TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

in dicotyledonous stems vascular bundles are  The mesophyll cells draw water from the xylem
-Transport is the movement of substances within an arranged in a ring. vessels by osmosis.
organism.  Vascular bundles are continuous from root to stems  The xylem in the leaf is continuous with xy lem in the
-All living cells require oxygen and food for various and leaves. stem and root.
metabolic processes.  The epidermis forms a single layer of cells enclosing Structure and function of Xylem
-These substances must be transported to the cells. other tissues.  Movement of water is through the xylem.
-Metabolic processes in the cells produce excretory  The outer walls of the cells have waxy cuticle to  Xylem tissue is made up of vessels and tracheids.
products which should be prevent excessive loss of water. Xylem Vessels
-eliminated before they accumulate.  The cortex is a layer next to the epidermis.  Xylem vessels are formed from cells that are
-The excretory products should be transported to sites  It has collenchyma, parenchyma and schlerenchyma elongated along the vertical axis and
of excretion. cells. arranged end to end.
-Organisms like amoeba are unicellular. Collenchyma  During development, the cross walls and organelles
-They have a large surface area to volume ratio.  Is next to the epidermis and has thickened walls at disappear and a continuous tube is formed.
-The body is in contact with the environment. the corners which strengthen the  The cells are dead and their walls are strengthened
Diffusion is adequate to transport substances across stem. by deposition of lignin.
the cell membrane and within the organism. Parenchyma  The lignin has been deposited in various ways.
Large multi-cellular organisms have complex structure  Cells are irregular in shape, thin walled and loosely  This results in different types of thickening
where cells are far from each other hence diffusion arranged hence creating  Annular. Simple spiral. Double spiral.
alone cannot meet the demand for supply and intercellular spaces filled with air. Reticulate.
removal of substances.  They are packing tissues and food storage areas.  The bordered pits are areas without lignin on xylem
Therefore an elaborate transport system is necessary. Sclerenchyma vessels and allow passage of water in and out of the
Transport in plants  Cells are closely connected to vascular bundles. lumen to neighbouring cells.
- Simple plants such as mosses and liverworts lack  These cells are thickened by deposition of lignin and Tracheids
specialized transport system. they provide support to plants.  Tracheids have cross-walls that are perforated.
- Higher plants have specialized transport systems Pith  Their walls are deposited with lignin.
known as the vascular bundle.  Is the central region having parenchyma cells.  Unlike the xylem vessels, their end walls are tapering
- Xylem transports water and mineral salts . Absorption of Water and Mineral Salts Absorption of or chisel-shaped.
- Phloem transports dissolved food substances like Water  Their lumen is narrower.
sugars.  Root hair cell has solutes in the vacuole and hence a  Besides transport of water, xylem has another
Internal structure of roots and root hairs higher osmotic pressure than function of strengthening the plantwhich is provided
- The main functions of roots are ; the surrounding soil water solution. by xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma.
- Anchorage - absorption. – storage - gaseous  Water moves into the root hair cells by osmosis Xylem fibres;
exchange. along a concentration gradient.  Are cells that are strengthened with lignin, they form
- The outermost layer in a root is the layer.  This makes the sap in the root hair cell to have a wood.
- This is a special epidermis of young roots whose cells lower osmotic pressure than thesurrounding cells. Xylem parenchyma:
give rise to root hairs.  Therefore water moves from root hair cells into the  These are cells found between vessels.
- Root hairs are microscopic outgrowths of epidermal surrounding cortex cells by osmosis.  They form the packing tissue.
cells.  The process continues until the water gets into the Forces involved in Transportation of Water and
- They are found just behind the root tip, xylem vessels . Uptake of Mineral Salts Mineral Salts
- They are one cell thick for efficient absorption of  If the concentration of mineral salts in solution is Transpiration pull
substances. greater than its concentration in  As water vaporises from spongy mesophyll cells into
- They are numerous and elongated providing a large root hair cell, the mineral salts enter the root hair cell sub-stomatal air spaces, the cell sap of mesophyll cells
surface area for absorption of by diffusion. develop a higher osmotic pressure than adjacent cells.
water and mineral salts Root hairs penetrate the soil  If the concentration of mineral salts in the root hair  Water is then drawn into mesophyll cells by osmosis
and make close contact with it. cells is greater than in the soil water, the mineral salts from adjacent cells and finally from xylem vessels.
Below the peliferous layer is the cortex. enter the root hairs by active transport.  A force is created in the leaves which pulls water
This is made up of loosely packed, thin walled  Most minerals are absorbed in this way. from xylem vessels in the stem and root.
parenchyma cells.  Mineral salts move from cell to cell by active  This force is called transpiration pull .
Water molecules pass through this tissue to reach the transport until they reach the xylem vessel. Cohesion and Adhesion:
vascular bundles.  Once inside the xylem vessels, mineral salts are  The attraction between water molecules is called
In some young plant stems, cortex cells contain transported in solution as the water cohesion.
chloroplasts. The endodermis (starch sheath) is a moves up due to root pressure, capillary attraction  The attraction between water molecules and the
single layer of cells with starch grains. and cohesion and adhesion forces. walls of xylem vessels is called adhesion.
 The endodermis has a casparian strip which has an Transpiration  The forces of cohesion and adhesion maintain a
impervious deposit controlling the entry of water and  Transpiration is the process by which plants lose continuous flow of water in the
mineral salts into xylem vessels. water in the form of water vapour intothe xylem from the root to the leaves.
 Pericyc1e forms a layer next to the endodermis. atmosphere. Capillarity:
 Next to the pericycle is the vascular tissue.  Water is lost through stomata, cuticle and lenticels.  Is the ability of water to rise in fine capillary tubes
 In the Dicotyledonous root, xylem forms a star shape  Stomatal transpiration: due to surface tension.
in the centre, with phloem inbetween the arms.  This accounts for 80-90% of the total transpiration in  Xylem vessels are narrow, so water moves through
 It has no pith. In monocotyledonous root, xylem plants. them by capillarity. Root Pressure:
alternates with phloem and there is a pith in the  Stomata are found on the leaves.  If the stem of a plant is cut above the ground level, it
centre.  Cuticular transpiration: is observed that cell sap continues to come out of the
Internal structure of a root hair cell  The cuticle is found on the leaves, and a little water cut surface.
The Stem is lost through it.  This shows that there is a force in the roots that
 The main functions of the stem are;  Plants with thick cuticles do not lose water through pushes water up to the stem.
 support and exposure of leaves and flowers to the the cuticle.  This force is known as root pressure.
environment,  Lenticular transpiration Importance of Transpiration
 conducting water and mineral salts  Is loss' of water through lenticels.  Transpiration leads to excessive loss of water if
 conducting manufactured food from leaves to other  These are found on stems of woody plants. unchecked.
parts of the plant.  Water lost through the stomata and cuticle by  Replacement of water lost during the process.
 In monocotyledonous stems, vascular bundles are evaporation leads to evaporation of water from  Movement of water up the plant is by continuous
scattered all over the stem, while surfaces of mesophyll cells . absorption of water from the soil.
 Mineral salts are transported up the plant.  It occurs in phloem in sieve tubes.  This is because oxygen is supplied directly to the
 Transpiration ensures cooling of the plant in hot  Substances translocated include glucose, amino tissues by the tracheal system.
weather. acids, vitamins.  The main functions of blood in an insect are to
 Excessive loss of water leads to wilting' and  These are translocated to the growing regions like transport nutrients, excretory products and
eventually death if water is not available in the soil. stem, root apex, storage organs e.g. corms, bulbs and hormones.
Factors Affecting Transpiration secretory organs such as nectar glands. Mammalian Circulatory System
The factors that affect transpiration are grouped into Phloem  Mammals have a closed circulatory system where a
two. i.e. environmental and structural. phloem is made up of; powerful heart pumps blood into arteries.
Environmental factors  sieve tubes,  The arteries divide into smaller vessels called
Temperature  companion cells arterioles.
 High temperature increases the internal  parenchyma, a packing tissue  Each arteriole divides to form a network of
temperature of the leaf .  schlerenchyma, a strengthening tissue capillaries inside the tissues.
 which in turn increases kinetic energy of water Sieve Tubes  The capillaries eventually re-unite to form venules,
molecules which increases  These are elongated cells arranged end to end along which form larger vessels called veins.
evaporation. the vertical axis.  The veins take the blood back to the heart.
 High temperatures dry the air around the leaf  The cross walls are perforated by many pores to  Blood from the heart goes through the pulmonary
surface maintaining a high concentration gradient. make a sieve plate. artery to the lungs and then back to the heart through
 More water vapour is therefore lost from the leaf to  Most organelles disappear and those that remain pulmonary vein.
the air. are pushed to the sides of the sievetube.  This circulation is called pulmonary circulation.
Humidity  Cytoplasmic strands pass through the pores in the  Oxygenated blood leaves the heart through the
 The higher the humidity of the air around the leaf, plate into adjacent cells. aorta and goes to all the tissues of the body.
the lower the rate of transpiration.  Food substances are translocated through  From the tissues, deoxygenated blood flows back to
 The humidity difference between the inside of the cytoplasmic strands. the heart through the vena cava.
leaf and the outside is called the saturation deficit. Companion Cells  This circulation is called systemic circulation.
 In dry atmosphere, the saturation deficit is high.  Companion cells are small cells with large nuclei and  In each complete circulation, the blood flows into
 At such times, transpiration rate is high. many mitochondria. the heart twice.
 Wind carries away water vapour as fast as it diffuses  They are found alongside each sieve element.  This is called double circulation.
out of the leaves.  The companion cell is connected to the tube through  Some other animals like fish have a single
 This prevents the air around the leaves from plasmodesmata. circulation.
becoming saturated with vapour.  The mitochondria generate energy required for  Blood flows only once through the heart for every
 On a windy day, the rate of transpiration is high. translocation. complete circuit.
Light Intensity Phloem Parenchyma Structure and Function of the Heart
 When light intensity is high; more stomata open  These are parenchyma cells between sieve  The heart has four chambers:
hence high rate of transpiration. elements.  Two artria (auricles) and two ventricles.
Atmospheric Pressure  They act as packing tissue.  The left and right side of the heart are separated by
 The lower the atmospheric pressure the higher the Transport in Animals a muscle wall (septum) so that oxygenated and
kinetic energy of water molecules hence more The Circulatory System deoxygenated blood does not mix.
evaporation.  Large and complex animals have circulatory systems  Deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body
 Most of the plants at higher altitudes where that consist of tubes, a transport fluid and a means of enters the heart through the vena cava .
atmospheric pressure is very low have adaptations to pumping the fluid.  Blood enters the right atrium, then through tricuspid
prevent excessive water-loss.  Blood is the transport fluid which contains dissolved valve into right ventricle.
Availability of Water substances and cells.  Then via semi-lunar valve to the pulmonary artery to
 The more water there is in the soil, the more is  The tubes are blood vessels through which dissolved the lungs.
absorbed by the plant and hence a lotof water is lost substances are circulated around the body.  Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the heart
by transpiration.  The heart is the pumping organ which keeps the through pulmonary vein.
Structural Factors blood in circulation.  It enters the left atrium of the heart, then through
Cuticle The types of circulatory system exist in animals: open bicuspid valve into left ventricle.
 Plants growing in arid or semi-arid areas have leaves and closed. in an open circulatory system;  Then via semi-lunar valves to aorta which takes
covered with a thick waxy cuticle.  The heart pumps blood into vessels which open into oxygenated blood round the body.
Stomata body spaces known as haemocoel.  A branch of the aorta called coronary artery supplies
 The more the stomata, the higher the rate of  A closed circulatory system; blood to the heart muscle.
transpiration.  Found in vertebrates and annelids where the blood  The coronary vein carries blood from the heart
 Xerophytes have few stomata which reduce water- is confined within blood muscle to the pulmonary artery
loss. vessels and does not come into direct contact with Pumping Mechanism of the heart
 Some have sunken stomata which reduces the rate tissues.  The heart undergoes contraction (systole) and
of transpiration as the water vapour accumulates in Transport in Insects relaxation ( diastole). Systole
the pits.  In an insect, there is a tubular heart just above the  When the ventricular muscles contract, the cuspid
 Others have stomata on the lower leaf surface hence alimentary canal. valves (tricuspid and bicuspid) close preventing
reducing the rate of water-loss.  This heart is suspended in a pericardial cavity by backflow of blood into auricles.
 Some plants have reversed stomatal rhythm ligaments.  The volume of the ventricles decreases while
whereby stomata close during the day and open at  The heart has five chambers and extends along the pressure increases.
night. thorax and abdomen .  This forces blood out of the heart to the lungs
 This helps to reduce water-loss.  Blood is pumped forwards into the aorta by waves of through semi-lunar valves and
Leaf size and shape contractions in the heart. pulmonary artery, and to the body tissues via semi-
 Plants in wet areas have large surface area for  It enters the haem ocoel and flows towards the lunar valve and aorta respectively.
transpiration. posterior.  At the same time the atria are filled with blood.
 Xerophytes have small narrow leaves to reduce  The blood flows back into the heart through  The left ventricle has thicker muscles than the right
water-loss. openings in each chamber called ostia. ventricle, and pumps blood for a longer distance to
 The photometer can be used to determine  The ostia have valves which prevent the backflow of the tissues.
transpiration in different environmental conditions. blood. Diastole
Translocation of organic compounds  Blood is not used as a medium for transport of  When ventricular muscles relax, the volume of each
 Translocation of soluble organic products of oxygen in insects. ventricle increases while
photosynthesis within a plant is called translocation. pressure decreases.
 Contractions of atria force the bicuspid and tricuspid  Capillaries join to form larger vessels called venules  erythrocytes (red blood cells),
valves to open allowing which in turn join to form veins which transport blood  leucocytes (white blood cells)
deoxygenated blood from right atrium into right back to the heart.  thrombocytes (platelets)
ventricle which oxygenated blood Veins  blood proteins.
flows from left atrium into the left ventricle.  Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues to Plasma
 Semi-lunar valves close preventing the backflow of the heart (except pulmonary vein which carries  This is a pale yellow fluid consisting of 90% water.
blood into ventricles. oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart).  There are dissolved substances which include;
 The slight contractions of atria force the , blood flow  Veins have a wider lumen than arteries.  glucose, amino acids, lipids, salts,
into ventricles.  Their walls are thinner than those of arteries.  hormones, urea, fibrinogen, albumen,
The Heartbeat  Blood pressure in the veins is low.  antibodies, some enzymes suspended cells.
 The heart is capable of contracting and relaxing  Forward flow of blood in veins is assisted by  Serum is blood from which fibrinogen and cells have
rhythmically without fatigue due to its special muscles contraction of skeletal muscles, hence the need for been removed.
called cardiac muscles. exercise. The functions of plasma include:
 The rhythmic contraction of the heart arise from  Veins have valves along their length to prevent  Transport of red blood cells which carry oxygen.
within the heart muscles without nervous stimulation. backflow of blood.  Transport dissolved food substances round the body.
 The contraction is said to be myogenic.  This ensures that blood flows towards the heart.  Transport metabolic wastes like nitrogenous wastes
 The heartbeat is initiated by the pacemaker or sino-  The way the valves work can be demonstrated on and carbon (IV) oxide in solution
artrio-node (SAN) which is located in the right atrium. the arm. about 85% of the carbon (IV) oxide is carried in form
 The wave of excitation spreads over the walls of  By pressing on one vein with two fingers, leaving one of hydrogen carbonates.
atria. and pushing blood toward the heart then releasing the  Transport hormones from sites of production to
 It is picked by the artrio-ventricular node which is latter finger, it can be observed that the part in target organs.
located at the junction: between is left with the vein not being visible.  Regulation of pH of body fluids.
 Of the atria and ventricles, from where the purkinje  This is because bleed does not flow back towards  Distributes heat rou nd the body hence regulate
tissue spreads the wave to the walls of the ventricles. the first finger. body temperature.
 The heart contracts and relaxes rhythmically at an Diseases and Defects of Circulatory System Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
average rate of 72 times per minute. Thrombosis  In humans these cells are circular biconcave discs
 The rate of the heartbeat is increased by the  Formation of a clot in the blood vessels is called without nuclei.
sympathetic nerve, while it is slowed down by the thrombosis.  Absence of nucleus leaves room for more
vagus nerve.  Coronary thrombosis is the most common. haemoglobin to be packed in the cell to enable it to
 Heartbeat is also affected by hormones e.g.  It is caused by blockage of coronary artery which carry more oxygen.
adrenaline raises the heartbeat. supplies blood to the heart.  Haemoglobin contained in red blood cells is
Structure and Function of Arteries,Capillaries and  Blockage may be due to artery becoming fibrous or responsible for the transport of oxygen.
Veins accumulation of fatty material on the artery walls.  Haemoglobin + Oxygen =oxyhaemoglobin
Arteries  Narrow coronary artery results in less blood  (Hb) + (4O2) __ (HbOg)
 Arteries carry blood away from the heart. reaching the heart muscles.  Oxygen is carried in form of oxyhaemoglobin.
 They carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary  A serious blockage can result in heart attack which  Haemoglobin readily picks up oxygen in the lungs
artery which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs. can be fatal. where concentration of oxygen is high.
 Arteries have a thick, muscular wall, which has  Heavy intake of fat, alcohol, being overweight and  In the tissues, the oxyhaemoglobin breaks down
elastic and collagen fibres that resist the pressure of emotional stress can cause coronary thrombosis. (dissociates) easily into haemoglobin and oxygen.
the blood flowing in them.  A blockage in the brain can lead to a stroke causing  Oxygen diffuses out of the red blood cells into the
 The high pressure is due to the pumping action of paralysis of part of the body, coma or even death. tissues.
the heart.  A healthy lifestyle, avoiding a lot of fat in meals and  Haemoglobin is then free to pick up more oxygen
 The pressure in the arteries originate from the avoiding alcohol can control the disease. molecules.
pumping action of the heart. Arteriosclerosis  The biconcave shape increases their surface area
 The pulse or number of times the heart beats per  This condition results from the inner walls having over which gaseous exchange takes place.
minute can be detected by applying pressure on an materials being deposited there or growth of fibrous  Due to their ability, they are able to change their
artery next to the bone. connective tissue. shape to enable themselves squeeze inside the narrow
 e.g. by placing the finger/thumb on the wrist.  This leads to thickening of the wall of the artery and capillaries.
 The innermost layer of the artery is called loss of elasticity.  Co2+ H2O carbonic anhydrase
endothelium which is smooth.  Normal blood flow is hindered.  There are about five million red blood cells per cu
 It offers least possible resistance to blood flow.  Arteriosclerosis can lead to thrombosis or bic millimetre of blood.
 Have a narrow lumen . hypertension.  They are made in the bone marrow of the short
 The aorta forms branches which supply blood to all  A person with hypertension which is also called high bones like sternum, ribs and vertebrae.
parts of the body. blood pressure has his/her blood being pumped more  In the embryo they are made in the liver and spleen.
 These arteries divide into arterioles which further forcefully through the narrow vessels.  Erythrocytes have a life span of about three to four
divide to form capillaries.  This puts stress on the walls of the heart and months after which they are destroyed in the liver and
Capillaries arteries. spleen.
 Capillaries are small vessels whose walls are made of  Regular exercise, healthy diet and avoiding smoking  Also in the red blood cells is carbonic anhydrase
endothelium which is one cell thick. can help maintain normal blood pressure. which assists in the transport of carbon (IV) oxide.
 This provides a short distance for exchange of Varicose Veins Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)
substances.  Superficial veins especially at the back of the legs  These white blood cells have a nucleus.
 Capillaries penetrate tissues, become swollen and flabby due to some valves failing  They are divided into two:
 The lumen is narrow therefore blood flowing in to function properly.  Granulocytes (also phagocytes or polymorphs)
capillaries is under high pressure.  This results to retention of tissue fluid.  Agranulocytes .
 Pressure forces water and dissolved substances out  Regular physical exercise will prevent this condition.  White blood cells defend the body against disease.
of the blood to form tissue fluid.  Repair of valves through surgery can also be done.  Neutrophils form 70% of the granulocytes.
 Exchange of substances occurs between cells and  Wearing surgical stockings may ease a mild  Others are eosinophils and basophils.
tissue fluid. occurence.  About 24% agronulocytes are called lymphocytes,
 Part of the tissue fluid pass back into capillaries at Structure and Function of Blood Composition of while 4% agranulocytes are monocytes.
the venule end. Blood  The leucocytes are capable of amoebic movement.
 Excess fluid drains into small channels called lymph  The mammalian blood is made up of a fluid medium  They squeeze between the cells of the capillary wall
capillaries which empty their contents into lymphatic called plasma with substances dissolved in it. to enter the intercellular spaces.
vessels.  Cellular components suspended in plasma include;
 They engulf and digest disease causing organisms If the donor's blood and the recipient's blood are not  The lymph spaces contain lymphocytes which are
(pathogens) by phagocytosis. compatible, agglutination occurs whereby red blood phagocytic.
 Some white blood cells may die in the process of cells clump together.  Lymph has the same composition as blood except
phagocytosis. Blood typing that it does not contain red blood cells and plasma
 The dead phagocytes, dead organisms and damaged  A person of blood group 0 can donate blood to a proteins.
tissues form pus. person of any other blood group.  Lymph is excess tissue fluid.
 Lymphocytes produce antibodies which inactivate  A person of blood group 0 is called a universal  Excess tissue fluid is drained into lymph vessels by
antigens. donor. hydrostatic pressure.
Antibodies include:  A person of blood group AB can receive blood from  The lymph vessels unite to form major lymphatic
 Antitoxins which neutralise toxins. any other group. system.
 Agglutinins cause bacteria to clump together and  A person with blood group AB is called a universal  The main lymph vessels empty the contents into
they die. recipient. sub-clavian veins which take it to the heart.
 Lysins digest cell membranes of microorganisms.  A person of blood group A can only donate blood to Immune Responses
 Opsonins adhere to outer walls of microorganisms another person with blood group A or a person with  Immune response is the production of antibodies in
making it easier for phagocytes to ingest them. blood group AB. response to antigens.
 Lymphocytes' are made in the thymus gland and  A person of blood group B can only donate blood to  An antigen is any foreign material or organism that is
lymph nodes. somebody with blood group B or a person with blood introduced into the body and causes the production of
 There are about 7,000 leucocytes per cubic group AB. antibodies.
millimetre of blood. Platelets (Thrombocytes)  A person with blood group AB can only donate blood  Antigens are protein in nature.
 Platelets are small irregularly shaped cells formed to a person with blood  An antibody is a protein whose structure is
from large bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes. groupAB. complementary to the antigen.
 There are about 250,000 platelets per cubic  Blood screening has become a very important step  This means that a specific antibody deals with a
millimetre of blood. in controlling HIV/AIDS. specific antigen to make it harmless.
 They initiate the process of blood clotting.  It is therefore important to properly screen blood  When harmful organisms or proteins invade the
 The process of clotting involves a series of complex before any transfusion is done. body, lymphocytes produce
reactions whereby fibrinogen is converted into a fibrin Rhesus Factor complementary antibodies, while bone marrow and
clot.  The Rhesus factor is present in individuals with the thymus gland produce more
 When blood vessels are injured platelets are Rhesus antigen in their red blood cells. phagocytes and lymphocytes respectively.
exposed to air and they release  Such individuals are said to be Rhesus positive (Rh+), Types of Immunity
thromboplastin (thrombokinasewhich initiates the while those without the antigen are Rhesus negative  There are two types of immunity; natural and
blood clotting process. (Rh-). artificial. Natural Immunity is also called innate
 Thromboplastin neutralises heparin the anti-clotting  If blood from an Rh+ individual is introduced into a immunity.
factor in blood and activates prothrombin to person who is Rh- , the latter develops antibodies  It is inherited from parent to offspring. Artificial
thrombin. against the Rhesus factor. Immunity can be natural or induced.
 The process requires calcium ions and vitamin K.  There may not be any reaction after this transfusion.  When attacked by diseases like chicken pox, measles
 Thrombin activates the conversion of fibrinogen to  However a subsequent transfusion with Rh+ blood and mumps, those who recover from these diseases
fibrin which forms a meshwork of fibres on the cut causes a severe reaction, and agglutination occurs i.e. develop resistance to any subsequent infections of the
surface to trap red blood cells to form a clot. clumping of red blood cells. same diseases.
 The clot forms a scab that stops bleeding and  The clump can block the flow of blood, and cause  This is natural acquired immunity.Artificial Acquired
protects the damaged tissues from death. Immunity:
entry of micro-organisms.  Erythroblastosis foetalis (haemolytic disease of the
 Blood clotting reduces loss of blood when blood newborn) results when an Rhmother carries an Rh+
vessels are injured. foetus.
 Excessive loss of blood leads to anaemia and  This arises when the father is Rh+.
dehydration.  During the latter stage of pregnancy, fragments of
 Mineral salts lost in blood leads to osmotic Rhesus positive red blood cells of the foetus may enter
imbalance in the body. mother's circulation.
 This can be corrected through blood transfusion and  These cause the mother to produce Rhesus
intravenous fluid. antibodies which can pass across the.
ABO Blood Groups placenta to the foetus and destroy foetal red blood
 There are four types of blood groups in human cells.
beings: A, B, AB and O.  During the first pregnancy, enough antibodies are
 These are based on types of proteins on the cell not formed to affect the foetus.
membrane of red blood cells.  Subsequent pregnancies result in rapid production
 There are two types of proteins denoted by the of Rhesus antibodies by the mother.
letters A and B which are antigens.  These destroy the red blood cells of the foetus, the
 In the plasma are antibodies specific to these condition called haemolytic disease of the newborn.
antigens denoted as a and b.  The baby is born anaemic and with yellow eyes
 A person of blood group A has A antigens on the red (jaundiced).
blood cells and b antibodies in plasma.  The condition can be corrected by a complete
 A person of blood group B has B antigens on red replacement of baby's blood with safe healthy blood.
blood cells and a antibodies in plasma. Lymphatic System
 A person of blood group AB has A and B antigens on  The lymphatic system consists of lymph vessels.
red blood cells and no antibodies in plasma .  Lymph vessels have valves to ensure unidirectional
 A person of blood group a has no antigens on red movement of lymph.
blood cells and a and b antibodies in plasma.  Lymph is excess tissue fluid i.e. blood minus blood
Blood Transfusion cells and plasma proteins.
Blood transfusion is the transfer of blood from a donor  Flow of lymph is assisted by breathing and muscular
to the circulatory system of the recipient. contractions.
A recipient will receive blood from a donor if the  Swellings called lymph glands occur at certain points
recipient has no corresponding antibodies to the along the lymph vessels.
donor's antigens.  Lymph glands are oval bodies consisting of
connective tissues and lymph spaces.