PEOPLE AND THE EARTH ECOSYSTEM

Topic: Human Growth and Development

Objectives:
 Describe the stages of growth and development.
 Review the factors affecting growth and development.
 Discuss how human population growth can be exponential
 Explain how humans have expanded the carrying capacity of their habitat
 Relate population growth and age structure to the level of economic
development in different countries
 Discuss the long-term implications of unchecked human population growth

Meaning of Growth and development

Growth refers to quantitative change leading to the goal of maturity. Crow and Crow defined that,
―growth refers to structural and psychological changes while development refers to growth as well as
changes in behavior.
 Anderson states ―Development does not consist merely of adding inches to one ‘s height or
improving one‘s ability. Instead development is a complex process of integrating many structures and
functions.

 Hurlock defines, ―Development Means a progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly
predictable pattern as result of maturation and experience.
Growth Development

It refers to changes in the body. It refers to overall changes resulting in improved function.

It refers to changes in quantitative aspects i.e., increase in It refers to changes in both quantitative and qualitative
size, height and weight aspects.

It will not continue throughout life. It is a continuous process.

It is narrow in meaning and one of the aspects of It is a wider and comprehensive term related to both physical
development. and psychological changes.

It is measurable because the quantitative changes are It is observable because the result of development is quite
specific. complex and difficult to measure.

It is physical and external in nature. It is internal and can be physical, social, emotional and
intellectual.
Table 1.2 Differences between the Growth and Development.

The stages in human growth and development

1
Infancy

A baby is considered an infant from birth through the first year of life. During this first year, babies
develop skills that will be lifelong resources. Learning how to control the head, move by crawling and sit
are called gross motor skills. Using the thumb and finger to pick up pieces of food and hold a pacifier are
called fine motor skills. Sensory skills are measured by observing a baby ability to see, hear, taste, touch
and smell. Language skills are evident the first year of life when a baby makes sounds, learns some basic
words and responds to the spoken word. Finally, social skills include how a baby interacts with family
and peers.

Childhood
After age 1 year, a child physical growth slows down considerably. The toddler years are more mobile
and exploratory. Middle childhood occurs about age 6 years, and children have a better sense of right
and wrong then. They also tend to become more independent as they begin dressing themselves and
spend more time at school and with friends. Cognitive changes include rapid mental growth with a
greater ability to talk situations through and focus on the environment around them instead of being
self-centered.

Juvenile
As children approach the ages of 9 and 10 years, they become more independent and might start
noticing the physical changes of puberty. A major growth spurt can occur at this time as the body begins
sexual development. This also can be a time of stress for children as peer pressure takes its toll. Body
image along with emotional changes often cause children to feel less confident. Juveniles also start
preparing for middle school by taking on more academic responsibilities and focusing on goal-setting
and accomplishment.

Adolescence
From ages 12 to 18 years, children experience distinct mental and physical changes. The NIH reports
that boys do not begin puberty with a distinct marker and tend to mature with adult genitalia about age
16 or 17 years. During this time of physical change, adolescents may become more self-centered. In
middle to late adolescence, teenagers are often characterized as becoming more comfortable with their
body sexually and ready to have romantic friendships. Adolescent behavior often includes the teen-
agers need to pull away from parents and authority figures to establish their own self-identity and make
decisions on their own.

Adulthood
Adulthood is often noted when a person is considered chronologically, legally and behaviorally ready to
hold responsibilities such as operating a motor vehicle, voting, taking the vows of marriage. The process
of becoming mature does not end with adolescence but continues throughout adulthood as
psychological, safety and self-actualization needs are met.

Factors affecting human growth and development:

2
There is a range of factors that can affect the process of human growth and development, both before
and after birth.

Before birth
Genetic factors: The genetic makeup of the parents will have an impact on the growth of their child. For
instance, if both parents are short, their child may grow less during the stage of adolescence.
Fetal health: How the foetus is cared for whilst in its mother’s womb will also have an impact on its
growth.
After birth
Socioeconomic factors: Interestingly, studies have shown that children from higher socioeconomic
backgrounds tend to be taller than children of the same age who are from lower socioeconomic
backgrounds.
The family characteristics: During the early stages of growth, children typically spend the majority of
their time with their families and are, therefore, greatly affected by their characteristics and behavior’s.
If a child is given a lot of support, and stimulation during their childhood years, they are likely to grow
more than those who have not.

Nutrition: This is one of the most important factors that can affect human growth. Good nutrition can
boost human growth and development massively, whilst malnutrition can have detrimental effects. If a
child is deficient in trace minerals, for example, depending on the exact minerals they are lacking, their
physical and psychological development can be stunted massively. Children’s weight during childhood
years can also affect their overall growth and health in the later stages of life.

Experience during early childhood: The different kinds of experiences, both good and bad, that children
are exposed to during early childhood can impact their growth and development. For instance, if
children are neglected during early childhood, their growth will suffer. Alternatively, if children are
nurtured at this stage, and great care is taken with them, their growth will benefit.

INDUSTRIALIZATION AND URBANIZATION

Although most environmental causes of poor health in developing-country children are related to
poverty and a lack of modern development--lack of water and sanitation, poor housing, indoor air
pollution resulting from the burning of wood and dung--some parts of the developing world face health
hazards from industrial pollutants and urban development. Aggregate data are scarce, but evidence is
mounting that industrialization and urbanization are combining to expose some populations to a variety
of toxic chemicals contaminating the air, water, soil, and food. It is an area in which the need for more
research and better data gathering is urgent.

Industrial Pollutants
Pollution in whatever form affects children more than adults, and poor children--who are exposed to
more kinds and higher levels of pollution--are affected most of all. Children's smaller body weights and
developing organs put them at greater risk. So do their habits: infants suck indiscriminately on
contaminated objects; older children play on streets filled with car fumes and lead exhaust, on sewage-

3
polluted beaches, or on open spaces that collect hazardous wastes. Malnourished and disease-prone
children are even more vulnerable (146).

The fetus is perhaps most vulnerable. Methyl mercury, pesticides, polychlorinated byphenyls (PCBs),
carbon monoxide, and such self-administered contaminants as alcohol and tobacco have been shown to
have adverse health consequences for exposed fetuses. Although no aggregate data exist on the extent
of the problem, selected data provide a good indication.

Mercury in seafood ingested by pregnant women has been linked to cerebral palsy in infants. On
average, mercury levels in these babies' blood is 47 percent higher than those of their mothers (148).
Children whose mothers ate foods contaminated with PCBs have suffered various forms of retarded
growth (149). Carbon monoxide, which WHO has found regularly reaches unhealthy levels in many
cities, can result in decreases in fetal weight, increases in perinatal mortality, and brain damage,
depending on the length of time a pregnant woman was exposed and the concentration in the air. Here,
too, the concentration in the fetus generally exceeds that in the mother.

Air Pollution
Air pollution--once a problem only in the industrialized world--now affects most large urban centers in
developing countries; the number of vehicles, poor vehicle maintenance, industrial growth, the absence
of effective air-quality regulations, and the burning of charcoal, wood, and paraffin by growing slum
populations for fuel and cooking combine to create some of the dirtiest cities in the world.

Water Pollution
In many developing countries, urban water sources used for drinking, washing, and cooking are
threatened by biological pollution from human waste and chemical pollution from industrial toxic
wastes. Infants, who need more fluids in relation to body weight than older children and adults, are
particularly vulnerable to health hazards caused by water pollution. Nitrate in groundwater is a growing
cause of concern in several countries, as the use of nitrate fertilizer and manure increases. Not in itself
dangerous, nitrate combines with bacteria in the mouth to become nitrite, which can induce
methemoglobinemia (a reduction in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood), especially in infants who
drink baby formula mixed with water containing nitrates.

Hazards of Urbanization
Although urban areas have lower infant and child mortality rates in the aggregate than rural areas, the
health status of urban subpopulations varies widely. The poorest urban populations--often living in
illegal squatter settlements--suffer from overcrowding, inadequate housing, contaminated water
supplies, poor or nonexistent waste disposal and sanitation, and exposure to industrial pollutants. Large
cities tend to have the highest concentrations of water, sanitation, and health care facilities, but as
many as 30-60 percent of the poorest people do not have access to them.
Numerous studies show that children living in these conditions have higher rates of diarrhea, respiratory
infection, tuberculosis, malnutrition, and death than children in other urban communities or even in
surrounding rural areas. Children in squatter settlements may be 50 times as likely to die before age 5
than those born in developed countries.

4
BUILDING A GLOBAL CONSENSUS
Dramatic declines in infant mortality took place in the industrialized countries in the early 20th Century,
not primarily as a result of advances in medicine, but as a direct result of advances in overall living
conditions, including better nutrition, improved hygiene and sanitation, and voluntary birth limitation.
The question today is whether further mortality decreases must wait for overall economic development
or whether they can be achieved even in advance of overall improvements in the economy--by pursuing
concerted strategies to improve food supply, water and sanitation, education, and health care.

For the last 10 years, WHO, UNICEF, and other multilateral agencies have urged the international
community to pursue an aggressive "child survival" strategy. The program has focused on promoting
wide-spread acceptance of several "technologies"--including oral rehydration therapy, breastfeeding,
improved weaning practices, and immunization--and on providing increased access to food, family
planning, and female literacy.
The strategy has had some outstanding successes. that have been made. Meeting the goals set at the
world summit will cost approximately $20 billion a year, according to UNICEF estimates, and will require
commitments from both developing and developed countries. Developing countries will have to
reallocate some military spending to social spending and divert some funding from hospitals and
secondary education to primary health care and primary education. Additional support from
industrialized countries will also be necessary to achieve these goals.

Human Population Growth

Concepts of animal population dynamics can be applied to human population growth. Humans are not
unique in their ability to alter their environment. Humans have the ability to alter their environment to
increase its carrying capacity sometimes to the detriment of other species (e.g., via artificial selection for
crops that have a higher yield). Earth’s human population is growing rapidly, to the extent that some
worry about the ability of the earth’s environment to sustain this population, as long-term exponential
growth carries the potential risks of famine, disease, and large-scale death.

Although humans have increased the carrying capacity of their environment, the technologies used to
achieve this transformation have caused unprecedented changes to Earth’s environment, altering
ecosystems to the point where some may be in danger of collapse. The depletion of the ozone layer,
erosion due to acid rain, and damage from global climate change are caused by human activities. The
ultimate effect of these changes on our carrying capacity is unknown. As some point out, it is likely that
the negative effects of increasing carrying capacity will outweigh the positive ones—the carrying
capacity of the world for human beings might actually decrease.

5
The world’s human population is currently experiencing exponential growth even though human
reproduction is far below its biotic potential (Figure 4.5.1 ). To reach its biotic potential, all females
would have to become pregnant every nine months or so during their reproductive years. Also,
resources would have to be such that the environment would support such growth. Neither of these
two conditions exists. In spite of this fact, human population is still growing exponentially.
Figure 4.5.1: Human population growth since 1000 AD is exponential (dark blue line). Notice that while the population in Asia
(yellow line), which has many economically underdeveloped countries, is increasing exponentially, the population in Europe
(light blue line), where most of the countries are economically developed, is growing much more slowly.

A consequence of exponential human population growth is the time that it takes to add a particular
number of humans to the Earth is becoming shorter. Figure 4.5.2 shows that 123 years were necessary
to add 1 billion humans in 1930, but it only took 24 years to add two billion people between 1975 and
1999. As already discussed, at some point it would appear that our ability to increase our carrying
capacity indefinitely on a finite world is uncertain. Without new technological advances, the human
growth rate has been predicted to slow in the coming decades. However, the population will still be
increasing and the threat of overpopulation remains.

Figure 4.5.2 : The time between the addition of each billion human beings to Earth decreases over time. (credit: modification of
work by Ryan T. Cragun)

Overcoming Density-Dependent Regulation

6
Humans are unique in their ability to alter their environment with the conscious purpose of increasing
its carrying capacity. This ability is a major factor responsible for human population growth and a way of
overcoming density-dependent growth regulation. Much of this ability is related to human intelligence,
society, and communication. Humans can construct shelter to protect them from the elements and have
developed agriculture and domesticated animals to increase their food supplies. In addition, humans use
language to communicate this technology to new generations, allowing them to improve upon previous
accomplishments.

Other factors in human population growth are migration and public health. Humans originated in Africa,
but have since migrated to nearly all inhabitable land on the Earth. Public health, sanitation, and the use
of antibiotics and vaccines have decreased the ability of infectious disease to limit human population
growth. According to the World Health Organization, global death from infectious disease declined from
16.4 million in 1993 to 14.7 million in 1992. To compare to some of the epidemics of the past, the
percentage of the world's population killed between 1993 and 2002 decreased from 0.30 percent of the
world's population to 0.24 percent. Thus, it appears that the influence of infectious disease on human
population growth is becoming less significant.

Age Structure, Population Growth, and Economic Development

The age structure of a population is an important factor in population dynamics. Age structure is the
proportion of a population at different age ranges. Age structure allows better prediction of population
growth, plus the ability to associate this growth with the level of economic development in the region.
Countries with rapid growth have a pyramidal shape in their age structure diagrams, showing a
preponderance of younger individuals, many of whom are of reproductive age or will be soon (Figure
4.5.3 ). This pattern is most often observed in underdeveloped countries where individuals do not live to
old age because of less-than-optimal living conditions. Age structures of areas with slow growth,
including developed countries such as the United States, still have a pyramidal structure, but with many
fewer young and reproductive-aged individuals and a greater proportion of older individuals. Other
developed countries, such as Italy, have zero population growth. The age structure of these populations
is more conical, with an even greater percentage of middle-aged and older individuals. The actual
growth rates different countries are shown in Figure 4.5.4, with the highest rates tending to be in the
less economically developed countries of Africa and Asia.

Figure 4.5.3: Typical age structure diagrams are shown. The rapid growth diagram narrows to a point, indicating that the number of individuals
decreases rapidly with age. In the slow growth model, the number of individuals decreases steadily with age. Stable population diagrams are
rounded on the top, showing that the number of individuals per age group decreases gradually, and then increases for the older part of the
population.

7
Figure 4.5.4 : The percent growth rate of population in different countries is shown. Notice that the highest growth is occurring
in less economically developed countries in Africa and Asia.

Long-Term Consequences of Exponential Human Population Growth

Many dire predictions have been made about the world’s population leading to a major crisis called the
“population explosion.” In the 1968 book The Population Bomb, biologist Dr. Paul R. Ehrlich wrote, “The
battle to feed all of humanity is over. In the 1970s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in
spite of any crash programs embarked upon now. At this late date nothing can prevent a substantial
increase in the world death rate.”1 While many critics view this statement as an exaggeration, the laws
of exponential population growth are still in effect, and unchecked human population growth cannot
continue indefinitely.

Efforts to control population growth led to the one-child policy in China, which used to include more
severe consequences, but now imposes fines on urban couples who have more than one child. Due to
the fact that some couples wish to have a male heir, many Chinese couples continue to have more than
one child. The policy itself, its social impacts, and the effectiveness of limiting overall population growth
are controversial. In spite of population control policies, the human population continues to grow. At
some point the food supply may run out because of the subsequent need to produce more and more
food to feed our population. The United Nations estimates that future world population growth may
vary from 6 billion (a decrease) to 16 billion people by the year 2100.

Another result of population growth is the endangerment of the natural environment. Many countries
have attempted to reduce the human impact on climate change by reducing their emission of the
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. However, these treaties have not been ratified by every country, and
many underdeveloped countries trying to improve their economic condition may be less likely to agree
with such provisions if it means slower economic development. Furthermore, the role of human activity
in causing climate change has become a hotly debated socio-political issue in some developed countries,
including the United States. Thus, we enter the future with considerable uncertainty about our ability to
curb human population growth and protect our environment.
References:
https://tnou.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/SED-11-Human-Growth-and-Development-English.pdf https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/
Monterey_Peninsula_College/MPC_Environmental_Science/04%3A_Populations/4.05%3A_Human_Population_Growth