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Chapter 1: Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Section 1.1: Introduction

In this course, we will be studying matter, “the stuff things are made of”. There
are many ways to classify matter. For instance, matter can be classified
according to the phase, that is, the physical state a material is in. Depending on
the pressure and the temperature, matter can exist in one of three phases (solid,
liquid, or gas). The chemical structure of a material determines the range of
temperatures and pressures under which this material is a solid, a liquid or a gas.

Consider water for example. The principal differences between water in the solid,
liquid and gas states are simply: 1) the average distance between the water
molecules; small in the solid and the liquid and large in the gas and 2) whether
the molecules are organized in an orderly three-dimensional array (solid) or not
(liquid and gas).

Another way to classify matter is to consider whether a substance is pure or not.

So, matter can be classified as being either a pure substance or a mixture. A
pure substance has unique composition and properties. For example, water is a
pure substance (whether from Texas or Idaho, each water molecule always
contains 2 atoms of hydrogen for 1 atom of oxygen). Under the same
atmospheric pressure and at the same ambient temperature, water always has
the same density.

We can go a little further and classify mixtures are either homogeneous or

heterogeneous. In a homogeneous mixture, for example, as a result of mixing a
teaspoon of salt in a glass of water, the composition of the various components
and their properties are the same throughout. Different aliquots of this salt
solution would have the same density. In contrast, dropping gold coins or a
teaspoon of oil in a glass of water will result in the formation of a heterogeneous
mixture. Different aliquots will contain different amounts of oil or of gold
depending on whether these aliquots are taken from the top or the bottom of the
mixture. A homogeneous system exhibits a single phase, while a heterogeneous
one exhibits multiple phases (different solids, liquids or mixtures of these).

In the rest of this chapter, we will focus on pure substances. There are only two
kinds of pure substances: 1) elements and 2) compounds.

Elements are the simplest form of matter and cannot be broken down using
chemical methods into two or more pure substances.

For example, iron is a pure substance, You can take a piece of iron and
break it down into smaller and smaller pieces, but each of these smaller
pieces has the same properties as the starting material (hence, it is
always the same substance).

Compounds, on the other hand, can be broken down into two or more pure
substances.

For example, H2O or water can be broken down into H2 (hydrogen gas)
and O2 (oxygen gas). Similarly, table salt or NaCl can be broken down into
Na (sodium metal) and Cl2 (chlorine gas). Compounds are therefore
defined as being made of at least two different elements. A compound is a
pure substance with unique composition and properties. Hence, NO2 and
N2O are different compounds since they have different compositions.

Compounds made with only two elements (such as H2O, NO2, N2O, NaCl) are
called binary compounds.

The chart showing all known elements and giving some of their properties is the
Periodic Table of the Elements.

Section 1.2: Basic Periodic Table

Practice and memorize the first 54 elements (from H: hydrogen to Xe: xenon) of
the Periodic Table. Also memorize the following elements (Cs, Ba, W, Os, Pt, Au,
Hg, Pb, Bi) as they appear frequently in many chemical problems and
engineering applications.

Section 1.3: Concept of Atomic Number

In 1808, John Dalton developed the Atomic Model of Matter. As is the case for
every model, Dalton’s model is based on a number of assumptions or
“postulates”.

1) An element is composed of particles called atoms. All these atoms exhibit

the same chemical properties.

2) In a chemical reaction (transformation of pure substances called reactants

into other pure substances called products), no atom of any element is
destroyed, created or changed into an atom of another element.

3) Compounds are formed when atoms of two or more elements combine in

a unique fashion (CaCl2, H2O, etc…).

An atom is the smallest “amount” of an element that has the properties of the
element. Individual atoms are made of subatomic particles (electrons, protons
and neutrons).

Electrons:

1) Are characterized by the symbol e-

2) Reside in the outer regions of a given atom

3) Have a very small mass, me- = 9.11x10-28 grams (g)

4) Have a negative electric charge qe- = - 1.6x10-19 coulombs (C)

Protons:

1) Are characterized by the symbol p

2) Reside in the central part of the atom, known as the nucleus

3) Have a larger mass than the electron, mp = 1.673x10-24 grams (g)

4) Have a positive electric charge qp = + 1.6x10-19 coulombs (C)

Neutrons:
 1) Are characterized by the symbol n

2) Reside in the nucleus

3) Have about the same mass as the protons, mn = 1.675x10-24 grams (g)

4) Have a zero electric charge (i.e. they are neutral)

Note:

1) Protons and neutrons are called nucleons as they are all located in the
nucleus.

2) To make things look simpler, (which sometimes leads to more confusion),

we express charges as multiples of the charge of a proton. Hence, we
often say that a proton has a charge of +1 and an electron has a charge of
-1 and in this case we do not specify the units of charge. We understand
that the unit of charge is the charge of 1 proton (that is:1.6x 10-19 C).
The key concept to remember is that the charge of the electron is equal in
magnitude and opposite in sign to that of the proton.

3) The vast majority of the mass of the atom resides in the nucleus.

All atoms of a given element have the same number of protons in their nucleus. It
is the number of protons which characterizes the element. Hence, the number of
protons in the nucleus is given the name atomic number and is denoted by the
symbol Z.

Section 1.4: Periodic Table (Atomic Numbers)

Practice with this Interactive Periodic Table and note that the periodic table is
built in such a way that elements are placed in order of increasing atomic number
from left to right and from top to bottom.

Section 1.5: Concept of Isotope

We now define the mass number for elements as the sum of the number of
protons and neutrons (remember most of the mass of an atom resides in the
nucleus). The mass number is given the symbol A.

We can therefore represent an element by its nuclear symbol: AZ E

Since Z is the number of protons and A is the number of protons + neutrons,
then: A – Z is the number of neutrons. All atoms of an element must have the
same Z values but some atoms may have different A values. Atoms that have the
same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.

For instance, 12C, 13C and 14C are three well known isotopes of carbon. They are
called carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14. The element hydrogen has 3
isotopes, 1H, 2H (called deuterium) and 3H (called tritium).

All isotopes of an element have the same number of electrons and the same
number of protons, since atoms are always neutral. All carbon isotopes have 6
electrons and 6 protons (Z = 6). However, carbon-12 has 6 neutrons, carbon-13
has 7 neutrons, and carbon-14 has 8 neutrons.

Isotopes are generally not present in nature in equal quantities. Hence, we say
that isotopes have different natural abundances.

Practice the Interactive Problems to fully understand these concepts.

To learn more about isotopes and their stability, go to Chapter 20, where
radioactivity is discussed in detail.

Section 1.6: Periodic Table (Isotopes)

Use this Periodic Table to learn about some of the common isotopes of well
known elements.

Section 1.7: Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids

Elements in the Periodic Table can be classified as metals, nonmetals and
metalloids or semimetals. Metals are typically on the left-hand side of the
Periodic Table (exception: H is a nonmetal). Nonmetals are typically on the right-
hand side of the Periodic Table and metalloids on either side of a stairway
between metals and nonmetals starting between Boron and Aluminum.

Metals are characterized by the following physical properties:

1) Luster, high heat and electrical conductivity

2) Malleability (ability to make films or sheets)

3) Ductility (i.e. they can be pulled into wires)

Nonmetals do not exhibit the above properties.

Metalloids or semi-metals have some properties of metals and some properties
of nonmetals. Metalloids include boron (B), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic
(As), antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te) and polonium (Po).

Knowing which elements are metals and which are nonmetals is an absolute
necessity as far as naming ions and compounds is concerned. Different rules
apply for the naming of a compound depending on whether the compound
includes metallic elements or not.

Section 1.8: Periodic Table (Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids)

Review which elements are metals, which are nonmetals and which are
metalloids (or semi-metals). Know how to locate the famous “stairway”.

Sections 1.9 - 1.10: Concepts of Group and Period

The horizontal rows in the Periodic Table are called periods. The vertical
columns in the Periodic Table are called groups. There are 18 groups and 7
periods in the Periodic Table.

In Section 1.10, practice with the Interactive Periodic Table to know the location
of elements in respective periods and groups.

Sections 1.11 - 1.12: Concept of Family

Some of the groups and some sets of groups have specific names and constitute
families. Here are the families you need to know:

1) Elements in groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 are called main group
elements.

2) Elements in groups 3 through 12 are called transition elements.

3) Elements in group 1, except hydrogen, are called alkali metals.

4) Elements in group 2 are called alkaline earth metals.

5) Elements in group 17 are called halogens.

6) Elements in group 18 are called noble gases.

 In Section 1.12, practice locating elements and their respective families using
the Interactive Periodic Table.

Sections 1.13 - 1.14: Properties of Elements in a Family

Elements in the same family tend to have similar properties. Properties, while
similar, may be of a different magnitude.

For example, consider C, Si, Ge. We will see in Chapter 8 and Chapter 9
that they exhibit similar bonding with atoms like H or Cl (i.e. form
molecules of similar shape).

Consider Br, Cl, I: They react by a similar mechanism with hydrocarbons

(molecules obtained from crude oil that contain only C and H).

Consider Li, Na and K. They react by a similar mechanism with water,

(see video in Section 1.14).

Understanding why elements in the same family have related properties is

discussed in Chapter 7.

Section 1.15: Concept of Molecule (Part I)

Molecules, like all compounds, are neutral (no net charge). Molecules form when
two or more atoms of the same or of different nonmetal elements combine with
one another. By “combine” we mean that they form chemical bonds between
them.

There are principally two types of chemical bonds:

1) Ionic bonds are chemical bonds between a metal and a nonmetal. For
example NaCl, CsF, PbCl are ionic bonds.

2) Covalent bonds are chemical bonds between two nonmetals. For

example CH, NO, HCl, CO, SO, PCl are covalent bonds.

Note: A significant number of atoms in the Periodic Table exist under normal
conditions in the “elemental form” as solids. For example, Fe (iron) exists as an
element as solid iron. Similarly C (carbon) exists as solid graphite or solid
diamond. There are however a number of notable exceptions that you need to be
aware of.

Under normal conditions (atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature):

 1) He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn or noble elements exist as gases.

2) H, N, O, F, Cl are not stable in the elemental form and exist as gases H2,
N2, O2, F2, Cl2 in the “molecular form”. Hence, when we say hydrogen
gas, oxygen gas, nitrogen gas, etc… we always refer to H2, N2, O2
etc…not H, N, O.

3) Br and I are not stable in the elemental form and exist as liquid Br2 and
solid I2.

4) Phosphorus, P, and sulfur, S, are not stable in the elemental form and
exist as P4 and S8 in the molecular form.

5) Hg (a metal) in the elemental form exists as a liquid.

Section 1.16: Periodic Table (Molecules)

Interact with the Periodic Table to learn that H, N, O, F, Cl, Br, I, P and S exist
under normal conditions in the molecular form (H2, N2, O2, F2, Br2, I2, P4 and S8).

Section 1.17: Concept of Ion (Part I)

When an atom loses or gains electrons, a charged particle is formed. This
charged particle is called an ion.

Typically, metal elements tend to lose electrons, forming positively charged ions
called cations.

For example:

11Na Æ 11Na+ + 1 e-
(Note: group 1 metals always lose 1 e- when forming ions)
Atom Cation
11 p 11 p
-
11 e 10 e-

20Ca Æ 20Ca+2 + 2 e-
(Note: group 2 metals always lose 2 e- when forming ions)
Atom Cation
20 p 20 p
-
20 e 18 e-
Note: In many modern text books the ion Ca+2 is expressed as Ca2+.
However, the authors of this DVD text have decided to express ions in
general as ion+(number), as it leads to less confusion when hearing the
formula of a polyatomic ion.

Typically, nonmetal elements tend to gain electrons, forming negatively charged

ions called anions.

For example:

17Cl+ 1 e- Æ 17Cl-
(Note: halogens always gain 1 e- when forming ions)
Atom Anion
17 p 17 p
-
17 e 18 e-

8O + 2 e- Æ 8O-2
(Note: in general, group 16 elements gain 2 e- when forming ions)
Atom Anion
8p 8p
-
8e 10 e-

Note: In many modern text books the ion S-2 is expressed as S2-. However,
the authors of this DVD text have decided to express ions in general as ion-
(number)
, as it leads to less confusion when hearing the formula of a
polyatomic ion.

Practice with the Interactive Problems to fully understand these concepts.

Section 1.18: Periodic Table (Ions)

Interact with the Periodic Table, by clicking on the group numbers highlighted in
red. Memorize the types of ions that are predicted to form for elements in
different groups. Remember that it is the group an element belongs to, which
matters as far as forming ions is concerned.

Section 1.19: Concept of Ion (Part II)

We learned that:

1) Group 1 elements (Li, Na, K, etc...) tend to lose 1 electron

2) Group 2 elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Ba, etc…) tend to lose 2 electrons.
 3) Group 13 metals (Al, Ga, In) tend to lose 3 electrons.

4) Group 15 nonmetals tend to gain 3 electrons.

5) Group 16 nonmetals tend to gain 2 electrons.

6) Group 17 nonmetals (halogens) tend to gain 1 electron, forming

halides.

7) Group 18 (noble gases) do not form stable ions (they are mostly
inert).

Why is this? Because “Nobility is Stability”

What do we mean by Nobility is Stability?

Consider Li. Lithium has 3 electrons and 3 protons. Lithium is in group 1.

Hence, it forms a stable ion (Li+) by losing 1 electron. Hence, Li+ has 3
protons and 2 electrons. Li+ has the same number of electrons as Helium
(He)

Consider Mg. Magnesium has 12 protons and 12 electrons. Magnesium is

in group 2. Hence, it forms a stable ion (Mg+2) by losing 2 electrons.
Hence, Mg+2 has 12 protons and 10 electrons. Mg+2 has the same number
of electrons as Neon (Ne).

Consider Br. Bromine has 35 electrons and 35 protons. Bromine is in

group 17. Hence, it forms a stable ion (Br -) by gaining 1 electron. Br - has
35 protons and 36 electrons. Br - has the same number of electrons as
Krypton (Kr).

Stable ions are often formed through a gain or a loss of electrons that is such
that the resulting ions have the same number of electrons as the closest noble
gas element in the Periodic Table. This statement is rigorously true for all metals
in groups 1, 2, for the light metals in group 13 (Al, Ga) and for all nonmetals in
groups 15, 16 and 17. Note that transition metals (groups 3 through 12) and
metals in group 14 do not always obey this rule.

Overview of Sections 1.20 - 1.51: Naming of Compounds

In the remainder of Chapter 1, we review the rules used for the naming of
compounds. Again, recall that there are two main types of compounds: ionic and
molecular (or covalent). Different rules apply for ionic and for molecular
compounds. First, we discuss ionic compounds.
Ionic compounds are formed by combination of cations with anions in such a way
that the resulting substance has a formula that is electrically neutral. For
example, Na + combines with Cl - to form NaCl (overall electrically neutral). Ca+2
combines with 2 F - to form CaF2 (also electrically neutral). Depending on the
cation and anion types, different naming schemes are used. The different groups
of cations (left-hand side) and anions (right-hand side) are:

Cations Anions
Main Group Metal Cations
Transition Metal Cations Nonmetal Anions
Polyatomic Cation (NH4+) Polyatomic Anions
Hydrogen Ion (H+)

Each cation can be combined with any of the anions in the above list. For each
combination we will need a separate naming scheme. Note also that in the DVD
the polyatomic anions have been grouped according to their charge. Compounds
made of polyatomic anions bearing different charges are however named using
the same principle.

Section 1.20: Binary Ionic Compounds between Main-group

Metals and Nonmetals
A binary ionic compound is formed using a metal for the cationic species and
a non-metal for the anionic species. Here, we consider only main group metal
cations (elements in groups 1, 2 and elements Al, Ga of group 13.

Examples of such compounds are NaCl, MgF2, KBr, AlCl3, etc…

The rules for naming these compounds are:

1) the metal cation is always named first and the nonmetal anion second

2) the cation is named exactly as the element

3) the anion is named by keeping the root of the element name and adding
“ide” to the root.

Cl is named chlorine, hence Cl – is named chloride.

P is named phosphorous, hence P -3 is named phosphide.

O is named oxygen, hence O -2 is named oxide.

 N is named nitrogen, hence N -3 is named nitride.

S is named sulfur, hence S -2 is named sulfide.

Example 1: Name KBr: K is a metal, Br is a nonmetal. Hence, the above

rules apply. Note K is a group 1 metal, hence the cation formed from K is K +.
Similarly, Br is a group 17 nonmetal, hence the anion formed from Br is Br -.
Combining the two ions forms a neutral compound (1 positive and 1 negative
charge). Hence KBr is potassium bromide.

Example 2: Name MgF2: Mg is a metal, F is a nonmetal. Hence, the above

rules apply. Note Mg is a group 2 metal, hence the cation formed from Mg is
Mg +2. Similarly, F is a group 17 nonmetal, hence, the anion formed from F is
F -. Combining the two ions to form a neutral compound requires 1 Mg +2 and
2 F - (2 positive charges and 2 negative charges). Hence, MgF2 is
magnesium fluoride.

Deriving the Chemical Formula from the Name: Conversely, we can derive
the chemical formula of a binary ionic compound from its name. Consider
calcium chloride. Calcium is named first, as it should since it is a metal. Chloride
is the anion of the chlorine atom and is named second. Calcium is a group 2
metal, hence, its cation bears a +2 charge (Ca+2). Chlorine is a group 17 non-
metal, hence it bears a charge of -1 (Cl-). Hence, it will take two Cl- ions to
balance the +2 charge of Ca+2. Hence, the chemical formula: CaCl2.

Example: To derive the chemical formula of magnesium oxide, we note that

magnesium is a group 2 metal, while oxide is the anion of oxygen, a group 16
nonmetal. Hence, the magnesium cation is Mg+2, while the oxide anion is O -2.
It takes one oxide anion to balance one magnesium cation. Hence, the
chemical formula: MgO.

Section 1.21: Periodic Table: Binary Ionic Compounds between

Main Group Metals and Nonmetals
Practice making compounds using group 1, 2 or 13 metals and group 15, 16 or
17 nonmetals. Remember the names and chemical formulas of these
compounds.

Section 1.22: Binary Ionic Compounds between Transition

Metals and Nonmetals
Many transition metals are capable of forming cations bearing different charges.
For example, the element Fe can form Fe+2 and Fe+3 cations. Hence, the element
Fe can in general form two compounds with a given non metal. For instance,
compounds made from Fe+2 or Fe+3 and Cl- are FeCl2 and FeCl3, respectively.

Note: it takes two Cl- to balance one Fe+2 and three Cl- to balance one Fe+3.

The systematic name is derived by naming the cation as the transition metal itself
followed (without space) by a Roman numeral in parentheses indicating the
charge of the metal cation. For example, Fe+2 and Fe+3 are named iron(II) and
iron(III), respectively.

The same rule applies to the metals in group 13 and group 14, since they also
can form multiple ions. For example: Sn+2, Sn+4, Pb+2, Pb+4.

To complicate matters, there is a different way to name such cations. This

method is grounded in the history of chemistry and consists in using different
names for each of the possible ions. For instance, in cases where only two
common ions are observed, the ion with the lowest charge is named by adding
“ous” to the latin root of the element. Consider the following non-exhaustive list of
cations that are commonly used in the chemical literature.

You should use the systematic nomenclature but recognize the old names.
The systematic nomenclature for naming binary ionic compounds having a
transition metal consists in:

1) naming the transition metal using a Roman numeral in parentheses to

characterize the charge of the cation,

2) naming the anion using the root of the element followed by “ide”.

For example FeCl2 and FeCl3 are called iron(II) chloride and iron(III) chloride,
respectively.
 Section 1.23: Periodic Table (Binary Ionic Compounds between
Transition Metals and Nonmetals)

Practice naming these compounds and note the various cations exhibited by
some of the most common transition metals. In particular note that most of these
cations, in contrast with cations from Main Group Metals, do not have the same
number of electrons as noble gases. You do not need to memorize all these ions,
just know how to name them following the systematic nomenclature.

Sections 1.24 - 1.27: Introduction to Polyatomic Ions

Besides the group of ions formed from metals and nonmetals, there exists a
large group of ions called polyatomic ions. These polyatomic ions contain
different atoms linked together by covalent bonds. The names of these ions, their
chemical formula and net charge must be memorized, as they will be
encountered throughout this course.

To help you memorize these polyatomic ions, note that the common features
shown by the last three sets. The ions, whose names end with “ate” contain one
oxygen more than those, whose names end with “ite”. Note also that the charge
is the same for the “ite” and “ate” anions.

Another important series of polyatomic anions is concerned with the anions made
using halogens and oxygen. For instance, consider these formed with Cl and O.

The prefix “per” indicates that these compounds have the most oxygen content (4
oxygen atoms per halogen atom). The prefix “hypo” indicates that these
compounds have the least oxygen content (1 oxygen atom per halogen atom).
Note again that chlorate, bromate and iodate have one more oxygen atom that
chlorite, bromite and iodite.
The final series of polyatomic anions to consider are the series of anions such
as:

CO3-2, SO4-2, SO3-2, PO4-3, PO3-3.

Consider the phosphate ion: PO4-3

Adding H+ to PO4-3 results in the formation of HPO4-2 or hydrogen

phosphate.
Adding H+ to HPO4-2 leads to the formation of H2PO4- or dihydrogen
phosphate.

Similarly, the following compounds are:

HCO3- hydrogen carbonate

HSO4- hydrogen sulfate
HSO3- hydrogen sulfite
HPO3-2 hydrogen phosphite
H2PO3- dihydrogen phosphite

Sections 1.28 - 1.43: Ionic Compounds Made with Polyatomic

Ions
Practice, practice, practice…

Sections 1.44 - 1.45: Introduction to Binary Molecular

Compounds

A binary molecular compound is made by combination of two nonmetals. The

atoms in a binary molecular compounds are bonded together by covalent bonds.
Binary molecular compounds containing hydrogen have the following formulae
and names.
Note that in binary molecular compounds made with hydrogen and nonmetals,
hydrogen is usually named first.

Sections 1.46 - 1.47: Introduction to Molecular Compounds

Containing Polyatomic Anions and Hydrogen
HClO4 perchloric acid HBrO4 perbromic acid HIO4 periodic acid
HClO3 chloric acid HBrO3 bromic acid HIO3 iodic acid
HClO2 chlorous acid HBrO2 bromous acid HIO2 iodous acid
HClO hypochlorous acid HBrO hypobromous acid HIO hypoiodous acid
H3PO4 phosphoric acid
H3PO3 phosphorous acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
H2SO3 sulfurous acid
HNO3 nitric acid
HNO2 nitrous acid
H2CO3 carbonic acid
HCN hydrogen cyanide
HC2H3O2 acetic acid

Note:

1. Acids whose names finish with “ic” come from anions whose names
finish in “ate”.
2. Acids whose names finish with “ous” come from anions whose
names finish in “ite”.

Examples: Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) comes from the sulfate ion (SO4-2).
Sulfurous acid (H2SO3) comes from the sulfite ion (SO3-2).
 Sections 1.50 - 1.51: Concept of Molecule (Part II): Naming
Binary Molecular Compounds

The following rules are used when naming binary molecular compounds.

1) The first element is named using its full name (as if the element was a
Main Group metal).

2) The second non-metal is named as if it were the anion of a non metal.

3) Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms present in the
compound chemical formula.

4) The prefix “mono” for 1 is never used in front of the name of the first
element.

Examples:

CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
N2O3 dinitrogen trioxide
SO3 sulfur trioxide
SF6 sulfur hexafluoride

Exceptions to the Rules for Binary Molecular Compounds:

(1) The oxides of phosphorus are often named assuming phosphorus was
a metal. Hence, P4O10 would be phosphorus(V) oxide.

(2) Molecular formula of binary hydrogen compounds with group 15 non-

metals are written with the group 15 non-metal first (i.e. NH3 for
ammonia, PH3 for phosphine).

(3) No Greek prefix is used with the binary hydrogen compounds

(for example, H2S is hydrogen sulfide and NOT dihydrogen
monosulfide).
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