6/3/2024
LECTURE – 02
THEORY OF ERROR &
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ADJUSMENT
What is Error ?
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Mistake is defined as:
These are observer blunders and are usually caused by
misunderstanding the problem, carelessness, fatigue, missed
communication, or poor judgment.
Sources of Error
1- Natural errors
2- Instrumental errors
3- Personal errors
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1- Natural Errors
• Such errors are caused by variations in wind, temperature, humidity,
atmospheric pressure, atmospheric refraction, gravity, and magnetic declination.
• An example is a steel tape whose length varies with changes in temperature.
2- Instrumental Errors
• This result from any imperfection in the construction or adjustment of
instruments and from the movement of individual parts.
• For example, the graduations on a scale may not be perfectly spaced, or the scale
may be warped.
• The effect of many instrumental errors can be reduced, or even eliminated, by
adopting proper surveying procedures or applying computed corrections.
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3- Personal Errors
• This arise principally from limitations of the human senses of sight and touch.
• As an example, a small error occurs in the observed value of a horizontal angle if
the vertical crosshair in a total station instrument is not aligned perfectly on the
target, or if the target is the top of a rod that is being held slightly out of plumb.
Types of Error
1- Systematic error
2- Random error
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1- Systematic Error
This result from factors that comprise the “measuring system” and include the
environment, instrument, and observer. So long as system conditions remain
constant, the systematic errors will likewise remain constant.
(a) An example of a constant systematic error is the use of a 100-ft steel tape that
has been calibrated and found to be 0.02 ft too long. It introduces a 0.02-ft
error each time it is used.
(b) An example of variable systematic error is the change in length of a steel tape
resulting from temperature differentials that occur during the period of the
tape’s use.
2- Random Error
• are those that remain in measured values after mistakes and systematic errors
have been eliminated.
• They are caused by factors beyond the control of the observer, obey the laws of
probability, and are sometimes called accidental errors.
• They are present in all surveying observations.
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Precession and Accuracy
• A discrepancy is the difference between two observed values of the same
quantity.
• Accuracy denotes the absolute nearness of observed quantities to their true
values.
• The difference between precision and accuracy is perhaps best illustrated with
reference to target shooting.
Confused between
precession and accuracy!!
Lets understand it with example
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CORRECTIONS
Now we will learn how to remove errors from erroneous data.
Ready?
Lets move on!
