CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION: KEY CONCEPTS IN ETHICS

MODULE 1: ETHICS, and ITS KEY CONCEPTS

A. ETHICS: Its Definition and Importance

 Moral
o Webster’s dictionary: “of or relating to principles of right and wrong in behavior – conforming to a standard of
right behavior.
o Most people think doing well in life is associated with being “good”
 Example:
 Do you think a person who gains money dishonestly is a success?
 Is a politician who beats his wife and children a success?
o Most people life fairness, justice, truthfulness, compassion in society.
o “Morality is primarily concerned with the questions of right and wrong, the ability to distinguish between the two,
and the justification of the distinction.”
 Ethics
o Montemayor (1994): (Ethics: The Philosophy of Life)
 Ethics is the philosophy of life and that it delves into the deepest whys and wherefore of human existence,
men’s actions, problems and destiny
 Plato, one of the greatest philosophers of all times, proclaimed Ethics as the supreme science, the highest in
the hierarchy of human values, as it is Ethics that is concerned with the attainment of life’s greatest Good and
Goal – HAPPINNESS.
 Definition of ETHICS
o The book of Montemayor (1994) provides the following definitions of Ethics:
1. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human actions.
2. Ethics is the science of human acts with reference to right and wrong
3. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality.
4. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human conduct
5. Ethics is the human conduct from the standpoint of morality.
6. Ethics is the science which lays down the principles of right living
7. Ethics is the practical science that guides us in our actions that we may live rightly and well.
8. Ethics is normative and practical science, based on reason, which studies human conduct and provides norm
for its natural integrity and honesty.
9. According to Socrates, ethics is the investigation of life.
o The definitions speak of the field of study of ethics as human conduct; and of the investigation of such human
conduct in terms of its morality
1. Science: systematic study or a system of scientific conclusions clearly demonstrated, derived from clearly
established principles and duly coordinated
2. Morality: the quality of human acts as right, wrong or indifferent, moral immoral or amoral.
3. Human acts: acts done with knowledge, freedom and free will or consent.
 Importance of Ethics
o Montemayor (1994) proclaims that the importance of the study of ethics follows immediately from the
importance of ethics itself.
o His idea is manifested in the following:
1. Ethics means right living and good moral character and it is in good moral character that man finds his
true worth and perfection
 All the great teachers of the ages maintain that the supreme purpose of human living lies not in the
acquisition of material good or bodily pleasures, nor in the attainment of bodily perfections such as health
and strength; nor even in the development of intellectual skills but in the development of the moral
qualities which lift man far above brute creation.
2. Education is the harmonious development of the whole man-of all ma’s faculties:
the moral,
intellectual, and
physical powers in man.
 Now then highest of man’s power are his reason and will. Hence, the primary objective of education is the
moral development of the will

B. RULES AND ITS IMPORTANCE TO SOCIAL BEINGS

 Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles governing conduct within a specific activity or sphere.
 Rules tell us what is or is not allowed in a particular context or situation.
 In many ways, rules serve as a foundation for any healthy society. Without rules, society would like fall into
anarchy.
 Rules benefit social beings in various manners:
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior.
 Rules build boundaries that place limits on behavior.
 Rules are usually coupled with means to impose consequences on those who violate them.
 One of the reasons people follow accepted rules is to avoid negative consequences
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain right and freedom.
 Rules form frameworks for society. Nations are generally nations of laws and the governing principles are
outlined in what is called constitution.
 Because the majority has agreed to follow and consent to be governed by such a constitution, the freedoms
outlined exist.
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings.
 Rules are needed in order to keep the strong from dominating the weak that is to prevent exploitation and
domination.
 Without rules, schemes in which those with the power control the system, would take over.
 In effect, rules generate a stable system that provides justice, in which even the richest and the most powerful
have limitations on what they can do. If they transgress rules such as laws and ordinances and take advantage
of people, there are consequences both socially and criminally
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system.
 Without rules regulating business, power would centralize around monopolies and threaten the strength and
competitiveness of the system. Rules are needed to ensure product safety, employee’s safety and product
quality. Copyright and patents help protect people’s intellectual property. Rules and regulations also keep the
banking system stable so as to avoid depression and the like
  In short, society could not soundly function without rules and regulations. Rules are necessary to protect the greater
good. Even the freest societies ought to have rules in order to avoid exploitations and tyranny while upholding the
common good.

C. MORAL STANDARDS vs. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

 It is important to note that different societies have different moral beliefs and that our beliefs are deeply influenced
by our own culture and context.
o Example: wearing of hijab  in Muslim communities, it is the most appropriate act that women have to do in
terms of dressing up.
 In other parts of the world, especially in Western societies, most people don’t mind if women barely cover
their bodies.
 Different cultures have different moral standards.
o What is a matter of moral indifference, that is, a matter of taste (hence, non-moral value) in one culture may be a
matter of moral significance in another.
 Moral Standards – what is a moral issue
 Non-moral issues – a matter of taste
 MORAL STANDARDS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
o Moral standards are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed to be morally right
or wrong, as well as the values placed on what we believed to be morally good or morally bad.
o Moral standards normally promote “the good”, that is, the welfare and well-being of humans as well as animals
and the environment.
o Moral standards, therefore, prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights and obligations
o According to some scholars, moral standards are the sum of combined norms and values. In other words,
norms plus values equal moral standards. (Norm + Values = Moral)
 NORMS are understood as general rules about our actions or behaviors.
 For example: “We are always under the obligation to fulfil our promises” or “It is always believed that
killing innocent people is absolutely wrong”.
 VALUES are understood as enduring beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not.
 For example: “Helping the poor is good” or “Cheating during exams is bad”.
o According to many scholars, moral standards have the following characteristics, namely:
 Moral standards deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit humans, animals, and the
environment, such as child abuse, rape, and murder;
 Moral standards are not established or changed by the decisions of authoritative individuals or bodies.
Indeed, moral standards rest on the adequacy of the reasons that are taken to support and justify them. For
sure, we don’t need a law to back up our moral conviction that killing innocent people is absolutely wrong;
 Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take precedence over other standards and considerations,
especially of self-interest;
 Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. Hence, moral standards are fair and just; and
 moral standards are associated with special emotions (such as guilt and shame) and vocabulary (such as
right, wrong, good, and bad).
 NON-MORAL STANDARDS
o Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a non-
moral way.
o Examples of non-moral standards are standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad,
standards we call the law by which we judge something as legal or illegal, and standards of aesthetics by which
we judge art as good or rubbish. Hence, we should not confuse morality with etiquette, law, and aesthetics or
even with religion
o As we can see, non-moral standards are matters of taste or preference. Hence, a scrupulous observance of these
types of standards does not make one a moral person. Violation of said standards also does not pose any threat
to human well-being
 If a moral standard says “Do not harm innocent people” or “Don’t steal”, a non-moral standard says “Don’t
text while driving” or “Don’t talk while the mouth is full”.

D. DILEMMA and MORAL DILEMMA

 DILEMMA: refers to a situation in which a tough decision has to be made between two or more options, especially
more or less equally undesirable ones. Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas
 MORAL DILEMMAS: Also called ‘ethical dilemmas’, moral dilemmas are situation in which a difficult choice has to be
made between two courses of action, either of which entails transgressing a moral principle. At the very least, a
moral dilemma involves conflicts between moral requirements.
o What is common to moral dilemmas is conflict. In each ethical dilemma, an agent regards himself as having
moral reasons to do each of two actions, but doing both actions seems to be ethically not possible
o Key Features of Moral Dilemma
 the agent is required to do each of two (or more) actions;
 the agent can do each of the actions; but the agent cannot do both (or all) of the actions
 neither of the conflicting moral requirements is overridden.
o Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
1. Personal Dilemmas.
 Personal Dilemmas are those experienced and resolved on the personal level. Since many ethical
decisions are personally made, many if not most of moral dilemmas fall under, or boil down to this level. If
a person makes conflicting promises, he faces a moral conflict. When an individual has to choose
between the life of a child who is about to be delivered and the child’s mother, he faces an ethical
dilemma.
2. Organizational Dilemma.
 Organizational moral dilemmas refer to ethical cases encountered and resolves by social organization.
 This category includes moral dilemmas in business, medical fields and public sector.
 A medical institution which believes that human life should not be deliberately shortened and that
unpreventable pain should not be tolerated encountered a conflict in resolving whether to withdraw
life support from a dying patient. This is common moral dilemma faced by healthcare organizations.
 Administrative bodies in business are confronted with situations in which several courses of action are
possible but none of them provide a totally successful outcome to those affected by the decision or
actions taken. Moral dilemmas in business involve issues about corporate practices, policies, business
behaviors, and the conducts and relationships of individuals in the organizations.
 In a public sector, government leaders and employees have a moral duty to act in a manner that is
fair and unbiased, that is loyal to the public by putting public interest, accountability and
 transparency. In fulfilling these responsibilities, public officials may encounter foreseeable moral
dilemmas
3. Structural Dilemmas.
 Structural moral dilemmas refer to cases involving network of institutions and operative theoretical
paradigms.
 As they usually encompass multi-sectoral institutions and organizations, they may be larger in scope and
extent than organizational dilemmas

E. ONLY HUMAN BEINGS CAN BE ETHICAL

 Oftentimes we experience something that test our being and often also we wonder whether we deserve to be the
highest form of animal. If we commit something, we often hear “animal ka”.
o But we are as Aristotle say “rational animals”. We are animals minus the rationality.
 Another basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only human beings can truly be ethical. Most philosophies hold
that unlike animals, human beings possess some traits that make it possible for them to be moral.
 Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious. The qualities of rationality, autonomy, and
self-consciousness are believed to confer a full and equal moral status to those that possess them as these beings
are the only ones capable of achieving certain moral values.

PPTs
 Overview:
o 3C’s
 Consequences – we follow it because
 Two types of Consequences
o Positive Consequence – if you will follow the rules and regulations; positive result
o Negative Consequence – if you will not follow the rules and regulations; negative result
 Conscience – we feel guilt toward others, if we do something to others and we hurt them
 Choices
 Baris Worth – “The Paradox of Choice”
o Three types of Choices
 Consumer Choice – basic decision of the human
 Two types
o Durable – wants; ex. appliances
o Non-durable – needs; ex. foods
 Complex Choice – when making decision, we consider some factors
 Example. Pursuing College  we consider financial stability
 Personal Choice – your own decision  WILL
 Will  Freedom
o Ability to decide what you want
 It also has factors to consider  rules and regulations
 It has accountability and responsibility when making decision
o Values – honesty, integrity, accountability  Moral Principles
o Norm – unspoken or unwritten laws that people follow in the society, we do it because we
know there is a negative corresponding when you didn’t do it
 ETHICS
o Morality – unwritten or unspoken rules
o Ethics – written rules; possible to change
 Associated words
 Integrity
 Moral
 Principles
 Honesty
 Right
 Fairness
 Responsibility
 Conscience
 Choice
 Honor
 Value
 From the Greek word “ethos”, meaning “customs” or “behaviors”
 Customs – way of living, set of practices
 Behaviors - How the people act
o Positive Behavior – good or right action
o Negative Behavior – bad or wrong action
 Ethos has equivalent meaning in latin word “moris” which means “morals”
 Oxford Dictionary – the branch of knowledge that deals with moral principles
 The book of Montemayor (1994)
 Ethics is the science of human acts with reference to right and wrong
 Socrates – ethics is the investigation of life
 Life investigation  where will our live will go? We want to know that
 Knowing your purpose in life