FD8010

MEAT, FISH AND POULTRY PROCESSING

TECHNOLOGY
(2017 Regulation)

LECTURE NOTES

UNIT II – MEAT PROCESSING

COURSE INSTRUCTOR

HEMAMALINI S, M. Tech.,

Teaching Assistant

2023

SREE SASTHA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY (SSIET)
CHEMBARAMBAKKAM, CHENNAI - 600123
 UNIT II – MEAT PROCESSING

SYLLABUS: Factors affecting post-mortem changes, properties and shelf-life of meat. Meat
tenderization and Meat quality evaluation. Modern abattoirs, slaughter house and its features.
Preservation of meat-aging, pickling, smoking. Dried and Cured meat. Canned meat, Frozen
meat, Cooked and Refrigerated meat, Sausages.

FACTORS AFFECTING POST-MORTEM CHANGES OF MEAT

Factors such as genetics, nutrition, environmental conditions, and pre and postmortem handling
can drastically influence the conversion of muscle to meat and ultimately end-product quality.
[For more details, refer Unit I notes and [Link]
biological-sciences/postmortem-change]

FACTORS AFFECTING PROPERTIES OF MEAT

The major characteristics of meat include functional parameters such as yield, carcass
composition, colour, water holding capacity, pH, palatability parameters such as tenderness,
flavour, juiciness, and wholesomeness parameters such as microbial, chemical, and nutritional
quality. These quality parameters in different meats are affected by various factors.
Quality, meat composition, and structure
Fat component:
Fat can be deposited intramuscularly as marbling or contained between muscles (defined as seam
fat) or it can be found as external fat or subcutaneous fat. Intramuscular fat content has been
shown to affect flavour, juiciness, tenderness, and visual characteristics of meat. If the fat
content is less than 3%, palatability decreases markedly and as fat content exceeds 7.3%, fat is
highly visible and affects consumers’ perception of acceptability due to health concerns.
Therefore, meat with fat content between 3 and 7.3% is generally considered acceptable. As the
level of fat or marbling increases, the cooked fat aromatic or flavour increases in meat.
Many theories exist regarding the effect of fat on palatability properties. The Density Theory,
states that as fat is lower in density than heat-denatured protein in cooked meat, as the fat
percentage increases, the overall density of the meat decreases. As bulk density decreases within
a given bite of meat, the meat is more tender. Lubrication Effect is that as meat is cooked,
triglycerides melt and bathe the muscle fibers. As the meat is chewed, fat is released, salivation
increases, and the meat is perceived as juicy. Additionally, the muscle fibers give or slide more
easily resulting in an increased perception of tenderness.
The third hypothesis, the Insurance Theory, states that fat provides protection against the
negative effects of overcooking or high heat on protein denaturation. As meat is cooked, proteins
denature and lose some of their ability to bind water. Fat can act to insulate the transfer of heat or
slow down the heat transfer so that protein denaturation is less severe and less moisture is lost
during cooking. The fourth theory or the Strain Theory relates as marbling is deposited as

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 2

adipose cells dispersed in perimysial connective tissue, development and an increased number of
adipose cells weaken the connective tissue structure resulting in more tender meat.
Lean or muscle fiber component:
The major component of meat is lean and lean is mainly composed of muscle fibers. Muscle
proteins also are the components in the muscle fiber that binds water or interacts with water to
hold it in the muscle fiber. The structural integrity and the ability of the muscle proteins to bind
water affect meat tenderness and juiciness. As the net charge of proteins becomes either more
positively or negatively charged, ionic forces increase and water is bound or held more tightly to
the proteins. The isoelectric point of a protein is the pH where there is a balance of positive and
negative charges on the protein side-groups. It is where muscle proteins have the least ability to
bind water and it is where water-holding capacity is lowest. As meat pH reaches the isoelectric
point, meat loses more water as drip loss during storage and upon cooking or a lower cook yield.
The resultant meat is drier and tougher.
Colour:
In meat, myoglobin is the major pigment-containing compound. The level of myoglobin, the
oxidative state of the heme-ring within myoglobin and what is bound to the myoglobin ligand
affects meat colour. The level of myoglobin within a muscle is influenced by species, muscle
function within the animal, and age of the animal. High use muscles, such as the leg muscle in
chicken and other species, have higher myoglobin content due to the need for myoglobin to store
and deliver oxygen in the muscle. Myoglobin content also increases as animals increase in age so
that meat from older animals is darker than meat from younger animals.

Fig: Influence of pH on beef meat colour

Connective tissue component:
High-use muscles used for work or major movements have higher connective tissue content.
Muscles with higher amounts of connective tissue are tougher. There are two classifications of
bonds within connective tissue, heat-soluble bonds and heat-insoluble bonds. Collagen is the
main fiber in the perimysium and endomysium connective tissue matrix. During heating or
cooking, a proportion of the bonds can be solubilized or broken. As animals age the percentage
of insoluble bonds increases. Therefore, connective tissue contributes to meat quality mainly by
its influence on meat tenderness.
In summary, the three major components of meat, fat, lean, and connective tissue, contribute to
meat properties such as meat juiciness, tenderness, and flavour.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 3

Breed and genetic effects on meat properties:
Animal genetics can play a major role in meat properties. It has long been understood that the
unique genetic code for each animal regulates the production of proteins and that genetic
variation exists within meat animal species for important meat quality attributes. Meat quality
traits are generally recognized as being moderate to highly heritable.
Biological type within Bos taurus cattle, British and Exotic or Continental and dairy Breeds has
been shown to influence tenderness, but mainly through differences in growth rate, weight at the
time of slaughter and fatness at slaughter. Carcass fatness and weight can influence cold-induced
toughness and marbling levels. Bos indicus cattle differ in tenderness from Bos taurus cattle,
there is not one factor that contributes to this effect.
Pork is inherently more tender than beef as pork is much less susceptible to cold-shortening
effects and post-mortem ageing occurs at a much more rapid rate than in beef. Berkshire pigs
have darker coloured lean, higher marbling scores, higher ultimate pH and more tender meat.
Hampshire hogs have been shown to have moderate pink to greyish-pink colour, intermediate
levels of marbling, but low ultimate pH and low water-holding capacity. The halothane gene has
been associated with the Pork Stress Syndrome in pigs. This mutation resulted in pigs that were
susceptible to malignant hypothermia when exposed to halothane gas. When mutant or
homozygote (nn) pigs are exposed to stress, calcium concentrations in the cytosol of the cell
increase abnormally and result can be either death or near death due to malignant hyperthermia.
Dietary influences on meat properties:
When animals are fed forages, growth rate is slower, animals are older at slaughter, the carcass
has less fat and the meat is leaner (a positive attribute for diet/health-conscious consumers), the
meat is darker in colour and has more species specific lean flavours. as the energy density of the
diet increases, either through the use of high-quality grains that replace forages or by adding fat,
the growth rate of the animals increase, animals reach slaughter weight at younger ages, the
resultant carcass is heavier and higher in overall fatness and marbling, the meat is juicier and
species specific- flavours are somewhat diluted by an increase in fat flavour.
Rearing:
The rearing or housing of animals prior to slaughter can affect meat quality. These effects are
mainly due to the lack of stress or the level of stress inflicted on the animal due to the rearing
environment. If animals are housed in conditions that result in lower rates of gain then animals
may be slightly older and may not have the same level of fatness as their counterparts reared in
more desirable conditions. Free-range animals also have the potential to have access to a higher
variety of feedstuffs prior to slaughter that may affect the flavour of the subsequent meat. For
example, range fed hogs would have access to forage during some parts of the year that may
result in off-flavours in their meat. If animals are over-crowded, there may be limited access to
feed and water and animals exhibit undesirable social behaviours such as fighting, chewing and
inability to rest properly. In these situations animal growth will be affected and the subsequent
meat may be lower in overall fatness.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 4

Slaughtering:
Animals exposed to long-term pre-slaughter stress have reduced glycogen supplies at slaughter.
Upon onset of rigor mortis, pH decline does not proceed at a normal rate. If post- mortem pH
decline does not proceed normally and the ultimate pH is higher than normal (greater than 6.0),
the resultant meat is darker in colour, has a firm texture, has a high water- holding capacity and
has less drip loss and free moisture on the meat surface. The meat is defined as dark, firm and
dry or DFD. When DFD meat is cooked, it is often described as being juicy, tender and very
intense in flavour, but some describe the flavour as serumy, musty or old. Additionally, due to
the high pH, DFD meat will spoil more rapidly. Conditions that induce long-term stress are long
transit times, exposure to extremes in temperature (hot or cold), extended periods without food,
bulls expressing sexual behaviour, or improper handling prior to slaughter.
Short-term stress results in pale, soft and exudative meat (PSE). This meat has a lower than
normal pH that results in meat that is pale in colour and does not have the ability to hold water.
During cooking, PSE meat will lose a high amount of moisture and the resultant meat will be
drier, tougher and not as flavourful. Improper handling just immediately prior to slaughter can
result in PSE meat. Body temperature increases and glycolytic metabolism is stimulated. This
results in a faster pH decline and some protein denaturation. The combined effect of a lower pH
and protein denaturation contribute to the lower water-holding capacity of the meat. The higher
amount of free-water provides a higher reflective surface for light so that the meat is paler in
colour. The weaker protein interactions result in softer, less firm meat that also provides greater
reflectance surface for light contributing to the paler colour.
Stunning method:
The type of stunning method used to immobilize animals during the slaughter process can affect
meat quality either through inducing short-term pre-slaughter stress or it can affect blood
removal upon exsanguination. During electrical stunning, kicking can occur during the clonic
phase as the brain’s inhibitory influence on the spinal cord is reduced. This can result in
increased time for shackling, increased worker risks and less effective exsanguination. Pigs
immobilized with CO2 are more relaxed. Carbon dioxide stunning has been shown to reduce the
incidence of ecchymosis and as animals can remain motionless for up to 60 seconds, kicking is
reduced during shackling. However, CO2 stunning in itself does not reduce the incidence of
PSE, but as animals stunned with CO2 have reduced stress, meat quality is better than with
electrical stunning
Electrical stimulation effects on meat:
The use of electrical pulses to use up energy reserves in meat is called electrical stimulation. By
applying electrical stimulation to beef carcasses, cold-induced toughening is reduced.
Electrically stimulated beef carcasses have accelerated post-mortem pH decline and longer
sarcomeres that resulted in more tender meat. Electrically stimulated carcasses also have brighter
cherry red colour at shorter chilling times, post-mortem and higher amounts of marbling.
Electrical stimulation has not commonly been applied to pork. As pork has more problems with
rapid rates of post-mortem pH decline due to short-term excitement, electrical stimulation
traditionally has induced higher levels of PSE.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 5

Storage:
The positive effect of meat storage influences meat tenderness, also referred to as meat aging.
During refrigerated post-mortem storage, meat tenderness improves. The major factor
responsible for post-mortem improvement in meat tenderness is the degradation or proteolysis of
muscle proteins. Proteolysis of muscle post-mortem has mainly contributed to sarcoplasmic
Ca2+ dependent proteases, the calpains, and the level of their inhibitor, calpastatin. The negative
effect of meat storage on meat quality is due to microbial growth and/or lipid oxidation. Both of
these processes result in ending the shelf-life of meat.
Table: Desirable characteristics to be observed while buying meat

FACTORS AFFECTING SHELF-LIFE OF MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

Though meat handling, storage and consumption may differ from one place to another, the
factors limiting the shelf-life of these products are the same. They are classified into endogenous
and exogenous factors.
Endogenous factors, such as:
• pH-value or the degree of acidity of the product
• aw value or the amount of moisture available in the product
Exogenous factors, such as:
• oxygen (from the air);
• micro-organisms;
• temperature;
• light; and
• Evaporation and desiccation.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 6

Generally, the shelf-life of meat and meat products will be longer the lower the pH value
and/or aw-value. Both factors have a decisive influence on the growth of microorganisms in
food. However, there are limits for most meat products regarding decreased pH value and aw-
value, particularly for organoleptic reasons. Except for some special products, consumers do not
want meat products to be excessively acidic or dry.

 Highly perishable meat products have a pH-value above 5.2 and an aw-value above
0.95; refrigeration at or below +5°C is needed. These are raw fresh meat (without
additives), bologna-type sausages, cooked sausages and cooked ham.

 Perishable meat products have a pH-value below 5.2 or an aw-value below 0.95.
Refrigeration at or below +10°C is needed to keep them stable. Products such as meat or
poultry pieces in vinegar jelly (acid) and semi-dry sausages or hams belong to this group.

 Shelf-stable products have a pH-value of or below 5.2 and an aw-value of or below

0.95, or only a pH-value below 5.0, or only an aw-value below 0.91. No refrigeration is
required in these cases, the products remaining stable under ambient temperatures. The
most common products in this group are the various kinds of dried meat.
Under the above conditions no microbial growth in meat and meat products will occur. However,
this does not mean that the products remain stable for an undetermined period. Their shelf-life
will be limited by chemical or physical deterioration, by rancidity and discoloration. In this
situation the product quality will benefit from the application of suitable packaging materials,
which reduce the physical and chemical influences on the product or protect the product
completely. The following noxious influences may occur:

 Oxygen - If oxygen affects meat and meat products during prolonged storage periods, it
will change the red colour into grey or green and cause oxidation and rancidity of fats
with undesirable off-flavours.

 Light - The prolonged exposure of meat and meat products to daylight or artificial light
accelerates oxidation and rancidity because light provides the energy for these processes.

 Evaporation - Fresh foods with relatively high moisture content such as meat, fresh
sausages, cooked ham, etc. will have considerable losses of weight and quality by
evaporation during storage if they are not packed.

MEAT TENDERIZATION
Meat tenderization (or meat conditioning) is a process to reduce the toughness of meat fibers by
breaking down the collagens in a cut of meat to make it more palatable for consumption. The
tenderness of meat plays a dominant role in enhancing the meat palatability. Tenderness
development in post-mortem skeletal muscle is a very complex phenomenon. Immediately post -
exsanguination, muscle is soft and tender until the onset of rigor mortis causes irreversible
linkages between the actin and myosin proteins, which cause the meat to toughen. With aging,
however, protein degradation and ultrastructural changes occur that cause tenderization of the
meat. During this tenderization phase, degradation of myofibrillar and cytoskeletal proteins such
as troponin, desmin, vinculin, dystrophin, nebulin, and titin occurs within the muscle.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 7

As these proteins degrade, muscle ultrastructure changes as:

• breaks at the junction of the I - band and Z - disk occur.

• Z - to Z - line attachments are disrupted by the degradation of intermediate
filaments.
• Z - and M - line attachments to the sarcolemma are disrupted.

Tenderness of meat is influenced by the breed, age, condition of nutrition and amount of
muscular exercise of the animal. It mainly depends on the amount of connective tissue present
between muscle fibers and to a lesser extent, on the thickness of muscle fibers themselves.
There are several methods by which tough meat obtained from different animals especially
aged domestic animals can be converted into reasonably tender meat.

Fig: Structure of muscle

TYPES OF MEAT TENDERIZATION

Tenderization of meat can occur naturally by various mechanisms and can also be brought
about artificially. The mechanisms involved may be enzymatic or non-enzymatic.

1. Natural tenderization:
The natural tenderization of meat may occur either by means of enzymatic and non-enzymatic
methods.

a. Enzymatic method of natural tenderization - Skeletal muscle contains numerous enzymes

that remain active in post-mortem muscle and influence meat-quality development. Aging is a
process of natural tenderization by enzymes, in particular, the cathepsin, calpain, and
proteasome enzyme systems.

Cathepsins
Cathepsins are acid proteases usually located in the lysosomes and in phagocyte cells. Over 15
lysosomal cathepsins have been identified, but only eight (B, L, H, S, F, K, D, E) have been
found in skeletal muscle fibers. Cathepsins often are not considered as important in meat
tenderization because their membrane-bound location is thought to limit substrate accessibility.
Cathepsin B degrades myosin, and actin to a lesser extent, while cathepsin D degrades both
actin and myosin into small peptide fragments. Cathepsin L acts on myosin, actin, α - actinin,
troponin - T, and troponin - I. Although cathepsins probably do not account for the bulk of

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 8

postmortem proteolysis during aging, their contributions cannot be completely discounted.

Calpains
Calpains are Ca 2+ - dependent cysteine proteases with optimal activity at neutral pH and are
found in all kinds of living organisms, including animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria. Currently,
at least 15 different calpains have been identified in mammals. Six different calpains are
expressed as mRNA in the mammalian skeletal muscle, but only μ - and m - calpains and
p94/calpain 3 isoforms can be detected at the protein level. The μ - and m - calpains are located
in the sarcoplasm and are concentrated around the Z - disk region bound to their inhibitor,
calpastatin μ - calpain is the essential and predominant enzyme responsible for postmortem
proteolysis and that combined m - and μ - calpain activity may be responsible for up to 85% of
post-mortem meat tenderization.

Proteasomes
Calpains are necessary to initiate the degradation of myofibrillar proteins by releasing them
from the surface of the myofibril and making them available for subsequent degradation. For
the subsequent breakdown of myofibrillar proteins, once calpains have released them from the
sarcomere, the main candidate is the proteasome for further breakdown. The proteasome, or
multi-catalytic proteinase complex (MCP).

b. Non-Enzymatic method of natural tenderization

The calcium theory of meat tenderization is based on evidence that all structural weakening of
myofibrils and rigor linkages, which contain molecular constituents with an affinity for binding
with Ca 2+, are fully induced when the concentration of free Ca2+ increases to more than 0.1
mM. The mechanism underlying the weakening of myofibrils is related to the liberation of
phospholipids from Z - disks, and the fragmentation of cytoskeletal structure proteins titin,
nebulin, and desmin through direct binding reactions with free Ca2+. This concept, however,
has not received widespread acceptance.
The intracellular osmotic pressure (i.e., ionic strength) increases nearly twofold and has a close
relationship with pH (r = 0.97) during the time course of rigor mortis. The pH drop is likely the
major cause for the large increase in osmotic pressure through the alteration of proteins to
which ions (mainly Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+) are normally bound. In general, salt
concentrations above physiological values (∼ 0.15 M) raise myofibrillar protein solubility.
Elevated osmotic pressure, in addition to proteolytic enzymes, has a physicochemical impact on
myofibrillar proteins that could be associated with improvements in tenderness.

2. Artificial tenderization:
The artificial method of tenderization includes mechanical, chemical, and electrical simulation
methods.
Early methods of meat tenderization include the physical beating of the meat and cutting it into
small portions so that the strands of connective tissue were severed marinading it with vinegar,
wine, or salt. Enzymic tenderizing using papaya leaves, and fern leaves were also practiced.

a. Mechanical method of artificial tenderization

Mechanical tenderization can be achieved by following the methods (any one method)

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 9

mentioned as follows, including grinding, cubing, pounding, and blade or needle tenderization.
These actions physically break the muscle cells and connective tissue, making the meat more
tender and easier to chew.

b. Chemical method of artificial tenderization

Chemical method of artificial tenderization includes the use of enzyme, salt, acid and
marination treatment.

Use of Enzymes: Wrapping of meat in papaya leaves before cooking results in tenderization.
This is the result of the action of the enzyme papain on meat proteins. Other enzymes used for
meat tenderization are: Bromelain from pineapple, Ficin from figs, Trypsin from pancreas and
fungal enzymes.
These proteolytic enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of one or more meat proteins. They also
hydrolyze the elastin of the connective tissues. To achieve uniform tenderness, papain is
injected into the veins of animals some 10 minutes before their slaughter. Tenderizing enzymes
remain active until the meat is heated. Papain is inactive at 55ºC. Other methods include
dipping in enzymes, perfusion through fork holes, pumping through blood vessels, etc.

Use of salt: Tenderness can also be increased by the addition of salts in the form of potassium,
calcium or magnesium chlorides. These salts retain moisture and break down the component
that surrounds the muscle fibers, resulting in the release of proteins.

Use of acids: Applying acids (vinegar, lemon, tomato, or other fruit juices) tenderizes meat by
breaking down the outside surface of the meat and also they contribute flavor and colour to the
meat. The maximum benefits can be obtained by increasing the surface area of the meat, this is
done by cutting the meat into small pieces. Acids penetrate only the surface of the meat and
therefore acids are not effective at tenderizing large cuts of meat. Meat treated with acids must
be allowed to soak in the refrigerator, from half an hour to overnight.

Marination: The basic ingredients of a marinade includes, salt, acid (vinegar, lemon, Italian
salad dressing, or soy sauce), and enzymes (papain, bromalin, ficin, or fresh ginger root). The
tenderizing action of marinades occurs through the softening of collagen by the salt, the
increased water uptake, and the hydrolysis and breakage of the crosslinks of the connective
tissue by the acids and alcohols.

c. Electrical Stimulation method of artificial tenderization: ES is the application of

sufficient current into the carcass during the slaughter process. Here, pulses of electricity are
passed through the carcass immediately after slaughter and the current causing the muscles to
contract and thereby use up glycogen, ATP and creatine phosphate. It is done before rigor or
in-pre-rigor carcass. The electrical stimulation of pre-rigor muscle causes the carcass to
undergo a rapid series of muscle contractions and relaxations which accelerates the rigor
process. Electrical stimulation hastens the onset and resolution of rigor mortis thereby reducing
processing time and labor and plays a vital role in improving meat tenderness and other meat
quality traits.
Electrical stimulation can be performed at any stage. It is better to be given within 30 minutes

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 10

of bleeding; otherwise, the muscles will lose their capacity to react to the electrical stimulation.
ES is more applied to carcasses from sheep/goats and cattle than pigs.
There are two recognized methods of electrical stimulation:
(a) High voltage stimulation (greater than 500 volts even upto 1000 volts).
(b) Low voltage stimulation (less than 75 volts).
Other methods include simulation of catheptic activity, injection of water, infusion of salt,
application of high pressure, use of salts and phosphates etc.
Table: Low voltage and high voltage electrical stimulation

Fig: Electrical stimulation

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 11
 MEAT QUALITY EVALUATION

The quality of meat is evaluated based on its physicochemical properties, microbiological

quality, and eating quality characteristics.

Fig: Quality attributes of meat

A. Physicochemical properties of meat

The vital physicochemical properties of meat are as follows:

a. pH

Fresh meat must have a pH value in the range of 5.5 to 6.2. During temporary storage,
especially when it is not properly preserved, the fresh meat will turn rancid and have a pH
value below 5.3.

b. Emulsion stability

Emulsion stability is the ability to maintain moisture, fat, and added moisture, which the meat
originally had during the process of cutting and heating. Emulsion stability affects the meat
color, texture, and succulence.

c. Water Holding Capacity (WHC)

Water holding capacity is the ability of muscle to hold on to or retain its own water or added
water under application of pressure.

d. Cooking Yield (CY)

Cooking yield calculations were based on initial (raw) and final cooked weights from all
samples. Cooking yields describe changes in food weight due to moisture loss (e.g.,
evaporation or moisture drip), water absorption (e.g., boiling) or fat gains/losses during food
preparation and cooking.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 12

e. Shear Force Value

Sheer force is an objective way to measure tenderness. along with flavor tenderness is one of
the important characteristics which contribute to perceived meat.

B. Eating and Cooking Quality of meat

The appearance of the raw meat influences the consumer’s willingness to buy the meat, and can
therefore be regarded as an important quality factor for meat proposed for fresh meat
consumption. However, after cooking tenderness, juiciness, flavour, and appearance of the
cooked meat together determine the eating quality. Quality indicators of raw meat for these
parameters are the content of intramuscular fat and the composition of fatty acids, the collagen
content and solubility, the sarcomere length, activity of proteolytic enzymes, pH and water-
holding capacity, and the colour of the raw meat.

a. Eating quality characteristics

Tenderness

It is the primary essential and the most important sensory attribute of meat. Tenderness is
perceived as three components by the consumer: Ease of initial penetration, the number of bites
for complete disintegration of meat and amount of residue left behind after complete chewing.
Tenderness is influenced by the animal (age,sex, breed, species of the animal), state of rigor of
the meat, handling of the animal peri-slaughter, manner in which meat is handled(cold
shortening, thaw rigor), ageing etc.

Juiciness

Juiciness is a reflection of water holding capacity (WHC) of meat. Juiciness is perceived as two
components: The initial purge and sustained juiciness due to marbling. Juiciness is also
influenced state of rigor of the meat, handling of the animal peri-slaughter, manner in which
meat is handled (cold shortening, thaw rigor), ageing etc.

Flavour

Flavour is a complex sensation. It involves odour, taste, texture, temperature and pH. Of these
the odour is the most important. It is sensed jointly by the oral and olfactory senses. The odour
and taste of cooked meat arise from water or fat-soluble precursors and by the liberation of
volatile substances that exist in the meat. Flavour has been shown to have a profound effect on
the overall acceptability of meat products.

Colour

The pigment of muscle, myoglobin, is responsible for the colour of meat. In fresh meat, before
cooking, the most important chemical form is oxymyoglobin. It occurs in the surface and is
bright red in colour. The final colour of cooked meat is dependent to the pigment changes
brought about by temperature, time and method of cooking. When meat is cooked there is

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 13

gradual change of colour from dark red or pink to a lighter shade and finally at higher
temperatures to grey or brown colour. Pressure-cooked or boiled meat will discern a grey
colour whereas roasted; broiled or canned meat turns brown. The brown colour of thoroughly
cooked meat is due to denaturation of heme pigments and polymerization of some proteins and
fats. The colour of fresh pork, mutton and buffalo fat is white and undergoes very little change
during cooking.

Texture

Texture is one of the most important eating quality attributes in the acceptance of meat. The
overall impression of texture is perceived by the senses of touch, sight and hearing. Texture is a
direct consequence of the grain in fresh meat.

b. Eating quality indicators

Intramuscular fat and fatty acid composition

IMF may increase the tenderness of the meat, have no effect or even a negative effect
depending on various other factors. The fatty acid composition can also influence the effect of
IMF on tenderness. In pork the saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids are positively
correlated to tenderness where polyunsaturated fatty acids are negatively correlated to
tenderness. The content of IMF is positively correlated to juiciness. An increasing amount of
IMF also implies a decrease in cooking loss. The content of IMF also influences the flavour of
meat. In pork the content of mono-unsaturated and saturated fatty acids are correlated with pork
flavour and overall liking. In beef, meaty aroma is due to phospholipids.

Connective tissue

Connective tissue is a contributor to the toughness of the meat. The main constituent of the
connective tissue is collagen. The collagen molecules change during cooking and influence
meat tenderness. The degree of cross-linking of collagen increases with the age of the animal.
Also feeding can alter the degree of cross-linking.

Sarcomere length

The sarcomere length of the meat depends on the chilling and the metabolism post-mortem.
Muscles with long sarcomeres (resulting from tension during chilling) have low resistance to
shear. In pork a sarcomere length above 2µm always implies tender meat.

Enzymatic activity

Ageing the meat increases the tenderness due to enzyme activity. Two enzyme systems are
involved in tenderisation – the calpains and the cathepsins. µ-Calpain is the most important
enzyme during the tenderisation process and its activity depends on calcium concentration, pH
and inhibitors. The cathepsins are lysosomal enzymes which are active at pH 2.0 and 6.5.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 14

pH and water-holding capacity

In normal meat – pH below 6.0 – there is no influence of pH on either tenderness or juiciness.

Meat with a pH below 5.4 has low WHC and a higher drip loss.

Colour

The colour of fresh meat is a combination of the reflection due to protein denaturation as a
result of the pH change and the concentration and oxidative status of myoglobin. A fast pH
falls early post-mortem results in a pale colour whereas a high ultimate pH results in a dark, red
colour. Myoglobin is purple but oxidation to oxymyoglobin gives a redder colour that for many
consumers indicates freshness. During storage, the oxymyoglobin can further oxidise to
metmyoglobin, which causes a brown discolouring.

MODERN ABATTOIRS, SLAUGHTERHOUSE AND ITS FEATURES

Slaughter of food animals is done either in public slaughterhouses called Abattoirs, usually the
property of local government authorities or in private slaughterhouses owned by individual or
retail butchers. Abattoir has to be planned separately for different categories of livestock such
as cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig and poultry, keeping in mind the public acceptance and their
religious sentiments. Maximum number of animals and kind of animals to be slaughtered per
day is taken into account for layout of plant. Careful consideration is to be given to the size and
location. Abattoir shall have an adequate separation between clean and unclean section. The
sections should be arranged in such a way that from the introduction of a live animal into the
abattoir up to the emergence of meat and offal classed as fit for consumption, there shall be a
continuous process, without any possibility of reversal, inter-section or over lapping between
the live animals and meat, and between meat and by-products or waste.

Main components of an abattoir

Stockyard: It is meant for collection and marketing of livestock in a large number.

Lairage: It is meant to keep two to three days stock for slaughter. After passing through
reception area the animals reach to the lairage where these are rested before slaughter. The rest
is being given to restore their normal physiological condition after travelling long distances

Slaughter house/hall: From lairage, animals are transferred to slaughter hall, which is usually
situated at a distance of 10 meter from lairage. The slaughter house consists of,

Drive/Races: a curved path with single file accommodation and stop gate

Stunning pen: area where animals are made unconscious before killing.

Bleeding area: for collection of blood.

Carcass dressing area: a number of operations are carried out such as removal of hide and skin,
head removal, evisceration, splitting, trimming and final wash etc.

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Inspection area: visceral organ and the whole eviscerated carcass are re-examined carefully

Carcass washing area: for washing of the approved carcasses with a jet of water.

Cold storage: The carcass is held in chilling mom for three days and this process is also known
as ageing. Air blast freezers and holding freezers should be capable of maintaining temperature
of – 28 °C or lower and -18°C or lower respectively.

Cutting and deboning room: The operation is performed in controlled temperature (10-12 ºC)
area by skilled and efficient worker.

Packaging and despatch section: Adjacent to the cutting and deboning room there is a
packaging room where the meat chunks are packaged and after freezing, they are kept under
frozen condition (- 40°C) before despatch

Condemned meat room: It is directly connected to the inspection area. Facilities are essential in
order to arrange for the sorting and holding of materials unfit for human consumption prior to
despatch. This room should be provided with only one door located outside the building and
should be provided with a lock.

Detained meat room: Meat requiring further examination is stored here as sometime the
inspector/ veterinarian may be neither in a position to discard the carcass nor to pass it to the
chilling section. It should be located adjacent to the main slaughter hall inspection point and
also be connected with the condemned meat room as well as the chilling section after clearance
of the pending decision, the carcass is accordingly sent.

Quality control laboratory: This is meant for detailed examination of specimens from the
carcass and their respective viscera. This area should be directly connected with the slaughter
hall.

Accessories sections

Blood collection: Underground to the bleeding area.

Hide and skin store: Storage of hide and skin.

Gut and tripe room: This room should have a separate exit.

Red offal room: Liver, lungs, heart, kidney etc., are the organs that are trimmed and stored
below 3 ºC in this room

Rendering plant: This section deals with extraction of fat from carcass parts, condemned
carcass /diseased one by applying high temperature processing.

Inedible area: All materials unfit for human consumption with exception of hides and skins

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Equipment wash: This section must be designed to avoid buggies, bins and washing of
equipment at improper places.

Manure bay: A large amount of dung from lairage, emptying of rumen and intestine need a
separate section to deal with this huge mass to avoid problem of flies etc.

Veterinary office and laboratory: This section should have essential facilities and equipments to
carry out inspection work.

Vehicle washing: There should be separate sections for cleaning of meat transport and animal
transport vehicles.

Facilities for personnel: The abattoir building should have well located toilet rooms sufficiently
away from slaughter walls, separate hall with lockers and shower facilities, changing room and
adequate facilities.

Effluent treatment plant: This is the section, which deals with treatment of waste before their
safe disposal in environment.

Design considerations for an abattoir

During the construction of an abattoir/ meat plant following points should be considered.

Premises: It is required to be approved and registered by local authorities. The plans include a
site plan, floor plan, and plumbing plan. The site plan must show complete premises and the
location in relation to roads, railways, waterways, adjoining properties and their function, catch
basins, water and sewer lines, storage tanks, etc.

Roofing: It provides a framework for the roof of wood or steel. The roof may be made of
corrugated aluminium, asbestos, or iron. Galvanized steel plates for the bottom of the doors are
used on the outside for protection against rodents.

Construction material: The materials must be durable and be able to resist deterioration or
destruction from external influences such as the weather. The materials must be impervious to
water and blood and not stained by fat.

Coves: It provides rounded corners for sanitation at the juncture of walls and floor.

Floor: It should be impervious, non-absorbent, non-slippery, and should have a suitable

gradient for drainages. To make a non-s surface coarborundum or aluminium oxide is
incorporated.

Interior walls: The walls are required to be smooth, flat, and constructed of glazed bricks tiles
or other non-toxic and non-absorbent, durable, light-coloured material. There should be a
washable finish up to a height of not less than 3m from the floor. Wall sheets are often used in
the form of plastic laminates, aluminium, polished asbestos, stainless steel, or PVC-faced metal
free from rust.

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Ceilings: It should be of good height, minimum 5m, smooth and flat, cement plastered, water
resistant and impervious to minimize condensation, mould development and easy to clean.

Window ledges: It should slope at 45º to promote sanitation. Window sills should be 1200 rnrn
above floor level. There should be mechanical venting in roof structure.

Doorways and doors: It should be at least 2.5m high, 1.5m wide and made up of rust resistant
metal.

Pest control: Insect and rodent screens should be provided in abattoir. There should be air
curtain at reception, despatch, loading and offloading platform.

Anteroom: There should be an anteroom at main entrance where the air curtain exists.

Vehicular areas: Properly drained and concrete paved areas extended at least 6 m from building
or livestock platforms should be provided at places where vehicles are loaded or unloaded.
Pressure washing jets and disinfection facilities should be provided for tracks carrying animals.

Drainage: There should be efficient drainage system. One drainage inlet should be provided for
each 37m2 of floor space and a slope of 20 mm per meter to drainage inlets should be there for
usual condition. Floor drains should not be provided in freezer room and dry storage room.
Each floor drain should be equipped with a deep seal trap and drainage line for toilet, urinal
should be separate.

Light and ventilation: Abattoir should be constructed in such a way that adequate natural light
and ventilation is available. Uncoloured glass may be used in skylights and windows. The glass
area should be approximately one-fourth the floor area of a workroom. For artificial lighting,
the overall intensity of light should not be less than 540 lux (50 ft candles) at all inspection
points, 220 lux (20 ft candles) in work rooms and 11 0 lux (1 0 ft candles) in other areas. The
intensities of light are usually taken at levels of 0.9 m from the floor, except in inspection areas
where the height is 1.5 m. Ventilation is necessary to overcome excess heat, steam,
condensation, odour, dust accumulation etc. There should be sufficient and suitable means for
ventilation to the outside air.

Water supply: A constant supply of clean hot water (not less than 82º C) should be available for
frequent sterilizing of equipment. Suitable facilities should be there for washing of hands and
floors. For fire control, non-potable water should be provided in completely separate lines.

Equipment construction: Equipment should be constructed of rust-resistant metal with

smoothness of high quality. Stainless steel, galvanized metal or plastic may be used for this
purpose. Equipment made of copper, cadmium, lead or with painted surface or enamel
containers should not be used in the edible product zone. All permanently mounted equipment
should be installed sufficiently away from the walls and above the floors to facilitate cleaning
and inspection. To provide comfortable working condition to labours, the working table should
be at waist height of the workers to work in standing position.

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Disposal of abattoir effluent: The volume of waste water from abattoir is 80- 85% of the water
intake. This waste water typically contains the following contaminated waste material: blood,
bits of meat, fat, paunch contents, urine and dung. Plant waste may be discharged into a
municipal sewer system as permitted by local bye-laws. Waste may be discharged into streams
provided the sewage is free of organic material and the flow of water is continuous to carry
away from the plant. Catch basins for grease recovery should have inclined bottoms, without
covers and should be located away from edible products department. A separate drain line for
water containing manure should be provided, the waste water may be pumped by wet pit or dry
pit non clog pumps and manure screened out and disposed of by mechanical means.

Rails for carcasses: After stunning, all the other activities like bleeding, dressing and chilling
can be either done on floor or on overhead rails. Rails (IS: 6628-1972) with suitable hooks of
rust proof metal or mild steel for hanging of carcasses and plucks shall be provided.

Table: The height and length of rails provided for bleeding and dressing

Carcass Height (mm) Length of carcass

(mm)
Bleeding rail for sheep, goats and pigs 3 450
Bleeding rail for large animals 4.5-5 600
Dressing rail for sheep, goats and pigs 2-2.2 900
Dressing rail for large animals 3.2 1800-for legging; 2400-
for evisceration and
processing

Safety requirement: Adequate firefighting arrangement and portable first aid fire appliances
shall be fixed in accordance with IS: 2190-1971.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 19

 Fig: Layout of modern abattoir/meat plant

PRESERVATION OF MEAT
A. CHILLING
Chilling is the process of cooling meat while the meat remains above its freezing temperature.
The carcasses of meat animals normally are refrigerated immediately after slaughter, unless
they are hot-boned. Meat must be chilled after post-mortem inspection and must be held at a
temperature of not more than +7⁰C for carcasses and cuts in case of red meats, +4oC for poultry
and +3 ⁰ C for offals. Cutting plants must have cooling equipment to keep meat at constant
internal temperature of not more than +7 ⁰ C. The temperature of the cutting rooms should
never exceed +10 ⁰ C during cutting.
Heavy carcasses may require as long as 72 hours to chill; light beef carcasses, pork, lamb and
veal require up to 24-36 hours. Efficient chilling, storage, transport and display, in conjunction
with strict hygiene and excellent packaging may extend shelf life to about 12 weeks, though in
commercial practice beef carcasses itself may be held without deterioration for about 35 days
only.
Principle:
The use of low temperature preserved foods is based upon the fact that, the activities of food
borne microorganism can be slowed down and or stopped at the temperature just above freezing
and generally stopped at sub-freezing temperature. The failure of bacteria to grow at or below
freezing depends mainly on the removal of the available water as ice; about 70% is removed at
3.5°C and 94% at –10°C. Another factor is the inhibition of the life processes of spoilage

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 20

organisms at low temperatures. In the case of flesh foods low temperature inhibits the action of
natural autolytic enzymes.
Refrigeration depends on removing heat from meat and then maintaining it at a lower
temperature than its surroundings. It usually happens through conduction, convection or
radiation. In the chillers and freezers of a meat processing plant, heat transfer by radiation
usually has only a very small influence on the rate of cooling. The rate of cooling mainly
depends on the size and heat capacity of the carcass, the amount of fat covering, and the
temperature in the cooler.
Effect of chilling on meat:
Cold shortening might occur in meat if cooled below 10 ºC when pH is above 6.2. This
condition is high in beef and sheep. Rapid cooling is necessary to prevent spoilage around the
lymph nodes deep in the carcass (referred to as bone souring). Shrinkage or loss of weight
occurs as a result of evaporation of water from meat surface. Carcass cut into quarters dissipate
water vapour rapidly and continuously and retail joints even more so. Sweating denotes
condensation of water vapour on meat brought from a cold store into ordinary room
temperature. If the quarter or side is cut up immediately after removal from the chilling room
the sweating will be extended to the individual joints.
Bloom is defined as the colour and general appearance of the carcass surface when viewed
through the semitransparent layer of connective tissue, muscle and fat, which form the carcass
surface. If these tissues become moist, the collagen fibers in the connective tissue swell and
become opaque and the meat surface assume a dull, lifeless appearance. Loss of surface bloom
in beef carcasses may also be caused by dehydration or undue oxidation. It is also important to
keep the relative humility of cooling chamber high and ensure that there is circulation of air.
Refrigeration has little effect on the carcass fat except in the case of frozen meat, which has
undergone a prolonged period of storage.
B. FREEZING
Freezing of meat involves the reduction of the internal temperature of meat below its freezing
point of, -1.5 ⁰ C and further storing it at temperatures of less than its freezing point. Freezing
destroys some bacteria but in other, the temperature is merely inhibiting their growth and
multiplication until conditions favourable to their growth appear. To make the change from
liquid water to ice in meat, extra amount of heat known as the latent heat of freezing must be
removed. When a pure substance freezes, this latent heat is removed without any change in
temperature. Meat is not a pure substance, however, so the latent heat is removed over a
temperature range.

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 Fig: Variation in enthalpy of meat with temperature
The amount of heat removed during freezing is quite a lot more than the amount removed
during chilling to effect a given temperature change. This means that the freezing part of the
process will take longer than the chilling part if the same temperature difference and heat
transfer coefficient are used. Eventually, freezing can be regarded as finished and the meat
moves into the final stage of the process, known as sub-cooling. At this point, most of latent
heat will have been removed.
Freezing point:
A piece of meat will start to freeze from the outside toward the inside. The surface layer freezes
first and then the frozen layer will become thicker over time. The inner boundary of the frozen
layer is known as the freezing front. This freezing front moves gradually inwards toward the
center of the meat, with frozen meat on the outside and unfrozen meat on the inside. This means
that the temperature at the thermal center of the meat remains constant for most of the freezing
process, at the freezing temperature of the meat, a little below 0°C. One consequence of this
behaviour is that it is difficult to calculate the extent to which a piece of meat is frozen by
measuring its thermal center temperature unless the meat is almost completely frozen.

Fig: The freezing front

Methods of freezing:

Freezing undertaken in a cabinet freezer is essentially a slow process and is referred to as slow
freezing, or in blast freezers in which case, it is quicker and the method is often referred to as
quick-freezing. Quick freezing can also be achieved by Freezing by Liquid Immersion and
Liquid Sprays and also by Cryogenic Freezing. Slow freezing generally takes about 72 hours
while quick freezing is completed in 30 minutes. The delay involved in slow freezing usually
results in greater drip loss, during thawing than that associated with quick- freezing.

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 Temperature
Type Mode of operation Use
range
To store frozen meat at
Still air freezer -10⁰C and-30⁰C Convection by air
freezer temperatures
To freeze thin pieces of
meats such as steaks, chops,
Plate freezers -10⁰C and-30⁰C Conduction through plates
fillets and meat products
such as patties
Forced convection of air
(12.5m/sec air velocity).
To partially freeze meat, to
Blast freezers -10⁰C and -40⁰C Undertaken in rooms or
complete surface hardening
tunnels in which cold air
blast is provided
Temperature of Convection of liquid and
Liquid freezing liquids Conduction. Meat packed in For freezing poultry, though
Immersion and (Sodium chloride plastic bags immersed in some fish and meat products
Liquid Sprays brine/glycerol freezing liquid or liquid are frozen by this method
/propylene glycol) sprayed directly over meat
Temperature of To rapidly freeze meat
Direct immersion/spraying of
Cryogenic freezing liquids products of small size such
the product to be frozen by
freezing (Liquid nitrogen as patties, diced meat, fish
Condensed or liquefied gases
or carbon dioxide) and shell-fish

Effect of freezing on meat:

The physical state of the muscle plasma (globulin and albumen proteins) is considerably
altered. When meat is frozen below –2°C the formation of ice crystals raises the concentration
of these proteins that they become insoluble and do not regain their solubility when the meat is
thawed.

Weep/ Drip - It denotes the presence of a watery, bloodstained fluid, which escapes from frozen
meat when thawed and consists mainly of water, together with salts, extractives, proteins,
peptides, amino acids, lactic acids, purines, vitamins of B- complex and damaged blood
corpuscles. This is caused partly by the rupture of the muscle cells and tissues by large crystals
of ice. The amount of drip is greater in beef than in mutton, lamb or pork. Meat which has a
high pH prior freezing has a low drip when thawed.

Rancidity - Oxidative process in general is slowed, but in case of prolonged storage of meat in
freezer, oxidative changes occur, with fat breaking down into free fatty acids and glycerine.

An enhancement in tenderness of meat and a depression in juiciness is the main changes on

sensory attributes caused by freezing of meat

Freezer burn is attributed to loss of moisture from the outer tissues; it may be seen where a

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carcass is stored close to opening of a cold air duct. The meat or offals have a brown withered
discolouration.

Bone darkening is a condition, which develops when young poultry is frozen and thawed. It
results from leaching of haemoglobin out of the bone marrow.

Recrystallization may take place during frozen storage, resulting in translocation of water and
consolidation of the unfrozen soluble water molecule tends to migrate from small to large
crystals. This migration is promoted by fluctuating storage temperatures.

When pre rigor meat is frozen, a severe type of rigor mortis ensues during thawing. The
shortening so produced may be 60 to 80% of the original length of the unrestrained muscle.

C. CURING

Curing may be defined as the addition of salt (Sodium chloride), sugar and nitrate or nitrite to
the meat, which results in conversion of the meat pigments into the characteristic cured meat
pigments imparting the characteristic cured meat colour and production of characteristic meat
flavour. The process of meat curing is currently valued as a means of imparting organoleptic
qualities to the cured products, though it originally was introduced as a means of preserving
meat. The curing temperature is 3˚C in most curing commercial operations. The curing time for
ham is 3 days per kg and that for bacon is 7 days per inch thickness of subcutaneous fat.

Curing ingredients and their functions:

Name of Level in brine Function

Ingredient solution (Action)
Preservative, improves texture. Salt acts by
dehydration and alteration of osmotic pressure so that
Sodium
15 to 30% it inhibits bacterial growth and subsequent
chloride
spoilage. It interferes with the proteolytic enzyme
action.
Sodium nitrate 0.15 to 1.5% A source of nitrate.
Preservative, reduced by meat enzymes to nitrous
500 to 1000 oxide, which combined with myoglobin to form
Sodium nitrite ppm nitroso myoglobin, the cured red pigment.
Reduce cooking loss, e.g., during smoking; improve
texture. Used to increase the water binding capacity.
Polyphosphates 2 to 4%
Decrease the amount of shrinkage in smoked
products when cooked.
Improves flavour by masking the harshness of the
Sugar salt. It interacts with amino groups of the proteins
(Sucrose, 1to 4% and upon cooking, forms browning of the products,
maple syrup) which enhances the flavour of the cured meats. It
acts as a preservative by dehydration.

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 Liquid smoke Ca. 1% Flavouring agent
Reducing agent. Improves colour formation and
Sodium
0.2 to 1% stability by effecting rapid reduction of NO3 to NO2
ascorbate
in the meat.

Chemistry of curing:

There are a number of muscle pigments in meat including myoglobin, haemoglobin, the
cytochromes, catalases, the flavins and other coloured substances. Haemolglobin is the red
pigment found in blood and acts as the carrier for oxygen to the tissues. Myoglobin is the
predominant pigment in muscle and serves as the storage mechanism for oxygen. Colour
develops as a result of interaction of nitrite with the muscle pigments. The nitrate and nitrite
reactions in meat curing are as shown below,

Fig: Nitrate and Nitrite reaction in meat curing

The ultimate pigment desired in most heat processed cured meats is the conversion of
muscle pigment myoglobin into nitrosyl haemochrome (pink). Under some conditions the
nitrosyl haemochrome pigment in meat may be oxidized to green, yellow or colourless
porphyrin substances. Such undesirable changes of the cured meat pigment may result from
bacterial action or from chemical oxidation by peroxides, hypochlorites or other agents and
is catalyzed by light.
Methods of curing:
There are two general methods of curing with a number of modifications of each method.
Dry curing –It is done by applying salt to the surface.
Wet curing – It is done by using a brine solution, in which the product is immersed or the
brine solution is injected in to the products with a needle. This is called as Pickling.
Pickling is achieved either by arterial brining, stitch curing, or by multiple needle injection.

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 • In Artery pumping, the brine is injected in to one of the main arteries. Ham is the
only product cured in this manner. It is a slow process and is seldom used.
• In Stitch Curing, an injection with a single needle, provided with many openings is
used to deliver the brine into the meat. The operator inserts the injection in many
places in the meat to ensure uniform distribution. Further an equilibration time after
injection is also required to facilitate uniform distribution of the brine.
• In Multiple Needle Injection a syringe with multiple needles is employed to pump
the cure into meat. These machines can be so configured to pump cure into bone-in
as well as boneless meat. It is very effective in terms of both excellent distribution
as well as high speed and hence has become very common.

Fig: Brine pump, Stitch curing needle and Multiple needle injection
Curing may be applied to all kinds of meats. It is best applied to those meats with high fat
content. Curing therefore yields excellent results when applied to pork or fine fibred beef
intermixed with fat and it is for this reason brisket and flank of beef make excellent pickled
meat. On the other hand, lean beef, veal or mutton becomes dry and unpalatable as a result of
pickling process. For durability, dry salting is the best and for palatability pickled meat is
advisable (good).
D. COOKING
Cooking includes moist and dry heat cooking methods. Moist-heat cooking methods use water,
liquid or steam to transfer heat to food. Common moist-heat cooking methods include:
poaching, simmering, boiling, braising, stewing, pot roasting, steaming etc. Dry-heat cooking
methods involve the circulation of hot air or direct contact to fat to transfer heat. Meat can be
either fully or partially cooked for preservation.
Not fully cooked - Not shelf stable:
These products still need to be thoroughly cooked in order to be
safely consumed. The products included in this category have
received some type of heat treatment, but not sufficient
heat treatment to result in a ready-to-eat (RTE) product.
Well-known products are bacon, a cured and smoked pork product and cold smoked sausage,
a product that has been smoked to add flavor, but is still raw. Partially cooked battered and
breaded poultry is included in this category; it has been cooked only enough to “set” the
breading. Char-marked patties are similar; they have been cooked only enough to add
distinctive char marks on the meat surface, but are still essentially raw. Low-temperature
Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 26
rendered products are heat treated to melt and remove some of the fat in the meat tissues, but
again, they are not fully cooked.

Fully cooked - Not shelf stable:

Fully cooked means that these products have been sufficiently cooked
so that they are safe to eat as they are, with no further preparation
required by the consumer. This is also known as “ready-to-eat.” This
processing category includes all food items that have been fully
cooked, but are not shelf stable. These products, although fully cooked, are not shelf stable,
and must be kept refrigerated or frozen in order to maintain safety and quality. There are
many different types of products that fall under this category. Example: cooked and smoked
sausages, cooked deli meats such as ham, roast beef, pastrami, corned beef, cooked chicken
roll, and smoked turkey breast, salads such as chicken or ham salad, and frozen entrees.

Not Heat Treated - Shelf Stable:

This processing category includes products controlled by water
activity, pH, freeze dried, and dehydrated product, such as salami,
pepperoni, or prosciutto. What defines this category is that the
product is shelf stable, and while heat may be applied, itis not the
primary means of achieving lethality. Primary processing methods
include fermentation, drying etc.
Heat treated - Shelf stable:
This processing category includes rendered products, popped
pork skins, bacon bits, snack sticks or jerky, summer sausage,
kippered beef, and pickled sausages. These products are
considered RTE, meaning they can be consumed as packaged.
This category contains products that are shelf stable, and have
received a full lethality treatment. Cooking is generally the primary method for achieving all
or most of the lethality in these products. Additional processing methods include
fermentation, drying etc.
Thermally treated - Shelf stable:
This processing category includes canned meat products,
products in reportable pouches and semirigid containers. This
category contains all products that have been thermally
processed in order to achieve commercial sterility.

E. SMOKING
Meat processors incorporate smoke into their cooking process to impart desired flavors,
aromas, and colors that enhances product. Factors that affect meat smoking include
preparation style, wood chips or sawdust, type of wood, wet or dry smoking, cold or hot
smoking etc.
Purpose of smoking:
• Improved shelf life
• Development of desirable organoleptic characteristics such as flavour and colour.

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 • Protection of fat from oxidation.
• The smoking process aids in preservation by impregnation of the meats on the surface
with chemical preservatives from smoke, by combined action of heat and these
preservatives during smoking, and by the drying effect, especially on the surface.
• Smoking and cooking, which are generally carried out together, are also involved in
the development of the colour, e.g., cure meat colour, which is stabilized by heating.
The browning or Maillard reaction is responsible for the development of characteristic
brown colour. It involves the reaction of the free amino groups from proteins or other
nitrogenous compounds of meat with the carbonyl of smoke.
Components of smoke:
Smoke is a mixture of multiple wood combustion products (gases, tar, ash, carbonyls,
phenols, etc.) that are visible as gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen, etc.) and carry
unburned solid particles (resin, tar, ash, etc.) as they escape the combustible heat source.
• Phenols – Ex: P-cresol, guaiacol, methyl guaiacol. They act as antioxidant, contribute
to the characteristic flavour of the smoked products and have a bacteriostatic effect
that contributes to preservation.
• Alcohols and Aldehydes - Primary, secondary alcohols mainly methanol or wood
alcohol may exert a minor bacteriostatic effect. Formaldehyde acts as a bacteriostatic
agent.
• Organic acids – Ex: Formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric and iso-butyric
acids, etc. They also appear to have only a minor preservative action.
• Carbonyls – Ex: diacetyl, acetone, propanol, etc. Certain carbonyl compounds
contribute to smoke flavour and aroma and browning of the product.
• Hydrocarbons – Ex: 4-benzapyrene and diphenanthracene. They do not appear to
impart preservative or organoleptic properties.
To minimize the production of carcinogenic substances, combustion temperature of 340°C
appears to be reasonable. Although combustion temperature of 400°C is desirable for
maximum production of phenols, this high temperature also favours the formation of
benzapyrene and other polycyclic hydrocarbons. Aldehydes and phenols condense to form
resins, which represents about 50 per cent of the smoke components and are believed to
provide most of the colour in smoked meats.
Parameters:
Cold smoking is typically performed inside the smoke house at 10–25°C with approximately
70–80% relative humidity and the temperature outside the house being ±5°C to reduce the
condensation. Weight loss for these products is typically in the 15–20% range. Cold smoking
is typically conducted with products that will require minimal thermal processing, such as
cold-water fish, dried/fermented sausages, and cured bacon. Cold-smoked products typically
have a lighter color (yellow to medium brown), and have a more pronounced and uniform
flavor throughout the product.
Warm smoking is typically conducted at 23–40°C with approximately 75–85% relative
humidity from 4 to 48 h. Warm-smoked products have higher water activities than cold-
smoked products and since their production occurs within the food’s danger zone (4–60°C),
these products require refrigeration. Warm-smoked products may have greater external

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 28

smoke coating with less smoke penetration due to a shorter smoke time when compared to
cold-smoked products.
Hot smoking can start at 40–60°C but can take place at temperatures as high as 90–100°C
depending on the product and desired flavor with a relative humidity ranging from 60% to
85% for up to 4 h. Due to the shortened smoke time, this product must be refrigerated or fully
cooked as shelf-life will not be significantly increased due to smoking. The following hot
smoking process can be used to increase color deposition in fully cooked meat product’s: (1)
drying the surface of the meat, being careful to not raise the temperature too much or too fast
since it will cause case hardening; (2) beginning to smoke the meat product between 45°C
and 65°C (112–150°F) and possibly smoking at higher temperatures. This is the most
common form of smoking used.
Methods of smoke generation:
Most commercial smoking operations have been using sawdust, which is easier to utilize and
gives a greater volume of smoke. Hard woods have been reported to be the best for smoking
e.g. saw dust of hickory, maple, oak , cherry and pecan. However, liquid smoke has been
produced satisfactorily from both hard and softwood with excellent results.
• Smoldering - Smoke generation is typically performed with the smoldering of wood
chips, without a flame. Smoldering allows for steady smoke generation of desired
concentration without the risk of higher temperatures or concentration changes if a
flame is introduced by the ignition of the wood chips. A dampening chamber allows
control of the smoldering rate by increasing or reducing airflow over the smoldering
chips. Many smoke houses have chambers with motorized agitators that will turn in
order to introduce wood chips into the heating chamber at set time intervals
• Friction smoker - In this process, a block of pressed sawdust or a wooden block is
pressed against a rotating wheel. The resistance between the wheel and the block
creates friction which in turn increases the temperature and causes smoldering to
begin. This process is seldom used due to the inconsistency of the smoke stream
generation.
• Steam smoker - It can be used to smoke meat products by passing super-heated
steam through a wood chip pile to produce smoke with greater moisture content. This
process has several advantages, including the use of less wood and reduced smoke
generation temperature which may reduce carcinogen production. The major
disadvantage is consistency.
• Liquid smoke – It is produced through wood pyrolysis similarly to the smoking of
wood chips, yet at much more efficient and sustainable conditions. During the
manufacture of liquid smoke products, the smoke cloud is captured in water and
through time and filtration, the condensate is processed to provide specific natural
smoke condensate products. They do not contain polycyclic hydrocarbons especially
benzapyrene a carcinogenic substance, which is removed during production. It has a
little or no preservation effect although it contributes to the flavour.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 29

 Fig: Smoldering Fig: Friction smoker Fig: Steam smoker (1 –
smoke house (1 &3 - log, 2-smoke saw dust, 2-conveyor, 3 –
out, 4 – rotating rough Superheated steam in, 4 –
wheel) impringement, 5- smoke,
6- waste)

Fig: Flow chart for liquid smoke preparation

Smoke chemistry:
Smoke flavor and colour result from the direct deposition of the smoke particles onto the food’s
surface. Carbonyls within the smoke vapor phase and the individual amino acids that make up
the meat proteins undergo chemical reactions during the heating process. These chemical
reactions cause nonenzymatic browning that is similar to the Maillard browning reaction.
Glycoaldehyde, glyoxal, and methylglyoxal are the carbonyls that are most noted to be reactive
and associated with color formation in smoked foods. Other less reactive carbonyls include
acetone, diacetyl, formaldehyde, furfural, and hydroxyacetone.
The primary stage begins with the reducing sugar’s carbonyl group from the smoke, condensing
with the nucleophilic amino group of the amino acid in the meat product, to yield
glycosylamine and water. The glycosylamine undergoes Amadori rearrangement to create an
Amadori product, known as ketoseamines. While there are chemical reactions taking place in
this stage, there is no color change. The ketoseamines are fragmented into deoxyosones.
Deoxyosones are reactive and can create secondary hydrolytic fission products such as diacetyl,
acetol, and pyruvaldehyde. This leads to aroma generation and color deposition with Strecker
degradation as the amino acids form aldehydes that can also form aldols due to condensation. In
the third stage, flavor and aromatic heterocyclic nitrogen compounds (furans, furanones,
pyrones, etc.) are formed that impart pleasant caramel or fresh bread crust aromas and flavors
or acrid, burnt aromas and flavors. While this reaction will take place at lower temperatures, it
occurs more rapidly as the temperature increases and thus a darker or heavier smoke will be
deposited.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 30

F. DEHYDRATION
Meat drying may be fundamentally defined as the removal of most of the water present in meat
by evaporation or sublimation. Consequently, the water activity (aw) is lowered thereby
hindering microbial growth and biochemical reactions. The dried meat product will thus have a
longer shelf life. Drying may be used as the only technique for production of highly dehydrated
and shelf-stable end-products, as is often the case in hot areas and developing countries, where
chilling and refrigeration infrastructures are lacking. Drying may also be combined with other
techniques such as smoking, salting, seasoning, curing and ripening, leading to intermediate
moisture products like ham and sausages. The choice of such combined treatment mainly aims
at enhancing the organoleptic characteristics (flavor, texture) and improving the palatability of
the end-product, to suit consumer requirements.
Principle:
As for major categories of foodstuffs, the convective drying of meat is ruled by the classical
principles of this process. Drying decreases the water content of raw meat (70–80%, wet basis)
to a safe value, in the range of 12–15% (wet basis) when drying is the sole preservation process,
and in the range of 28–50% when drying is combined with other techniques such as salting.
Drying also reduces the meat aw until the safe value of 0.6 (0.7–0.75 for intermediate moisture
meat products) is reached.
Heating is the driving force of convective meat drying. The hot air is characterized by
temperature, relative humidity, and velocity. These parameters should be well chosen with
respect to the type of meat and end-product. In addition, the characteristics of the product, that
is, its size, shape, structure, and proximate composition, are key factors that determine the
drying time needed for the end-product to reach safe water content and aw.
Convective meat drying involves two phenomena:
(1) heat transfer from the hot air to the product, and
(2) mass or water transfer in the reverse direction.
The moisture sorption isotherm is a sigmoidal curve describing the equilibrium relationship
between the water content and the aw of a product. It represents the amount of water adsorbed
in the meat as a function of the relative humidity of the air surrounding the material. The
moisture sorption isotherm can help optimize the meat-drying process to obtain defined end-
product characteristics.
Drying curves illustrate the transfer phenomena occurring during meat drying. They are called
drying kinetics when the decrease in meat water content is plotted against drying time. or the
drying rate plotted against the water content.
Three zones can be distinguished on a typical drying curve:
(1) induction period (beginning of the drying with fast removal of water),
(2) constant-rate drying period (corresponding to the constant evaporation of water at the
product surface), and

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 31

(3) falling-rate drying period (corresponding to the most difficult removal of water because of
its slow diffusion to the product surface).
Drying kinetics allow an understanding of the mechanisms of water transport occurring under
specific meat-drying conditions. The presence of fat in meat products tends to slow down the
drying rate because of its barrier effect on water transfer. The higher the fat content, the lower
the drying rate.

Fig: Moisture adsorption Fig: Drying rate of meat under

isotherms of dehydrated slices sun-drying and convective hot-
of meat at 15°C, 20°C, and 30°C air drying

Meat preparation prior to drying:

Dried meats are generally manufactured from bovine meat and to less extent from sheep,
mutton, goat, yak, or camel. Cured meats are commonly made from pork and in some cases
from beef or turkey. The preparatory operations prior to drying are common to most meat-
processing techniques. Meat preparation consists of cutting the carcass into primary or retail
cuts, trimming to remove undesirable material (e.g., damaged tissues, extra fat, connective
tissue, nerves, and bones). Meat is then cut into strips or flat pieces which are either directly air-
dried or undergo treatments such as salting or spicing before air-drying. For some meat- based
products, the meat must be chopped and then mixed to ingredients and seasonings, and in
certain cases, inoculated with starter microbial cultures.

Meat drying techniques:

Sun-drying - The meat, either raw or seasoned, is cut into strips or flat pieces. These pieces are
exposed to the sun, directly laid on the ground or raised on locally made trays, or sometimes
hung on hooks. The advantage of this simple and cheap technique is the use of natural and
renewable sun energy and of local materials. The main disadvantage is the poor quality of the
end products, because of the lack of hygiene and the meat contamination by blue flies, insects,
rodents, and dust. Cabinet solar dryers have been developed, where warm air is conducted

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 32

through a hermetically closed chamber, thereby avoiding any undesirable contamination from
outside. However, sun-drying is highly dependent on the weather conditions.

Fig: Cabinet solar dryer

Convective hot air-drying - Various types of dryers based on the transport of convective hot
air are available, functioning on both batch and continuous modes. These equipments generally
consist of a ventilated drying chamber where the air conditions (i.e., temperature, relative
humidity, and velocity) are well controlled. The process is operated at moderate temperatures
(under 35°C), in the case of refrigerated storage of the end-product, or at higher temperatures
(50–60°C) when drying is used as a unique treatment for raw material preservation. For cured
and fermented meats, drying is associated with the product ripening and the drying−ripening
temperatures range from 10°C to 15°C.

Fluidized-bed dryers – They are successfully used for meat drying in temperate climates,
mainly for use in canned soups. Meat is cut into slices, cooked, minced, or cut into small cubes,
and is then dried at 70°C.

Fig: Fluidized bed dryer

Alternative drying technologies - Treatment by superheated steam followed by either heat

pump drying or hot air-drying at 55°C. Drying-ripening process where sausages are fermented
to the desired pH and are then frozen, sliced, and dried in a continuous system that combines
convective and vacuum drying. This new process reduces the traditional drying−ripening time
to 30 min without any defect in the sausage quality and safety. Radiative and convective heat

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 33

transfers using Radiant metal plates. The plates are heated by the combustion smoke, which
improves the quality of the end-product by cutting down the benzo(a)pyrene production.

Changes in meat during drying:

Changes that occur in meat during drying are closely linked to the meat chemical nature and
operations carried out prior to drying along with the processing conditions.

• Microbial changes - Drying has a low lethal effect on microorganisms and they remain
dormant on the meat. As drying proceeds, microbial proliferation slows down and
eventually stops when the minimum aw for growth is reached. Many dried meat
products undergo a fermentation stage despite the fact that no starter culture is
purposely added. On the other hand, starter cultures may be deliberately added to pro-
mote specific organoleptic properties. Microorganism-mediated proteolysis gives rise to
a range of compounds contributing to the flavor profile of fermented products.

• Physicochemical Changes - As a result of water loss during drying, meat loses weight
and shrinks. The dripping away of molten fat during hot-air drying may further reduce
mass yield. Volume shrinkage of meat is accompanied by a wrinkled appearance and a
hardened texture. Surface hardening or crusting is one of the main problems that may
arise during drying of meat products. The crusted surface layer is harder and less
permeable than the inner part of the product. Water loss automatically results in a
concentration of dry solids (Fat, protein, and carbohydrate). Other changes may also
occur in the meat pH, free amino acids, and free fatty acid contents.

• Biochemical Changes - During hot-air drying, sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins

of meat denature, which is associated with a decrease in the water-holding capacity and
rehydration capacity. At around 60–65°C, meat collagen starts its transformation into
gelatin, which on drying will form granules. Aroma compounds including aliphatic
hydrocarbons, aldehydes, and ketones are also produced as a result of lipid oxidation.
Furans, sulfur, and nitrogen compounds are produced by Maillard-like reactions. Lean
meat color changes from red to brown. In the case of drying of cured products, both
meat and microbial enzymes break down meat components, essentially proteins and
fats, to form a number of compounds that contribute to the flavor profile of the product.

Changes in Quality during Storage of Dried Meat:

Biochemical, physicochemical, and microbiological changes may occur during storage of dried
meat, the extent of which depends on aw, pH, type of packaging, and storage air conditions
(temperature and relative humidity). These alterations are mainly due to the activity of
microorganisms surviving at low aw, along with some enzymatic and chemical reactions like
browning or oxidation. Chemical deterioration in dried meats most often refers to lipid
oxidation, imparting a rancid flavor and odor in meat. However, microbial deterioration is
usually due to mold growth on the surface. Different packaging may be used to improve storage
conditions. Generally, the products are packaged under vacuum or modified atmosphere.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 34

Hermetic sealing in opaque, gas-impervious films (polyethylene, poly- propylene, polyester)
and/or storage in the dark prevent color, aroma, and other oxidative deteriorations. Various
types of edible coatings, lipid based, polysaccharide based, or protein based, may also be used.

G. RADIATION

Food and meat may be preserved by the application of radiation, either ionising or non-ionising,
and such food is referred to as irradiated food. Ionising radiation is defined as radiation having
energy sufficient to cause loss of electrons from atoms to produce ions. Non- ionising radiation
is defined as radiation not having sufficient energy to cause loss of electrons from atoms to
produce ions.

Ionising radiations:

Ionising radiations include high speed electrons produced from a variety of electron generators
such as cathode ray tubes, X-rays generated by electrons when they strike heavy metal, and
electrons and gamma particles emitted from radio–isotopes such as cobalt 60, cesium 137.
Ionising radiation is capable of killing microorganism on meat without significantly raising the
temperature, hence referred to as cold sterilisation. The amount of radiation energy absorbed by
meat is expressed in rads (or) gray which is equal to 100 rads. Radiation preservation may be
classified as Radappertisation, Radurization and Radicidation in the decreasing order of dosage.
Radappertisation, which brings about sterility in meat, involves the application of radiation in
the range 0f 20 -30 kGy. Hence it is also referred to as radiation sterilisation. It is often
associated with development of unpleasant odours, flavors and off colours. Radurization is
otherwise referred to as radiation pasteurisation, and this uses doses less than that required for
sterilisation, typically in the range 1- 10 kGy, as this dosage is sufficient to kill many spoilage
organisms and thus can extend shelf life of meat under refrigeration significantly. Radicidation
is a process in which doses less than 1kGy are employed to increase shelf life, prevent
rendering pork free of Trichinella spiralis.

Non-ionizing radiation:

Microwave and infrared rays have wavelength greater than visible lights are capable of
generation of heat in the irradiated object and thus impart preservative effect, if any. Ultra
violet ray when absorbed by micro-organisms is lethal to them and thus germicidal. It is used
mainly in aging of meat. Limitation of using ultra–violet rays are poor penetration, so can be
used only for sterilising surfaces of carcasses and meat products. It also catalyzes many
oxidative changes in the irradiated products.

H. CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PRESERVATION

Preservative means any substance, which is capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the
process of fermentation, acidification or other deterioration of food or of masking any of the
evidence putrefaction but does not include additives used for the purposes of flavouring. There
are many chemicals, which prevent microbial growth in foods and act as preservatives.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 35

Chemicals:

Several organic acids have been Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) for use as chemical
preservatives. Citric acid, propionic acid, benzoic acid and their salts are effective mould
inhibitors. Acetic acid and lactic acid prevent bacterial growth. Sorbate and benzoate are
capable of arresting the growth of yeast in foods. Various essential oils have preservation
properties and have been used to extend the storage life of meat products. These include
eugenol in cloves and alkyl isothiocyanate in mustard seed and 0.3 percent of sage or rosemary
was inhibitory and 0.5 percent bactericidal. The addition of nicotinamide and ascorbic acid to
meat, as colour preservative is prohibited. Formaldehyde, as such, is also prohibited, since it is
demonstrably toxin, but is permitted up to 5ppm. Very few chemicals are now permitted as
preservatives and these only in minute quantities. Carbon-di-oxide and ozone have been used to
discourage the growth of surface microorganisms on beef carcasses during prolonged storage at
chill temperatures. Since, ozone leaves toxic residues in the meat, its use in the store can be
dangerous for personnel and it accelerates the oxidation of fat and is more effective against air-
borne microorganisms than against those on the meat.

Nitrites and Nitrates are critical components used to cure meat and are known to be
multifunctional food additives. They are potent antioxidants. When added to meat, nitrate and
nitrite react with the myoglobin and haemoglobin present in the trapped red blood cells,
eventually producing nitric oxide myoglobin. Sodium nitrite plays an important role in
inhibiting the growth and toxin production of Clostridium botulinum in cured products.

Escherichia coli is more resistant than Salmonella. Temperature, salt concentration, and initial
inoculum size significantly influence the antimicrobial role of nitrite. Nitrite is found to be most
inhibitory to bacteria at an acidic pH (pH 5.6 or 6.2) and lower temperatures (10°C or 15°C).
On the other hand, the inhibitory effect of nitrite is also enhanced tenfold after heating due to
the formation of an extremely inhibitory substance. This is called Perigo effect.

Nitrite, upon addition to meat, has been associated with the delay of the development of
oxidative rancidity. When nitrite reacts with heme compounds to form cured meat pigments, the
ferric iron (oxidized state, Fe3+), which is active in lipid oxidation, is reduced to ferrous
(Fe2+), which is an inactive Catalyst. In addition to this, curing with nitrite results in the
development of a characteristic pink colour and distinctive flavor.

The sequence of color changes during curing of meat is:

(i) initial purple red color of myoglobin changes to the brown of metmyoglobin,

(ii) in reducing conditions, nitric oxide derived from nitrite converts this into the dark
red nitrosylmyoglobin, and

(iii) if the meat is heated, e.g., in cooking, this pigment is converted into the stable
nitrosylhemochrome, which is pink.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 36

Usually, input concentrations in excess of 100 mg/kg are used for protection against microflora.
However, in meat products the following concentrations are found to be sufficient: 20 ppm for
cured meat and hams, 30 ppm for bacon, 25 for wieners, 70 ppm for pork loins and country-
style hams, 52 ppm for frankfurters, 26 ppm for franks, and 40 ppm for turkey frankfurters.

Biological:

Preservation of the meat is achieved by adding salts and the generation of lactic acid by
bacteria, which leads to a rapid fall in the pH. Micrococci, Staphylococci, and yeasts are
responsible for the development of color, taste, and flavor during the fermentation. The starter
cultures also produce natural antimicrobials which help in preserving the meat. Pediococcus
cerevisiae, Staphylococcus carnosus, and Lb. plantarum are among the most common bacteria
involved in meat fermentations. reliability. LAB and nitrate-reducing bacteria are important
members of starter cultures. Commonly used LAB include Pediococcus acidilactici and Lb.
plantarum. High-salt-tolerant yeasts such as Debaryomyces hansenii and molds of the
Penicillium spp. are also included. Species such as Micrococcus varians and Staphylococcus
carnosus are important when nitrate salts are added instead of nitrites as they convert nitrates
into nitrites, which react faster and less is required for compound stabilization. Some of the
commonly fermented products are sausages, fish sauces and pastes.

SAUSAGES

Sausage may be defined as a food consisting of a mixture of minced or chopped meat and
cereal for binding purposes, seasoned and spiced with sage, pepper and other substances, and
stuffed into casings. Sausages are economical since; these are generally prepared from cheaper
cuts of meat and by-products of the meat industry.

TYPES OF SAUSAGES

Classification Characteristic Examples

s
Fresh sausages Fresh meats (chiefly pork); uncured, Fresh sausage
comminuted, seasoned, does not contain por ,
phosphates and usually stuffed into casings; must k Bratwurst
be cooked fully before
serving
Dry and Cured meats; fermented air-dried, may be Genoa salami
semidry smoked before drying; served cold. Pepperon ,
sausages i, Lebano
bologna. n
Cooked Cured or uncured meats; comminuted, seasoned, Liver sausage,
sausages stuffed into casings, cooked (55 ºC), often have Summer sausage,
phosphates added to prevent excessive cooking Braunschweiger, Liver
loss and sometimes smoked; usually served cold. cheese.
Have a distinct texture, and are capable of

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 37

 holding large
amounts of fat and water.

Cooked, Cured meats; comminuted, seasoned, stuffed Frankfurters,

smoked sausages into Bologna, Cotto
casings, smoked and fully cooked; do not salami.
require further cooking, but some are heated for
serving.
Uncooked, Fresh meats; cured or uncured, stuffed, smoked, Smoked, country-
smoked but not cooked; must be fully cooked before style
sausages serving. pork sausage,
Mettwurst, Kielbasa.
Cooked meat Specially prepared meat products; cured or Loaves, head scrapple
specialties uncured meats, cooked but rarely smoked, often
made in loaves, but generally sold in sliced
packaged form;
usually served cold.

Fig: Uncooked, Cooked and Cured sausages

SAUSAGE INGREDIENTS AND FORMULATION

Main ingredient:

Sausages can be made from various fresh trimmings and cuts that might ordinarily be
underutilised. Materials such as cheek, jowl, head meat, pork fat and trimmings, which are
seldom used freshly, make palatable sausages and are as good for this purpose as are any other
cuts of meat. Other cuts from low quality carcasses may also be used. Only clean fresh or cured
meats free from bones, tendons, and joints should be used. The skin should be removed from
the pork. Meat by-products such as heart, liver, kidney, tongue and tripe obtained from beef,
calves, sheep and hogs are also used in many sausages. During preparation of sausage batters
meat proteins serve two functions: To encapsulate or emulsify fat and to bind water. The
presence of excessive collagen in most sausage is undesirable. Fat contributes greatly to
palatability (Tenderness and juiciness) of sausages, but it is also the source of many processing

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 38

problems. Fat is added to emulsions or batters primarily through inclusion of beef and pork
trimmings in formulations.

Non- meat ingredients:

Water is the most important non-meat ingredient and it should be permitted up to 3% for fresh
sausages, luncheon meats and meat loaves.

Salt has 3 primary functions - preservation, flavour enhancement and protein extraction to
create the product to bind. Most sausages have 2-3 % of added salt.

Sugars are used mostly as flavouring agents to counteract the salt flavour intensity and to
provide food for microbial fermentation in fermented sausages (0.5 – 1 %).

Seasonings and flavourings are included in sausage emulsions or batters to add flavour to the
product. Spices are dried plant products, which include herbs, aromatic seeds and dehydrated
vegetables. Marjoram, sage and thyme are examples of herbs. Monosodium glutamate and
nucleotides – enhance flavour. Hydrolyzed plant proteins contribute a characteristic meaty
flavour.

Fillers, emulsifiers or stabilizers are added to basic meat formulations for one or more of the
following reasons: To improve emulsion stability, cooking yields, slicing characteristics and
flavour. The use level is generally restricted to 3.5%. Soy isolate and gelatin act as binders.
Fillers such as starch, cereals and wheat flour and corn meal are used occasionally to lower the
cost and the shrinkage and to bind to the product. Many extenders have an effect on color,
flavor and texture including milk, yeast etc.

Nitrates and nitrites are added for their bacteriostatic, antioxidant and colour fixing properties.
Ascorbates and Erythrobates are strong reducing agents that accelerate the conversion of
metmyoglobin to myoglobin and nitric oxide. Antioxidant compounds such as BHA (Butylated
hydroxy anisole), BHT (Butylated hydroxy toluene) and propyl gallate are added at 0.01 to
0.02% of fat content to prevent oxidative rancidity. Phosphates are added (< 0.5%) to improve
the water-binding capacity of meat and solubilize proteins and act as antioxidants and help
protect and stabilize the flavour and color of finished product. A 3.5% solution of propyl
paraben or a 2.5% solution of potassium sorbate may be used as antimicrobial agent. Sodium
lactate which improves product stability and shelf life because of its bacteriostatic effect may
also be added.

Formulation:

• Ratio of Lean meat to Offal Meat 7: 3

• The other ingredients are to be added in terms of % wt of meat (i.e 2% means - 2% of

the weight of meat added)

• Fat-10%

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 39

 • Salt-2.5%

• Sodium or Potassium nitrite- 200 ppm

• Pyrophosphates -0.3%

• Spice mix -2%

• Condiments - 4% (3% onions and 1% garlic)

• Binder or extender - 10%

• Added water, preferably as crushed ice - 10%

Processing:

Lean meat highest in myofibrillar proteins is used for the formation of emulsion by mincing in a
bowl chopper. Salt is added to about 4 to 4.5% of the lean meat and chopping is initiated by
keeping the temperatures below 3°C. Commercially cold water or chopped ice is often added
during processing to keep the meat from heating while being chopped. Chopping continues to a
final temperature of 13°C to 18° C. If the chopping is done in high temperature, the emulsion
may ‘break’ causing fat separation during the subsequent cooking step. In over chopping, fat
particles are coated and the protein interface broken by further comminution. Once the
emulsion is formed, the batter is at critical stage. Excessive physical handling, long holding
times, etc., can reduce stability. The product is stuffed into appropriate casing and moved to
heat processing as soon as possible.

Equipment:

Mincing: It is advisable to cut the meat in small pieces, prior to mincing it. Fat is also minced
along with meat. Meat grinder with 1/8” plate and 5/8” plate is used for grinding the meat.

Fig: Meat mincer

Mixing: The cylinders of fat and lean obtained by grinding are tumbled in a mixer to give a
uniform distribution of fat and lean particles. Mixing also aids in extracting and coating the
fat and lean particles with salt-soluble proteins.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 40

 Fig: Meat mixer

Chopping: A chopper is composed of a revolving metal bowl that contains the meat while the
knife blades rotating on an axle cut through the revolving meat mass. The meat is first added
followed by the salt, curing salts, phosphate and then the fat spice mix condiments and finally
binder or filler is added and chopped together to produce a fine ground emulsion. The emulsion
formed is not a true emulsion and is only a pseudo emulsion as fat and water are not in direct
contact at all. Chopping results in extraction of muscle protein especially myosin which serves
as the dispersion matrix in which both fat and water of meat are dispersed on either side of the
matrix.

Fig: Bowl chopper

Stuffing: Stuffers are used to extrude the sausage formulation into the casing. The ground
mixture is fed from a hopper into a reservoir and forced through a nozzle into the casing. While
making sausage one should be careful not to stuff the casings too tightly. Space is allowed for
swelling during cooking otherwise, the casings may burst.

There are three types of stuffing pumps:

• Piston type recommended for coarse-ground sausages and those having fat chunks.

• Screw type and

• Rotary type used for small sausages.

Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 41

 Fig: Piston stuffer

REFERENCES

• Abattoir practices and Animal Products Technology. ICAR –E Course.

• Amit Patel, Devraja H. C., Prateek Sharma and R. R. B. Singh. Food Technology II.
ICAR –E Course.
• Ashbrook, F. G. (1955). Butchering, processing and preservation of meat (No. TS1960.
A83
• Basic Animal Husbandry & Fisheries Statistics. 2018. Ministry of Fisheries, Animal
Husbandry and Dairying, GOI.
• Boler, D. D., & Woerner, D. R. (2017). What is meat? A perspective from the American
Meat Science Association. Animal Frontiers, 7(4), 8-11.
• Collins, D. S., & Huey, R. J. (Eds.). (2014). Gracey's meat hygiene. John Wiley & Sons.
• Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 7: 4627- 4634. Dairying, GOI.
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industry- [Link]
• Hui, Y. H. (Ed.). (2012). Handbook of meat and meat processing. CRC press.
• [Link] and [Link] (2012). Abattoir Practices and Animal Products
Technology. ICAR –E Course.
• Kumar.R.2018. Present Status of Indian Meat Industry – A Review. International
Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 7: 4627- 4634.
• [Link] (2012). Meat Science. ICAR –E Course.
• [Link]
• [Link]. Abattoir practices - Plant Layout, Design and Construction of an
Abattoir.
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Hemamalini S, [Link]., Dept. of FT, SSIET 42