The different perspectives and theories about the "self.
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Exam Reviewer: Understanding the Self
1. The Self from a Sociological Perspective
In sociology, the self is viewed as a social construct shaped
and influenced by external circumstances and social interactions.
It is not fixed or unchanging but dynamic, constantly interacting
with social life and adjusting to various influences.
Key Theories
Social Constructionist Perspective
This perspective argues that the self is shaped by social
contexts and experiences. It is not a static entity but is
continuously constructed through interactions with society.
The self is a combination of the individual and their social
environment; these boundaries are interrelated and cannot be
easily separated.
-Example: A student might see themselves as quiet at home
but become more outspoken in a classroom setting due to
different social expectations.
George Herbert Mead's Theory
Mead suggests that the self develops through social
experiences and activities.
- The self is not present at birth; it develops from social
interactions.
- The self has two components:
"I": The spontaneous, unpredictable, and creative aspect of
the self, representing individuality.
"Me": The socialized aspect, shaped by societal expectations
and the responses of significant others.
Example: A child plays roles during games (e.g., pretending to
be a parent or a teacher) to understand societal expectations.
Charles Cooley's Looking-Glass Self Theory
- Cooley's theory suggests that a person's self-image is shaped
by how they believe others perceive them.
-Three Steps:
1. Imagining Appearance We imagine how we appear to
others (e.g., “I think others see me as smart”).
2. Imagining Judgment We imagine how others judge that
appearance (e.g., “They think I’m smart because I participate in
class”).
3. Developing Self-Feeling We develop feelings (like pride or
shame) based on our perceptions of others' judgments (e.g.,
feeling proud because we think others view us positively).
2. The Self from an Anthropological Perspective
Anthropology views the self holistically, considering it a
totality of physical, biological, psychological, social, and cultural
aspects. It emphasizes understanding the self within the context
of human universals and diversity.
Key Theories:
Naomi Quinn's Concept
Quinn describes the self as the totality of what a person is in
terms of their physical, biological, psychological, social, and
cultural characteristics.
Example: An individual's behavior is shaped by both their
biological instincts (like hunger) and cultural upbringing (such as
dietary restrictions).
"Two Models of the Self"
Egocentric Model
- Focuses on the self as an independent, autonomous entity.
Example: In Western societies, individuals often prioritize
personal achievements and self-expression.
Sociocentric Model
- Emphasizes the self as interconnected with a social group,
prioritizing community and group harmony over individual
desires.
Example: In many Eastern societies, individuals emphasize
family and community obligations over personal goals.
3. The Self from a Psychological Perspective
- Psychology defines the self as a multi-level system that
emerges from the complex interactions of neural, psychological,
and social factors. It involves how a person thinks about and
views their own traits, beliefs, and purpose.
Key Theories:
William James's Theory of the Self
- James proposed that the self is composed of two main parts:
the "I" (self-as-subject) and the "Me" )
(self-as-object).
Divisions of the Self
-"I": The thinking self that reflects and is conscious of itself. It
represents the pure ego or the inner experiencer.
-"Me": The self as an object of reflection, which includes:
-Material Self: Comprises the physical body, possessions, and
tangible aspects of identity (e.g., clothes, home).
-Social Self: Defined by the roles and recognition one receives
in social situations (e.g., a teacher, friend).
-Spiritual Self: Represents a person's inner thoughts, values,
morals, and beliefs (e.g., one’s conscience or core principles).
- Example: A person may have different social selves, like being
a caring parent at home and a strict manager at work.
4. The Self from a Philosophical Perspective
Ancient Philosophers
Socrates (469-399 B.C.)
- The true self is the soul, which is immortal, unchanging, and
distinct from the physical body. Socrates emphasized the
importance of self-knowledge, suggesting that knowing oneself is
the path to wisdom.
- Example: A person's soul or true essence is not defined by
external possessions or physical attributes.
Plato (428-348 B.C.)
- Plato viewed the soul as tripartite, consisting of three parts:
Rational: The logical and truth-seeking part, located in the
head.
Spirited: Associated with emotions and courage, located in
the chest.
Appetitive: Linked to desires and bodily needs, located in
the abdomen.
Example: The struggle between reason (rational soul) and
desire (appetitive soul) when deciding whether to eat a healthy
meal or indulge in junk food.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
The self is a composite of body and soul, where reason
should govern all actions to achieve a balanced and happy life. He
introduced the concept of the "Golden Mean," advocating for
moderation in all things.
Example: Pursuing a balanced lifestyle by not overindulging in
pleasures or depriving oneself completely.
Medieval Philosophers:
St. Augustine (354-430)
The self consists of both body and soul, and true happiness is
found in God. Augustine emphasized that the self's ultimate
purpose is spiritual union with God.
Example: A person seeking spiritual fulfillment through prayer
and moral living, rather than material wealth.
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
Reason and divine revelation are both pathways to truth.
Aquinas argued that perfect happiness is achieved through union
with God, aligning human actions with divine will.
Example: Studying philosophy and theology to understand
both the natural world and divine truths.
Modern and Contemporary Philosophers:
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Introduced mind-body dualism, where the self is composed of
an immaterial mind (the thinking self) and a material body. Known
for "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am").
Example: Believing that one's existence is proven through the
act of thinking, even if the physical body is unreliable.
John Locke (1632-1704)
Proposed that the mind is a "blank slate" at birth, shaped by
experiences and sensations. The self is formed through
accumulated experiences and reflections.
Example: A person's personality and character are shaped by
their life experiences, education, and social environment.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Distinguished between the inner self (psychological states,
rational intellect) and the outer self (sensory experiences,
physical reality). Argued for a moral law within, guiding one's
actions.
Example: Following a personal ethical code regardless of
external pressures or consequences.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)
The self is an inseparable union of mind and body; all
experiences are embodied experiences.
Example: Understanding that one's thoughts, feelings, and
bodily sensations are interconnected and cannot be separated.
5. The Self in Western vs. Oriental Thought
Western Perspective
- Emphasizes individualism, independence, and viewing the self
as a separate, autonomous entity.
Example: Pursuing personal goals and self-expression, often
prioritizing individual rights and freedoms.
Oriental (Eastern) Perspective
- Focuses on collectivism, social harmony, and viewing the self
as integrated with the community or society.
Example: Valuing family obligations and community well-being
over personal desires or ambitions.
6. The Johari Window Model
A framework developed by Joseph Luft and Harrington
Ingham in 1955 to help people understand their relationship with
themselves and others. It is divided into four quadrants:
Arena: Known to both self and others (e.g., being sociable).
Facade: Known to self but hidden from others (e.g., private
fears).
Blind Spot: Known to others but not recognized by the self
(e.g., being seen as impatient).
Unknown: Not known to self or others (e.g., hidden potential).
