical scale is in dB, the vertical scale is already logarithmic. This is the
preferred scale because many of the important features of the response can be
easily seen. If a filter response falls off as the square of frequency, the plot of dB
amplitude versus the logarithm of frequency is a straight line.
Components

The components you will need in the Learning Circuits are available in most
electronics parts stores. Some stores carry loose stock, as opposed to
individually packaged components. The advantage to loose stock is lower cost.
Individually packaged items will be more clearly identified as to value and
rating. As an example of cost, X W carbon resistors in bulk cost a manufacturer
under two cents each. A single packaged resistor may cost 50 cents or more.
This cost can add up if you need a hundred resistors.

The number of components you will need is not exact. You may want to leave
some of the circuits assembled rather than tear them down for the next lesson, or
you may want to experiment with constructions that are not a part of the
Learning Circuits. This is entirely up to you. You may want to start slowly and
buy a few parts. Buying the parts is part of the fun. It is also part of learning
about electronics.

You will probably purchase resistors that are ! W 20% carbon, although metal
film resistors can be used. In many cases the exact values indicated are not
critical and a nearby value will be acceptable. Except for size, 1-W resistors will
work fine.

The smaller capacitors can be metalized Mylar, although other types will be
quite adequate. The larger capacitors (above 10 .tF) should be electrolytics rated
35 V or higher. In the voltage doubler circuit, the capacitor must be properly
rated.

The power diodes 1N1002 can be any diode in the series 1N1001 through
1N1005. The last number defines the reverse voltage, and in our circuits this
voltage is quite low. There are many other power diodes that would function in
these circuits.

The transistor types suggested are readily available, although many other
types would be acceptable. The best way to substitute another type is to look at
specification sheets. There is often help available in most stores as to how you
can make substitutions. Manufacturers provide component data on the Internet.
You may want to try this approach. Just type in the part number on "Google" and
you will be surprised. The only things that are important are the maximum
voltage and current ratings and the gain, called P.

There are many ways to build experimental circuit boards. I have suggested
an epoxy board with a grid of punched holes. Packages of pins are available that
press-fit into these holes. Components can then be soldered to the pins. You
might want to buy a package of 100 pins to get started. A tool to press-fit the
pins into the board is often a help. The following list of components will allow
you to build all the circuits in this book.

Resistors: %2 W 20% carbon except where noted

4 10 92, 100 S2, 4 330 S2, 4 470 0

6 1 kS2, 22.2kS2, 23.3kS2, 23.9kS2, 24.7kS2

6 10 W, 2 18 kS2, 2 22 k12

2 100 kS2, 2 1 MS2

2 1.0 kS2 1 W 20% carbon

Potentiometer

10-kS2 single turn carbon

Capacitors:
 The majority of these components can be metalized Mylar rated greater
than 50 V. Other dielectrics can be used. The voltage ratings should be 50 V
or greater.

1 100 pF, 2 0.001 .tF, 4 0.01 .tF, 3 1.0 p.F, 4 100 µF 35-V electrolytic

Semiconductors

2 1N1002 and 4 1N4148 diodes

2 10-V, 3 5.1-V, and 2 15-V zener diodes

1 red LED diode

2 TIP29A, 2 TIP30A, 3 2N3904, and 2 2N3906 transistors

1 LF353 IC amplifier

Inductor

10 mH. Under 10-52 dc resistance. Natural frequency above 100 kHz.

Hardware

2 9-V and 1 1.5-V battery

tinned # 16 or # 18 10-foot bus wire

4 or more red and black clip leads of different lengths

1 SPDT switch

1 8-pin DIP socket for LF353 plastic IC

test board with a grid of holes approximately 6" by 8". An epoxy board is
recommended.

1 package of 100 press-fit pins (must match the hole diameter in the board)
1 18-V ac adapter rated X ampere or greater; #PHC-AC-1888C or equal

soldering iron and stand

rosin core solder for electronics

needle-nose pliers

wire cutter

Soldering

You will need to know how to solder if you want to construct the Learning
Circuits in this book. Soldering is the process of heating an alloy of tin and lead
called solder and using it to make an electrical connection. It requires a supply of
solder and a soldering iron to provide heat.

There are many types of soldering irons. The irons used for electronics are not
the 100-or 200-W variety. These heavy irons can damage sensitive components
through overheating. In electronics we use a smaller iron that has a small pointed
tip, ideally one with a regulated temperature at the tip. 20 or 30 watts is
adequate.

The solder you will use is usually provided on a spool. It looks like a coil of
white uninsulated wire. In the center of the solder strand is a material called
rosin. During the soldering process the rosin aids in cleaning the surfaces to
allow the solder to flow.

Preparing the Soldering Iron

After your soldering iron is hot, make sure the tip can melt solder. If you have a
new iron, melt solder on the entire tip area. Wipe off any excess solder with a
heavy cloth. If you leave a soldering iron on for a period of time, a layer of
oxidation or scum will form. Always wipe this layer of scum off the iron with a
rag before you begin soldering. Heat cannot flow effectively through this scum.

The only way heat can properly flow from the soldering iron is through the
melted solder on the tip. The tip is ready when it has a thin, bright white layer of
melted solder on its surface. The heat from the soldering iron must flow to the
conductors being soldered. Touch the soldering iron tip to the conductors to be
soldered. Heat will flow to the conductors through the "tinned" tip. Feed the new
solder by hand to the leads being soldered near the point of contact, not to the
soldering iron. When the leads are hot, the solder will melt onto the leads.

What Is a Good Solder Connection?

A good solder connection is a thin layer of solder that connects two or more
conductors. It is not just a glob of solder. The solder should flow so that the
solder tapers to the lead. Any foldback of solder is suspicious. These poor
junctions are called rosin joints. They can be a source of trouble. A rosin joint
can be intermittent or even an open connection. This is a problem you do not
need when you are getting started.

Soldering Hints

If you have done soldering in other applications, such as plumbing, you may
have used acid flux to help with bonding. Acid flux is never used in electronic
soldering. The acid can eventually do damage to components. The solder used in
electronics contains a rosin that forms the core or center of the solder The rosin
helps clean the surface and is adequate to do most circuit soldering.

One last tip: Avoid using a solder joint as a mechanical support, except on a
very temporary basis. The right way is to use a mounting pin or terminal so that
the connection is anchored to a circuit board. Solder is an electrical connection,
not a mechanical support.

Obtaining Measuring Equipment

Ideally, you should buy or borrow an oscilloscope and a waveform (function)

generator, so that you can see for yourself how circuits work. Both are readily
available at any large electronics store. Unfortunately, they are not inexpensive-
you may pay several thousand dollars for new ones. Used oscilloscopes and
function generators are available for a few hundred dollars. When I checked on
eBay recently there were many available. I know this is still a considerable
investment, but if you get hooked on electronics you will need this measuring
equipment and will use it over and over. Or ask around-perhaps someone you
know has some equipment you can borrow.

However you obtain this equipment, you will learn a great deal from using it.
There is truly no substitute for hands-on experience in electronics, and this is
what I have tried to give you with the Learning Circuits. Have fun with them,
and your understanding of electricity will grow very quickly.
Introduction

To read the text of this book and to work the problems, you need a basic
understanding of the branch of mathematics called algebra. The tools of algebra
enable us to do all the arithmetic operations without requiring us to use specific
numbers. This generalization gives algebra tremendous flexibility and
usefulness.

I have used algebra only where I felt it was really necessary, and this
discussion is not meant to be a comprehensive explanation of algebra, but only a
review of those topics I actually use.

If you have already studied algebra, this brief section will refresh your
memory. If you have not studied algebra before, this section should give you a
sufficient understanding to read the text. The only way to gain proficiency in
using algebra is to work many problems. Unfortunately, there is not space in this
book for those problems. If you want to really learn algebra, which I
recommend, there are many textbooks available. A book in this series called
Practical Algebra is recommended.

Symbols and Equations

The operations used in algebra are essentially the same ones used in arithmetic.
The common operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
The symbol for addition is the + sign and the symbol for subtraction is the - sign.
Simply placing two quantities next to each other indicates that they are to be
multiplied. Sometimes the symbol x is used to indicate multiplication. In
algebra, division is usually indicated by a horizontal line. (The division symbol -
used in arithmetic is not very convenient.) Items below the line are divided into
items above the line.

The difference between arithmetic and algebra is that algebra uses symbols in
addition to numbers. In arithmetic, you might write 2/3, which means "two
divided by three." In algebra you can perform the same operation and write it the
same way, but use the symbols a and b instead of the numbers. The term alb
means "a divided by b."

In algebra, the sequence of operations is important. The expression c/(a + bc)

means "multiply b times c, add the product to a, then take this sum and divide it
into c." This is the only permitted sequence to this calculation.

Engineers and scientists often use symbols to represent parameters.

Parameters are the things that vary in a problem. (They are also called variables.)
For example, the letter d is often used to represent a distance. The distance might
have units of feet, meters, or miles. When you drive your car, the distance you
drive at a steady velocity for a given length of time is simply the velocity times
time. The shorthand or algebra for this statement is d = vt.

The symbol = means "equals." In this example the letter v stands for velocity
and the letter t stands for time. For example, if you drive 60 miles per hour for 2
hours the distance is 120 miles. In this case v = 60 miles per hour and t = 2
hours. In words, 120 miles equals 60 miles per hour times 2 hours. The
statement that v = d x t or v = dt is very compact and covers all velocities,
distances, and periods of time for any system of units. Distance, velocity, and
time are all called parameters in this statement.

The statements v = 60, t = 2, and d = vt are known as equations. Equations are

relationships between parameters, or between parameters and numbers. For an
equation to work, the parameters must have compatible units. If the velocity is in
miles per hour, the time must be in units of hours, not seconds. The units
themselves can always be used in the form of an equation to see that everything
is proper. For example, assume the velocity has units of miles/hour. This is read
as "miles divided by hours" or "miles per hour." The equation using units for d =
vt reads
Notice that the unit "hour" appears in the numerator and denominator. Just as in
arithmetic, you can cancel the two identical terms, leaving the unit miles on both
sides of the equation. An equation is not valid unless the units agree on both
sides of the equal sign.

The Number System

The simplest representation of the numbers we use places them on a straight line.
The center point is 0. To the right are the increasing positive numbers and to the
left are the increasing negative numbers. The addition of numbers simply adds
lengths of the line from the origin. The length 3 is added to the length 5 for a
value of 8. If both numbers are negative, the length is given a negative direction.
The subtraction of numbers is the distance between points on the line. The
distance between 6 and 8 is plus 2. This is written as 8 - 6 = 2. The distance from
8 to 6 is a minus 2. This is written as 6 - 8 = -2. The multiplication or division by
a negative number reverses the direction of the original number. For example,
minus 1 times a plus 6 is a minus 6. Minus 6 times minus 1 is a plus 6. A minus
6 divided by a minus 1 is also a plus 6. When symbols are used instead of
numbers, they are all treated as if they were positive values. For example, (-2) (-
a) equals +2a. If a turns out to be a negative number, the answer will be
negative.

About Parameters

When a parameter changes value, an equation relating those parameters must

still hold true. The other parameters must adjust to maintain the equality. For
example, if d = vt and d changes by a factor of 4, then v and/or t must adjust. If v
is fixed, then t must increase by 4. If t is fixed, then v must increase by 4 times.
It is also possible for both v and t to increase by a factor of 2. Obviously there
are many other ways for the product vt to increase by a factor of 4.
Algebraic Manipulations

Algebra allows changes to both sides of an equation so that the equality is

maintained. By making these changes, new facts about the original relationship
can be uncovered. Again, the rules of algebraic operation are the same as the
rules of arithmetic. If d = vt, then algebra says that 4d = 4vt. In the previous
example, the distance was 120 miles. The new equation for the same parameter
values states that 480 miles equals 480 miles. The rules are simple: There can be
the same addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division to both sides of an
equation. One restriction is that division by 0 is not permitted.

Changes to an equation that involve addition or subtraction must involve a

separate term on both sides of the equation. Consider the equation a/b = c/d.
Adding f to both sides is permitted. The new equation is alb +f = c/d +f Adding
.f in any other way is illegal. For example, (a +.f )/b is not equal to (c +f)/d.

Changes to an equation that involve multiplication must affect every term on

both sides of the equation. Consider the equation a + b = c + d. If we multiply
both sides of the equation by f, the result is of + bf = cf + df. All of the terms
must be multiplied. The sum of + b is not equal to cf + d because only the first
terms are included.

The expression alb means "divide a by b." If a = 10 and b = 5, the result is 2.

The expression alb can be changed to 3a/3b without changing its value. The rule
is very simple: The numerator and denominator of an expression can both be
multiplied by the same terms and the expression remains unchanged. It is illegal
to add or subtract the same term from the numerator and denominator. The
expression (a + 1)/ (b + 1) is not equal to a/b. In multiplication, all the terms in
the numerator and denominator must be included.

Equations remain unchanged if the reciprocal is taken of both sides. For

example, if a = b, then we can divide both sides by ab. The result is 1 b = 1 a. Of
course, this can also be written as 1 a = 1 b. This method is often used as a step
in solving an equation for an unknown.

Algebra has some further rules that must be followed, or errors can result.
The proper sequence of operations must be followed. The statement "three plus
five times two" can be read two ways. The first way is to add three and five
together and then multiply by two. The second way is to multiply five by two
and then add three. The first answer is 16 and the second answer is 13. Algebra
uses parentheses to indicate sequence.

If the first answer was intended, then the three and five must be placed in
parentheses. The rules of algebra require that terms inside the parentheses must
be treated as one value. In symbolic form, (a + b)c is different from a + bc. Note
that (a + b)c can also be written as ac + bc. Of course, all of these rules can be
checked using numbers.

Solving an Equation

Consider the equation d = vt. We can divide both sides of the equation by t and
obtain the result d/t = v. We can do this by drawing a line under both sides of the
equation. We then place tin the denominator on both sides of the equation. We
do not know the value of d/t, so we leave it in symbolic form. On the other side
of the equation, vt/t is the same as v because t/t is the same as 1. We say that the
is cancel. We can develop a third relationship by dividing both sides by v and
obtain the equation d/v = t. These new equations are valid if the first equation is
true. We could add or subtract any parameter from both sides of the equation
without affecting the balance of values.

To see how the rules work, we can solve for R in the equation (3R - S)/ W =
C. First multiply both sides of the equation by W. The result is 3R - S = CW
Next add S to both sides of the equation. The result is 3R = CW + S. Dividing
both sides by 3, we obtain R = (CW+ S)/3. If the parentheses are removed from
the original equation, it reads 3R - S1 W = C. We can add S1 W to both sides
and obtain 3R = C + S/W. Now R = C/3 + S/3 W, a very different expression.

Algebraic Identities

The following identities are always true and perfectly general. For example, the
identity a/a = 1 can be extended to cover b/b = 1 or (c + 1)/(c + 1) = 1.
Exponents

A notation that finds frequent use in algebra is the exponent. The simplest
example of an exponent is the square. The expression a2 is read "a squared" (or
sometimes "a to the second power"), and it means a x a. Similarly, a3 ("a
cubed") means a x a x a. Exponents are additive when the same base parameter
is involved in multiplication. For example, a2 x a3 = a5. The expression a2b3
does not equal (ab)5. It follows that in division, exponents subtract. As an
example, a5/a2 = a3. A term to the exponent zero is one for all parameters. This
is because a"/a" = 1 for any value of a or n, and (n - n) is 0. The exponent 1 is
redundant, as it leaves the value unchanged; a' = a.

The term a2/a5 can be written two ways. When the exponents are subtracted,
the result can be a-3 or 1/a3. A simple rule follows: Any term can be moved
from the numerator to the denominator by changing the sign of its exponent. The
same rule applies when a term is moved from the denominator to the numerator.
As an example, the term alb-3/c 3d could also be written as cad-'/a 2b3.

Fractional exponents can be used. The simplest application is the square root.
The notation a` means the square root of a. This can also be written as N/a. The
definition of the square root is a number that multiplied by itself yields the
number. The product a'12a'/2 = a' = a.
 When an exponent is used with the number 10, the 10 represents the number
of zeros following the one. For example, 102 equals a 1 followed by two zeros,
or 100;106 is 1,000,000;10-6 is one-millionth, or 0.000001. In this case the
exponent is the number of decimal places before the decimal point. The process
of adding zeroes is referred to as powers of 10. Powers of 10 are much easier to
use than large groups of zeros.

Adding or Subtracting Terms

Adding or subtracting terms algebraically is no different from adding or

subtracting fractions. To add 2/3 to 1 7 we first find the common denominator.
The common denominator is 7 times 3. Now we can change each fraction so that
it has the same denominator. The two fractions become 1421 and 3/21. The sum
is (14 + 3)/21 or 17/21.

To add the terms a/b to c/d we can do the same thing. The common
denominator is bd. To change alb so that the denominator is bd, we multiply the
numerator and denominator by d. The result is ad/bd. Similarly, the term c/d can
be changed to cb/bd. With a common denominator, the sum can be written (ad +
cd)/bd = (a + c)/b.

In chapter 2 the equation for parallel resistors was given as 1 R3 = 1R1 +

1/R2. The righthand sum can be rewritten as R2/R1R2 + R1/R1R2. With a
common denominator, the terms can be combined as (R1 + R2)/R1R2. Now the
equation is 1/R3 = (R1 + R2)/R1R2. To solve for R3, we simply invert both
sides of the equation and R3 = R1R2/ (R1 + R3).