Linguistics Summary:
Historicism/ Traditional Grammar: The rise of comparative linguistics in the 18th century was
catalyzed by William Jones's pioneering use of the comparative method, leading to the seminal
work "Deutsche Grammatik" by Jacob Grimm. Humboldt's influential contributions expanded
linguistic inquiry to encompass language beyond Indo-European origins, as evidenced in his
foundational work on the structure of human language and its impact on mental development.
These developments marked a significant progression in linguistic research, shaping the trajectory
of the field for years to come.
Structuralism: De Saussure's introduction of language as a static system of interconnected units
and his distinction between diachronic and synchronic analyses laid the foundation for modern
linguistics. His concepts of syntagm-paradigm and langue-parole distinctions, along with
contributions from scholars like those from The Prague School and others, shaped structuralism as
a fundamental approach in linguistics.
Traditional Grammar Modern Linguistics
a- History-based study. . m- Synchronic study.
c-Written aspect of language. k- Written and spoken aspects of
d- Borrowed models of analysis. language.
f- Language of literary terms and b- Language is self-sufficient
of the linguist himself. e-Immanence of langue .
h- Lack of standardization and g- Unified terminology.
definitions. i-Descriptive .
n. Prescriptive.
j- Item-centered analysis. l- Structure-centered analysis .
Langue and parole:
-Langue refers to the overarching system of language, encompassing grammar, spelling, syntax,
and punctuation. It represents the social and impersonal aspect of language, existing
independently of individual speakers.
-Parole, on the other hand, pertains to the individual speech acts made by linguistic subjects. It
is the concrete manifestation of langue, reflecting the personal and contextual use of language
by individuals.
-Saussure's distinction between langue and parole allows for the separate study of the structural
system of language and its individual instances of use. As a structuralist, Saussure focused more
on studying langue, emphasizing the creation of meaning within the language system rather than
its individual usage.
- Critics like Mikhail Bakhtin argued against the strict separation of langue and parole, proposing
a "dialogic" theory of utterances where language is viewed in terms of its social context and
interaction between speakers and listeners. According to Bakhtin, language is subject to
negotiation, contestation, and social struggle, with modifications occurring at the point of parole
to create new meanings.
Synchrony versus Diachrony
Synchrony: Analyzing a language system at a specific moment in time, focusing on its structure
and features without considering historical changes. For example, studying the syntax of
American English in the early 21st century.
Diachrony: Examining the historical evolution of a language over time, tracking changes in
structures, vocabulary, and usage patterns across different historical periods. For instance,
exploring shifts in phonological features in Arabic from classical times to the present.
Saussure expanded linguistics by emphasizing the importance of studying language
synchronically alongside historical development. However, some linguists later criticized the
strict division between synchronic and diachronic linguistics. Languages constantly change, and
complaints about language use often reflect recent changes, like the blurring of meanings
between words such as "imply" and "infer." This indicates that language change is visible in the
structure of a language at any given time. Variationist linguistics, pioneered by William Labov,
focuses on studying these variations within speech communities. Despite challenges, the
distinction between studying language synchronically and diachronically remains important in
linguistics.
Paradigmatic/ Syntagmatic Dichotomy
In linguistics, syntagmatic and paradigmatic structures are essential concepts.
Syntagmatic Structure: This refers to the linear arrangement of words in a sentence, reflecting
their temporal order in speech. For example, in "The cat sat on the mat," each word's position
follows a syntagmatic structure corresponding to its occurrence in time.
Paradigmatic Structure: This involves the potential alternative choices for words in a sentence.
Words can be replaced by others while maintaining grammaticality. For instance, in "This girl
sits across your bed," "This girl" could be replaced with "that boy" or "the man."
Language types:
1. Agglutinative (Agglomerating):
o In these languages, words are formed by combining affixial morphemes with the
base morpheme without altering its structure.
o Example: "UNLOVELINESS" where "un," "li," and "ness" are added to the base
morpheme "love."
2. Inflecting (Fusional):
o Affixes are closely merged with the base morpheme, becoming part of the word
itself.
o Example: English noun plurals like "men," "mice," "geese," and "women" show
inflectional structures, where the affixes are merged closely with the base
morpheme.
3. Isolating (Analytic):
o In these languages, all words are invariable, and each morpheme represents a
word.
o Example: English prepositions and conjunctions like "at," "to," "on," "too,"
"very," "and," "or," "but," "from," and "now" are isolating in type.
4. Incorporating (Polysynthetic):
o These languages have very long and morphologically complex words containing
numerous bound morphemes.
o Example: Eskimo and some American Indian languages are cited as examples of
incorporating languages due to their complex word forms.
