Topic 1 - Foundations
1.1 Environmental Value Systems:
● Earth Day: Originating from a series of environmental crises in the 1960s, Earth Day was
established in 1970 as a response to growing environmental concerns, leading to
significant environmental legislation.
● Silent Spring: Rachel Carson's groundbreaking book published in 1962 raised
awareness about the environmental impacts of pesticides, particularly DDT, leading to
the modern environmental movement and the eventual ban on DDT in many countries.
● Chernobyl Disaster: The 1986 nuclear accident in Ukraine highlighted the catastrophic
consequences of human error and lax safety regulations, sparking international debate
over the safety and regulation of nuclear energy.
1.4 Sustainability:
● Renewable natural capital: Solar energy, which is constantly replenished by the sun and
can be harnessed using solar panels.
● Replenishable natural capital: Forests, which can be harvested for timber but can
regenerate over time if managed sustainably.
● Non-renewable natural capital: Fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, which are finite
resources that cannot be replenished.
● Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: A comprehensive scientific assessment conducted
from 2001 to 2005 that evaluated the consequences of ecosystem change for human
well-being, highlighting the importance of ecosystem services and the urgent need for
conservation and sustainable management.
1.5 Pollution:
● DDT: Developed as an insecticide in the 1940s, DDT was widely used to control
mosquitoes and other pests. However, its persistence in the environment led to
bioaccumulation in food chains, causing reproductive issues in birds like bald eagles and
ospreys, and ultimately leading to its ban in many countries.
Topic 2 - Ecosystems & Ecology
2.1 Species and Populations:
● Fundamental niche vs. realized niche: The fundamental niche of a species refers to the
full range of environmental conditions under which it can survive and reproduce. The
realized niche is the subset of these conditions that the species actually occupies due to
competition and other biotic factors.
● Population interactions:
○ Predation: Lions hunting zebras on the African savanna.
○ Herbivory: Grazing of grass by deer in a forest ecosystem.
○ Parasitism: Tapeworms living in the intestines of mammals.
○ Mutualism: Bees pollinating flowers and receiving nectar in return.
○ Disease: Bacterial infections affecting populations of amphibians.
○ Competition: Lions and hyenas competing for prey in the same habitat.
2.2 Communities and Ecosystems:
● Food chain: Grass (producer) → Rabbit (primary consumer) → Fox (secondary
consumer) → Decomposers.
● Bioaccumulation and biomagnification: In aquatic ecosystems, mercury accumulates in
fish tissues. As larger fish consume smaller ones, mercury concentrations increase,
posing health risks to organisms at higher trophic levels.
2.3 Flows of Energy and Matter:
● Impact of deforestation: Deforestation disrupts energy flows by reducing photosynthesis
and carbon storage, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and altering
regional climate patterns.
2.4 Biomes, Zonation, Succession:
● Zonation case study: Mountains exhibit zonation with distinct vegetation zones like
alpine meadows, coniferous forests, and snow-capped peaks.
● Primary succession case study: Krakatoa volcano eruption led to the colonization of
barren lava fields by pioneer species like lichens, followed by grasses and shrubs,
culminating in the establishment of a forest ecosystem.
● Secondary succession case study: After a forest fire, pioneer species such as fireweed
and aspen colonize the burned area, followed by intermediate species like pines, and
eventually climax species like oak and maple.
● R- and K-strategists: R-strategists include species like insects and rodents with high
reproductive rates, while K-strategists like elephants and whales invest more resources
in fewer offspring.
● Contrasting biomes:
○ Tropical forest vs. temperate forest: Tropical forests have high biodiversity,
continuous growth, and year-round warmth, while temperate forests experience
seasonal variations and moderate biodiversity.
○ Desert vs. tundra: Deserts are characterized by low precipitation and high
temperatures, while tundra regions have low temperatures and permafrost, with
sparse vegetation.
2.5 Investigating Ecosystems:
● Abiotic components: Temperature (measured in Celsius), precipitation (measured in
millimeters), soil pH, sunlight intensity (measured in lux), and humidity (measured in
percentage).
Topic 3 - Biodiversity & Conservation
3.2 Origins of Biodiversity:
● Causes of major extinctions: The five major extinctions were caused by factors such as
asteroid impacts, volcanic eruptions, climate change, and changes in ocean chemistry.
3.3 Threats to Biodiversity:
● Extinction due to human activity: Passenger pigeon was hunted to extinction in the early
20th century for food and sport.
● Critically endangered species: Amur leopard is threatened by habitat loss and poaching.
● Conservation success: Bald eagle populations recovered in the United States due to
habitat protection and the banning of DDT.
● Conflict between exploitation and conservation: The CAMPFIRE initiative in Zimbabwe
aimed to balance conservation efforts with community development by allowing local
communities to benefit from wildlife resources through regulated hunting and tourism.
● Biodiversity threats case study: Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest threatens
numerous plant and animal species, including the jaguar and the giant otter.
3.4 Conservation of Biodiversity:
● Protected area success: Yellowstone National Park in the United States has been
successful in preserving diverse ecosystems and iconic species like wolves and grizzly
bears.
● Keystone species: Bees play a crucial role in pollination, supporting the reproduction of
numerous plant species.
● Charismatic species: Giant panda conservation efforts in China have garnered global
attention and support due to the species' iconic status.
Topic 4 - Water
4.1 Introduction to Water Systems:
● Human influence on the hydrological cycle: Agriculture consumes large amounts of
water for irrigation, leading to depletion of aquifers and altered river flow patterns.
4.2 Access to Freshwater:
● Nile Basin conflict: Upstream countries like Ethiopia constructing dams for hydroelectric
power has led to tensions with downstream nations like Egypt, which rely on the Nile for
water resources.
4.3 Aquatic Food Production Systems:
● Controversial harvesting: The hunting of whales by indigenous communities, such as the
Inuit in the Arctic, raises ethical and conservation concerns.
● Unsustainable fishing: Overfishing of bluefin tuna has depleted populations, leading to
calls for stricter fisheries management.
● Aquaculture impacts: Shrimp farming in Thailand has led to habitat destruction, pollution
from chemical inputs, and displacement of mangrove forests.
4.4 Water Pollution:
● Eutrophication example: The eutrophication of Lake Erie has been exacerbated by
agricultural runoff containing high levels of phosphorus and nitrogen from fertilizers.
These nutrients stimulate excessive algal growth, leading to the formation of harmful
algal blooms that deplete oxygen levels in the water, negatively impacting fish and other
aquatic organisms. The Maumee River watershed, which drains into Lake Erie, is
particularly susceptible to nutrient pollution due to intensive agricultural practices in the
surrounding region. Efforts to reduce nutrient runoff and improve water quality in Lake
Erie include implementing agricultural best management practices, restoring wetlands,
and regulating nutrient inputs from point sources such as wastewater treatment plants.
Topic 5 - Soils
5.2 Terrestrial Food Production Systems and Food Choices:
● Industrial beef farming vs. traditional Maasai livestock: Industrial beef farming involves
large-scale feedlots, intensive use of resources like water and grain, and environmental
issues such as methane emissions. In contrast, traditional Maasai livestock farming in
East Africa involves nomadic herding practices, which have a lower environmental
footprint but may lead to land degradation in overgrazed areas.
5.3 Soil Degradation and Conservation:
● Industrial vs. subsistence farming systems: Industrial farming relies heavily on
mechanization, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides, leading to soil erosion, nutrient
depletion, and loss of biodiversity. In contrast, subsistence farming practices, such as
agroforestry and crop rotation, prioritize soil conservation and sustainable land
management to ensure long-term productivity.
Topic 6 atmosphere
6.2 Stratospheric Ozone:
One detailed case study evaluating the role of national and international organizations in reducing
the emissions of ozone-depleting substances is the Montreal Protocol. This international treaty,
adopted in 1987, aimed to phase out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting
substances (ODS), such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons. The protocol set legally binding
targets for the reduction of ODS production and consumption, leading to the development and
implementation of alternative technologies and substances that are less harmful to the ozone layer.
National and international organizations played a crucial role in the success of the Montreal Protocol.
For example, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) facilitated negotiations and
provided technical assistance to countries in implementing the protocol's provisions. Scientific
organizations, such as the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), provided evidence of ozone depletion and its impacts, which
helped mobilize political support for the protocol.
As a result of the Montreal Protocol, the ozone layer has begun to recover, and the risk of harmful
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface has been reduced. The success of the protocol
demonstrates the effectiveness of international cooperation in addressing global environmental
challenges.
6.4 Acid Deposition:
Examples of the impacts of acid deposition on aquatic, terrestrial, and human systems include:
● Aquatic systems: Acid deposition can lower the pH of lakes, rivers, and streams, leading to
acidification. This can harm aquatic organisms such as fish, amphibians, and invertebrates
by damaging their gills, affecting reproduction and disrupting food chains.
● Terrestrial systems: Acid deposition can leach essential nutrients from soils, leading to
nutrient deficiencies in plants and impairing their growth. It can also damage vegetation,
particularly sensitive species like coniferous trees, and contribute to the decline of
biodiversity in affected ecosystems.
● Human health: Acid deposition can contribute to respiratory problems and cardiovascular
diseases in humans by increasing the concentration of fine particulate matter in the air, which
can penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream. It can also corrode
infrastructure, such as buildings and statues, leading to economic costs associated with
repairs and maintenance.
Topic 7 climate change
7.1 Energy Sources and Security:
Detailed examples of the advantages and disadvantages of various energy sources:
● Non-renewables:
○ Oil: Advantages include high energy density and widespread availability, but
disadvantages include air and water pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and
geopolitical conflicts over oil reserves.
○ Coal: Advantages include abundance and affordability, but disadvantages include air
pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and habitat destruction from mining.
○ Gas: Advantages include lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to coal and oil,
but disadvantages include methane leaks during extraction and transportation, water
contamination from fracking, and dependence on fossil fuels.
● Renewables:
○ Solar: Advantages include abundant and inexhaustible energy source, low operating
costs, and minimal environmental impact, but disadvantages include intermittent
availability, high upfront costs, and land use requirements for large-scale
installations.
○ Wind: Advantages include zero greenhouse gas emissions during operation, low
operating costs, and potential for decentralization, but disadvantages include visual
and noise pollution, bird and bat collisions, and intermittent availability.
○ Hydro: Advantages include reliable and dispatchable energy generation, long
lifespan of infrastructure, and flood control and irrigation benefits, but disadvantages
include habitat disruption, displacement of communities, and methane emissions
from reservoirs.
○ Tidal: Advantages include predictability of tides, high energy density, and minimal
environmental impact, but disadvantages include limited geographic availability, high
upfront costs, and potential impacts on marine ecosystems.
One detailed case study of the energy security and strategies of a given country:
● Denmark: Denmark has implemented a comprehensive energy strategy focused on
renewable energy sources, particularly wind power. The country has invested in offshore
wind farms and grid infrastructure to support the integration of renewable energy into the
electricity system. Denmark has achieved significant reductions in greenhouse gas
emissions and fossil fuel dependence while maintaining energy security through diversified
energy sources and interconnections with neighboring countries for electricity imports and
exports.
7.2 Climate Change Causes & Impacts:
Two detailed examples of the impacts of climate change:
● Adverse impacts in Bangladesh: Climate change has led to increased frequency and
intensity of extreme weather events, such as cyclones and floods, in Bangladesh. These
events have caused widespread destruction of infrastructure, displacement of communities,
loss of lives, and damage to agricultural land, leading to food insecurity and economic
losses.
● Beneficial impacts in Greenland: Climate change has resulted in the retreat of glaciers and
ice sheets in Greenland, opening up new opportunities for economic development, such as
expanded mineral extraction, fisheries, and tourism. However, these developments also pose
risks to the environment and indigenous communities, including habitat loss, pollution, and
cultural disruption.
Two detailed examples of contrasting viewpoints on climate change:
● Al Gore: Al Gore, former Vice President of the United States and environmental activist, has
been a prominent advocate for action on climate change. He highlights the scientific
consensus on the reality of human-caused climate change and its potential catastrophic
consequences for the planet if left unaddressed. Gore has called for policy measures to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and transition to renewable energy sources.
● The Stern Report: The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change, led by economist
Nicholas Stern, emphasized the economic costs of climate change and the benefits of early
action to mitigate its impacts. The report argued that the costs of inaction would far outweigh
the costs of implementing measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to
climate change, calling for urgent and ambitious global action to address the climate crisis.
7.3 Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation:
Examples of carbon dioxide removal techniques:
● UN-REDD (United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest Degradation): UN-REDD aims to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation by providing financial incentives for
forest conservation and sustainable management practices.
● Biomass: Biomass energy generation involves capturing carbon dioxide emissions from
biomass combustion and storing them underground through carbon capture and storage
(CSS) technologies.
Two detailed examples of mitigation AND adaptation strategies in a named city/country:
● London, UK: Mitigation efforts in London include policies to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions from transportation, buildings, and industry, such as congestion pricing, energy
efficiency regulations, and renewable energy incentives. Adaptation measures include flood
defenses, green infrastructure, and heatwave response plans to cope with the impacts of
climate change, such as increased flooding, heatwaves, and sea-level rise.
● Bangladesh: Mitigation actions in Bangladesh focus on promoting renewable energy,
improving energy efficiency, and reducing emissions from deforestation and land use
change. Adaptation measures include building cyclone shelters, strengthening early warning
systems, implementing coastal protection measures, and promoting climate-resilient
agriculture to cope with the impacts of climate change, such as cyclones, floods, and
sea-level rise.
Detailed examples of international efforts to address climate change:
● The Kyoto Protocol: Adopted in 1997, the Kyoto Protocol established legally binding
emission reduction targets for developed countries (Annex I countries) for the period
2008-2012. It also introduced flexible mechanisms, such as emissions trading and clean
development mechanisms, to help countries meet their targets cost-effectively.
● The Paris Agreement: Adopted in 2015, the Paris Agreement aims to limit global warming to
well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial
Topic 8 Human systems
8.1 Human Population Dynamics:
Brief examples of HICs/LICs and countries at each stage of the demographic transition model:
● High-Income Countries (HICs):
○ Stage 4: United States, Canada, Germany
○ Stage 5: Japan, Italy, Spain
● Low-Income Countries (LICs):
○ Stage 1: Chad, Niger, Mali
○ Stage 2: Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Haiti
Two case studies on population policies (pro-natalist & anti-natalist) and their impact on human
population dynamics and growth:
● China (One-Child Policy): China's one-child policy, implemented in 1979, was an
anti-natalist population control measure aimed at reducing population growth. It limited
urban couples to one child and allowed exceptions for rural couples under certain
conditions. The policy successfully reduced China's population growth rate but also led
to gender imbalance, skewed age demographics, and social consequences such as a
shrinking labor force and aging population.
● Singapore (Pro-Natalist Policies): Singapore implemented pro-natalist policies to
encourage higher birth rates and address declining fertility rates. Measures included
cash incentives, parental leave benefits, and subsidies for childcare and housing. These
policies aimed to support families in raising children and boost the country's population
growth. However, the impact of pro-natalist policies on fertility rates and population
growth has been mixed, with limited success in reversing long-term demographic trends.
8.2 Resource Use in Society:
Brief examples of the four types of ecosystem services:
● Supporting services: Soil formation, nutrient cycling, and primary production.
● Regulating services: Climate regulation, water purification, and pollination.
● Provisioning services: Food, water, timber, and medicinal plants.
● Cultural services: Recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, spiritual and cultural values.
One case study each of a non-renewable and renewable resource & how it is dynamic and has
changed over time:
● Non-renewable resource (Oil): The extraction and consumption of oil have undergone
significant changes over time, from the early days of conventional oil drilling to the
development of unconventional sources such as oil sands and shale oil. As global
demand for oil continues to rise, technological advancements and geopolitical factors
influence the exploration and production of oil reserves, as well as efforts to transition to
alternative energy sources to mitigate environmental impacts and ensure energy
security.
● Renewable resource (Wind energy): The utilization of wind energy has evolved from
traditional windmills for mechanical power to modern wind turbines for electricity
generation. Advances in turbine technology, grid integration, and policy support have led
to the rapid expansion of wind power capacity worldwide. However, the development of
wind energy faces challenges such as land use conflicts, wildlife impacts, and
intermittency, requiring innovative solutions and integrated approaches to maximize its
potential as a sustainable energy source.
8.3 Solid Domestic Waste:
Detailed examples of the pros & cons of the 4 main types of solid domestic waste disposal
options:
● Landfills:
○ Pros: Cost-effective, land-efficient, and can capture landfill gas for energy
production.
○ Cons: Land and groundwater pollution, greenhouse gas emissions (methane),
and limited capacity.
● Incinerators:
○ Pros: Reduces waste volume, generates energy (heat and electricity), and can
recover metals from ash.
○ Cons: Air pollution (particulate matter, dioxins), high initial costs, and public
health concerns.
● Composting:
○ Pros: Organic waste diversion, nutrient-rich soil amendment, and reduces
greenhouse gas emissions.
○ Cons: Requires space, time, and proper management, potential odor and pest
issues, and limited acceptance of certain materials (e.g., meat, dairy).
● The 6Rs (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Rethink, Repair, Refuse):
○ Pros: Promotes waste minimization, resource conservation, and environmental
awareness.
○ Cons: Requires behavior change, infrastructure investment, and policy support,
and may face economic barriers and cultural resistance.
8.4 Carrying Capacity & Ecological Footprints:
Examples of ecological footprints in one named HIC and one named LIC and reasoning for why
they differ:
● High-Income Country (HIC): United States
○ Ecological footprint: The ecological footprint of the United States is high due to its
large population, high consumption levels, and resource-intensive lifestyle.
Americans have a high per capita consumption of energy, water, and goods,
leading to significant ecological impacts such as carbon emissions, land use, and
waste generation.
● Low-Income Country (LIC): Bangladesh
○ Ecological footprint: The ecological footprint of Bangladesh is relatively low
compared to HICs due to its lower levels of consumption, limited industrialization,
and dependence on agricultural livelihoods. However, Bangladesh faces
environmental challenges such as land degradation, deforestation, and
vulnerability to climate change impacts, which can affect its ecological footprint
and sustainability over time.
