Chapter 1

The Problem and Its Settings

1.1 Introduction

Vertical restrictions imposed on buildings and other natural obstructions in the vicinity of

airport runways are crucial for safeguarding aviation operations and the safety of civilians. This

practice, established worldwide, serves as a necessary measure to lessen potential hazards posed

by obstructions to air traffic [1] [2]. For example in Nigeria where the proposed MKO Abiola

international Airport in Ido-Osun, Osun State had a buffer zone of 2km to take precautions and

avoid head-on collisions on buildings due to unforeseen circumstances like engine failure during

take-off and other factors that complicates landing operations. While vital for aviation safety,

these regulations usually present hurdles for contractors and civil engineers applying for permits

for projects near airports. Compliance of permits may require redesigns or adjustments, causing

delays and additional expenses, complicating the development process [3].

In the Philippines, the regulation of vertical clearances is under the jurisdiction of the

Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines (CAAP). However, the current regulations provided

by CAAP primarily focus on the ratio between the distance from the centerline of the runway

and the maximum elevation of structures. Specifically, the regulations require that within every

15 meters from the centerline of the runway, a 2-meter-high structure can be erected. However,

this approach overlooks the significance of topographic elevations in the surrounding areas. As a

consequence, contractors often find themselves needing to take additional steps to verify

clearance requirements with geodetic engineers, either from CAAP or private firms. This entails

completing two forms provided by CAAP: the Height Evaluation Application Form (ANNEX B)
and the Geodetic Engineer’s Certificate (ANNEX C). These additional requirements introduce

delays and added complexity to the permit acquisition process for development projects near

airports [4].

It has been known that relying solely on metrics such as height above the Earth's surface

and the number of buildings, floors, and structures is insufficient for establishing comprehensive

height restrictions near airports. Instead, it is crucial to take into account neighboring land

elevations, which can vary significantly due to diverse topographic profiles in different regions

within the area. Incorporating data from geo-observation supports the importance of considering

topographic elevations when setting clearance regulations. By taking into account deviations in

land elevation, authorities can better assess potential obstructions to air traffic and ensure that

height restrictions are tailored to the specific geographic characteristics of each area. This

approach enhances the effectiveness of safety measures and contributes to the overall integrity of

aviation operations near airports [5].

To address these challenges, the development of comprehensive thematic maps is crucial.

These maps would illustrate vertical clearance regulations considering both the distance from

runways and the topographic elevations of surrounding areas. By integrating spatial data on land

elevations with existing clearance regulations, these maps offer a clearer understanding of height

restrictions for development projects near airports. Such visual representations aid contractors

and civil engineers in making strategic decisions and thus providing insights in the navigation of

regulatory processes. They serve as valuable tools for planners, developers, and aviation

authorities, ensuring that safety considerations are effectively communicated and incorporated

into urban development initiatives [6] [7]. Benefiting civil engineers, as they would be able to
assess the maximum height allowance for their projects more accurately. With the utilization of

geographic information systems (GIS) technologies, the aerodrome's surrounding surfaces will

be observed and monitored in two and three dimensions, enabling the assessment of any

aberrations, as well as utilizing remotely sensed data to simulate obstacle zones based on

building density and the possible risk in flight safety [9] [13]. In the case of topographic

elevation, all elevations should be referenced from the mean sea level (MSL). This

standardization ensures consistency in elevation data, minimizing errors during triangulation

processes. Additionally, the hypotenuse theorem is utilized to calculate the extents of

restrictions, optimizing the accuracy of clearance regulations. By adhering to these principles,

authorities can effectively incorporate topographic elevations into height restrictions near

airports, enhancing the safety and efficiency of aviation operations. [5]

The absence of easily accessible data regarding vertical clearances of structures near

airports worsens the challenges faced by contractors and civil engineers. The varying in

topographic elevation around airports emphasizes the need for a more refined approach to

determining maximum allowable heights for structures. Further investigation revealed that

Dipolog City with its local airport have been categorized by CAAP as one of the critical zones in

the Philippines [5] and the necessity for more sophisticated approaches to determining maximum

allowable heights for structures around Dipolog Airport is apparent, emphasizing the importance

of integrating topographic elevations into clearance regulations. Therefore, this study aims to

address the gap by developing a comprehensive thematic map within the 3 km radius from the

airport’s runway, covering densely populated areas of the city, which are probable sites for

vertical development. This map will provide valuable insights for urban planners, developers,
and aviation authorities, facilitating informed decision-making and ensuring that safety

considerations are effectively integrated into development plans near the airport.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

This study aims in providing data regarding the different vertical clearances of structures

in the critical zones of Dipolog City due to the local airport that is located within the city, this

study intends to answer the following questions;

1. What are the vertical clearances of different areas in the investigated critical zone

with respect to their distance and topographic elevation from the air strip?

2. What is the percentage of vertically cleared areas for high-rise projects (greater than

100 ft.) in the investigated critical zone given the initial condition?

3. What is the percentage of vertically cleared areas for standard vertical projects (less

than 50 ft.) in the investigated critical zones given the initial condition?

4. What is the percentage of vertically cleared areas for ranch projects (less than 10 ft.)

in the investigated critical zones given the initial condition?

5. What are the locations of the different to-be determined sections in the investigated

critical zone?
1.3 Objectives

The aim of this study are as follows;

1. To determine the different vertical clearances within the critical zone, taking into

consideration the areas’ distance from the airport and topographic elevation with

respect to the airport.

2. To categorize and locate the different themed vertical clearances within the critical

zone with the given parameters.

3. To produce a highly accurate thematic map depicting the varying vertical clearances

with the given parameters within the critical zone of the local airport of Dipolog.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study aims to develop a thematic map with the contents of the map being the

different vertical clearances within the critical zone, taking into account the distance of the areas

from the airport and its topographic elevation with respect to the airport, categorizing the

different allowed elevations. This addresses the following in different ways;

This study will benefit Civil engineers and Contractors by giving them insights on the

allowed vertical clearances within the critical zone of Dipolog City, thus reducing clearance

acquisition time and minimizing revisions in building project designs.

 This study will benefit Government Agencies and Urban Planners by providing them

an accurate thematic map of the vertical clearances of Dipolog City thus further enhancing their

urban planning decisions to align with the imposed restrictions and avoid later complications

with future urban development.

Future researchers may use the future data of this study as a support and basis for future

studies regarding vertical clearances within an airport’s vicinity.

1.5 Scope and Limitations

This study addresses the vertical project complications within the critical zone of Dipolog

City due to the local airport’s location by providing a thematic map depicting the clearances with

respect to the distance from the airport and also topographic elevation. This study abides within

CAAP’s imposed restrictions which by every 15 meters from the centerline of the runway there

is 2 meters allowed clearance and the Hypotenuse method used in CAAM [2] [4]. Although this

study follows those imposed restrictions from the aviation authorities, it falls short of receiving

full sanctioning from these regulatory bodies and only serves as a valuable and accessible

reference for upcoming projects undertaken by civil engineers and urban planners.

1.6 Definition of Terms

For a better understanding of the study, vague terms are defined in the context of this

project to aid readers.

Vertical Clearance-it is the allowed height of structures in a specific location.

Critical Zone-a region that has a limited vertical clearance due to aviation operations nearby.
Thematic Map- is a specialized type of map designed to represent and visualize spatial patterns,

distributions, or relationships of specific data themes, using various visual elements such as

colors, symbols, and shading.

Vertically Cleared-A structure that does exceed the imposed height limit in that specific

location

Aerodromes- are facilities designed for the takeoff, landing, and maintenance of aircraft,

encompassing airports, airstrips, and heliports.

Object Limitation Surface- A series of planes associated with each runway at an aerodrome

that defines the desirable limits to which objects may project into the airspace around the

aerodrome so that aircraft operations at the aerodrome may be conducted safely.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Vertical Clearances

Vertical clearance in the aviation industry refers to the minimum vertical distance

required between an aircraft and an obstacle or terrain feature during flight. This clearance is

crucial for ensuring the safety of aircraft operations, especially during takeoff, landing, and flight

in areas with varying terrain or man-made obstacles like buildings or towers.

 The vertical clearance is typically measured in feet or meters and is determined based on

various factors such as aircraft performance, obstacle heights, navigation aids, and airspace

regulations. Pilots and air traffic controllers must adhere to specific vertical clearance

requirements to prevent collisions with obstacles and maintain safe separation between aircraft.

For example, during takeoff and landing, aircraft must maintain a certain vertical

clearance above the ground or any obstacles in the vicinity of the runway. Similarly, when flying

through mountainous areas or urban environments, pilots need to ensure they have adequate

vertical clearance to avoid terrain, buildings, antennas, or other structures that could pose a

hazard.

Airspace design and air traffic management systems also play a role in establishing

vertical clearance requirements, with different airspace classes and regulations specifying

minimum vertical separations between aircraft to prevent conflicts and ensure safe and efficient

air traffic flow [1] [5] [6].

2.2 Topography and Contours

The study of topography focuses on the land surface. Specifically, it establishes the base

of a landscape. Topography, for instance, describes features on the surface such as craters, rivers,

valleys, and mountains [10].

The terms "topo" for "place" and "graphia" for "writing" are the roots of the word

topography. It has a tight relationship to surveying and geodesy, both of which deal with

precisely measuring the land surface. Furthermore, it has a strong connection to geography and
mapping programs like GIS.The key differentiator for topographic maps is elevation. Digital

elevation models are used in GIS to represent the topography. Contour lines are simply lines with

equal elevation, and they are present on nine out of ten topographic maps. Topography is defined

narrowly in terms of the configuration of landforms [10] [11].

A contour line, to put it simply, is the joining of points with constant and equal values. In

a topographic map, for instance, contours on an elevation have consistent heights that are the

same on every line.

https://gisgeography.com/what-is-topography/

https://gisgeography.com/contour-lines-topographic-map/
2.3 Airport Critical Zones

The airspace and surroundings of an airport where certain height limitations or laws are

in effect to guarantee the security of aircraft operations are referred to as the airport critical zone.

The critical zone comprises different vertical constructions or impediments that could present a

risk to aircraft during take-off, landing, or approach. It is often referred to as the "airport

imaginary surfaces" or the "airport protection surfaces."

https://apps.caap.gov.ph/

This has been practiced in all aviation operations throughout the world and is a very

important for it lessen the possibility of those aircraft colliding and avoid collateral damage

within the critical zone’s vicinity [1] [3].

2.4 Surfaces
 In airport construction there are certain requirments that are needed to be met in order to

ensure safety in the operations within the aerodromes and its sorroundings such as limiting

building heights, by definition given by the International Civil Aviation Organization there are a

series of 3d diagram that they call obstacle limitation surfaces(OLS) [1] [14] [15].

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Obstacle-limitation-surfaces-Annex-14-aerodromes-and-

airport-services-manual-doc_fig1_339516017

The Takeoff Climb Surface (TOCS) is an important part of the Optical Landing System (OLS)

used in aviation. The TOCS is effectively a fictitious surface stretched upward and outward from

the carrier deck, ensuring that aircraft taking off from the carrier have sufficient clearance from
obstructions and may safely climb out without interference. The Approach Surface, also known

as the Approach Slope, is an important component of the Optical Landing System (OLS) in

aviation, notably for aircraft carrier operations. Here is a breakdown of the Approach Surface.

The phrase "Internal Horizontal Surface" (IHS) refers to airport design and airspace restrictions,

specifically obstacle clearance criteria. It refers to a horizontal plane above the ground level of an

airport or airfield in which objects or structures are limited to guarantee aviation safety. Inner

Transitional Surface (ITS): This surface extends outward and upward from the runway threshold,

ensuring a smooth transition between the runway surface and the surrounding topography. It

usually has a specified slope or gradient to ensure that departing aircraft have enough clearance

from obstacles. The Outer Transitional Surface (OTS) stretches further outward from the runway

threshold than the ITS. It performs a similar purpose in clearing obstacles for departing airplanes,

but it covers a broader area. Conical Surface: While not technically part of the Transitional

Surfaces, the Conical Surface is an important volume described by ICAO. It extends upward and

outward from the runway threshold, providing obstacle clearance to departing aircraft during

their early ascent phase. Regulatory agencies define these Transitional Surfaces to ensure aircraft

operations are safe by providing appropriate obstacle clearance during takeoff and landing. They

play an important role in airport planning and design by reducing the risks connected with

impediments near the runway [14] [15] [16].

2.5 UTILIZATION OF GIS (GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM)

In order to overcome potential roadblocks posed by existing plan modifications, it is

imperative to create development plans that seek to control urban development or to foster and

maintain inter-institutional cooperation through the use of technological opportunities. In this

approach, the financial and social expenses associated with aviation operations and urban
development rules can be minimized [6]. By utilizing 3d modelling to and other data relevant to

the area of interest for this study the researchers can make an analysis to the airport’s operation if

it abides to the standards of CAAP or other governing body that is involved in air traffic

management [6] [16] [17]. Utilizing also GIS software for the creation of thematic map is also

vital, with software such as QGIS the researchers can easily integrate and analyse the data

gathered as well easily define the parameters of the study [18] [19].

2.6 REMOTE SENSING

The technique of detecting and tracking an area's physical properties from a distance by

measuring its reflected and emitted radiation is known as remote sensing (usually from satellite

or airplane). Researchers can "sense" facts about the Earth by using remotely sensed photos

captured by special cameras [20]. Authorities overseeing aviation as well as those making

decisions about building infrastructure and urban planning might benefit greatly from the

insights this research offers. The development of surrounding areas along flight paths and the

density of buildings can be taken into consideration when implementing appropriate measures to

ensure optimal flight safety and reduce the likelihood of future aircraft accidents [9]. Observation

and evaluation instruments are critically necessary in order to structure and plan for a sustainable

future in these large transforming cities [21].

2.7 OBSTACLES

Any obstacle that is situated on a surface meant for aircraft surface movement or that

extends above a predetermined region meant to safeguard aircraft while they are in flight is

considered an aerodrome obstacle. Over 15 kilometres can be covered by obstacle limitation

surfaces from the runway thresholds [22]. The site's topography as well as the man-made
artifacts both inside and outside the airport limits affect how the infrastructure is used. Objects

penetrating the obstacle limitation surfaces (OLS) or standing outside those surfaces have to be

mapped and risk-assessed because they could be a hazard to air navigation [23].

2.8 COMPLEXITY OF NEAR-AERODROMES CONSTRUCTION

The any development or constructions near the airport should have approval from the

local civil aviation authority to ensure that all erected structures won’t be categorized as

obstacles by the aerodrome standards [1]. It has been deduced that the height above the earth's

surface alone—the number of buildings, floors, and other structures—was insufficient to

establish a structural height restriction. Rather, neighbouring land elevations should also be a

significant consideration, supported by data from geo-observation and the need of the

hypotenuse theorem was applied, and the research area's available data, airplane altitude in

various directions, and mean sea level were estimated to propose height restrictions for

constructions located within the buffer zone [5]. This is also true for the large cities of Luzon

where the implemented height limit of Pasay this is due to the area being near to NAIA however

there are exceptions to this rule. Some skyscrapers exceed the 250-meter limit, but these

additional heights are often in the form of non-habitable structures such as antennas or spires

furthermore it gets complicated because of the contradicting National Building Code and Civil

Aviation authority of the Philippines [3].

2.8.1 PERMIT ACQUISITION

Other than following the building codes contractors and engineers still need to

acquire permits for the proper verified height clearance where further verifications from other

bodies or individuals are need and doing so requires filling out the Height Evaluation
Application Form (ANNEX B) and the Geodetic Engineer's Certificate (ANNEX C), which are

documents made available by CAAP. For development projects close to airports, these extra

restrictions cause delays and complicate the permit procurement procedure [4].

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