MODULE 1: Diodes and Applications

Introduction - Diode approximation, Clippers and Clampers, Power Supply and Voltage
Regulators, Zener Diode, Zener Diode Applications, Optical Diodes

Self-Study Components: Varactor Diodes

Diode: A diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device formed by two doped regions of silicon
separated by a pn junction.

A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material, usually silicon, in which half
is doped as a p region and half is doped as an n region with a pn junction and depletion region
in between. The p region is called the anode and is connected to a conductive terminal. The n
region is called the cathode and is connected to a second conductive terminal. The basic diode
structure and schematic symbol are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Basic diode structure and schematic symbol

Bias Connections

Figure 2 shows the Forward and Reverse biased diode connections.

Forward-Bias:
The positive terminal of the source is connected to the anode through a current-limiting resistor.
The negative terminal of the source is connected to the cathode. The forward current (𝐼𝐹 ) flows
from anode to cathode as indicated. The forward voltage drop (𝑉𝐹 ) due to the barrier potential
is from positive at the anode to negative at the cathode.

Reverse-Bias:
The negative terminal of the source is connected to the anode side of the circuit, and the positive
terminal is connected to the cathode side. The reverse current is extremely small and can be
zero ideally. The entire bias voltage (𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 ) appears across the diode.
 Figure 2: Forward and Reverse biased diode connections

Diode Approximations
Diode approximation is a mathematical method used to approximate the nonlinear behavior of
real diodes to enable calculations and circuit analysis. There are three different approximations
used to analyze the diode circuits:
• Ideal Diode Model
• Practical Diode Model
• Complete Diode Model

1. Ideal Diode Model:

The ideal model of a diode is the least accurate approximation and can be represented by a
simple switch. When the diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts like a closed (on) switch, as
shown in Figure 3. When the diode is reverse-biased, it ideally acts like an open (off) switch.
 Figure 3: Ideal Model of a Diode

The ideal V-I characteristic curve graphically depicts the ideal diode operation. Since the
barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are neglected, the diode is assumed to
have a zero voltage across it when forward biased.
𝑉𝐹 = 0 𝑉
The forward current is determined by the bias voltage and the limiting resistor using Ohm’s
law.
𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆
𝐼𝐹 =
𝑅
Under reverse biased condition, the reverse current is neglected, its value is assumed to be zero.
𝐼𝑅 = 0 𝐴
The reverse voltage equals the bias voltage.
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆

NOTE: This model is adequate to determine if the diode is working properly.

2. Practical Diode Model:

The practical model includes the barrier potential. When the diode is forward-biased, it is
equivalent to a closed switch in series with a small equivalent voltage source (𝑉𝐹 ) equal to the
barrier potential (0.7 V) as indicated in Figure 4. When conducting, a voltage drop of 0.7 V
appears across the diode.
When the diode is reverse-biased, it is equivalent to an open switch just as in the ideal model.

Figure 4: Practical Model of a Diode

The characteristic curve for the practical diode model is shown in Figure 4(c). Since the barrier
potential is included and the dynamic resistance is neglected, the diode is assumed to have a
voltage across it when forward biased.
𝑉𝐹 = 0.7 𝑉

The forward current is determined applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to circuit shown in figure
4 (a).
𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 − 𝑉𝐹 − 𝑉𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 = 0
But,
𝑉𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇

Solving for 𝐼𝐹 ,
𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 − 𝑉𝐹
𝐼𝐹 =
𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇

Under reverse biased condition, the diode is assumed to have zero reverse current.
𝐼𝑅 = 0 𝐴
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆
NOTE: The practical model is useful when you are troubleshooting in lower-voltage circuits.
The practical model is also useful when you are designing basic diode circuits.
 3. Complete Diode Model:

The complete model of a diode is the most accurate approximation and includes the barrier
potential, the small forward dynamic resistance (𝑟 ′ 𝑑 ), and the large internal reverse resistance
(𝑟 ′ 𝑅 ). The reverse resistance is considered because it provides a path for the reverse current,
which is included in this diode model.

When the diode is forward-biased, it acts as a closed switch in series with the equivalent barrier
potential voltage (𝑉𝐵 ) and the small forward dynamic resistance (𝑟 ′ 𝑑 ), as indicated in Figure 5.
When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts as an open switch in parallel with the large internal
reverse resistance (𝑟 ′ 𝑅 ).

Figure 5: Complete Model of a Diode

The characteristic curve for the complete diode model is shown in Figure 5(c). Since the barrier
potential and the forward dynamic resistance are included, the diode is assumed to have a
voltage across it when forward biased. This voltage (𝑉𝐹 ) consists of the barrier potential voltage
plus the small voltage drop across the dynamic resistance. The curve slopes because the voltage
drop due to dynamic resistance increases as the current increases.
𝑉𝐹 = 0.7 𝑉 + 𝐼𝐹 𝑟 ′ 𝑑

𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 − 0.7 𝑉
𝐼𝐹 =
𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 + 𝑟 ′ 𝑑

The reverse current is considered with the parallel resistance. The reverse current is
some small finite value.
 The reverse voltage is given by,
Applying KVL to the circuit,
𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇

𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇

NOTE: This model is generally suited to design problems using a computer for simulation.

Problems:

(a) Determine the forward voltage and forward current for the diode in Figure (a) for each
of the diode models. Also find the voltage across the limiting resistor in each case.
Assume 𝑟 ′ 𝑑 = 10 Ω at the determined value of forward current.

(b) Determine the reverse voltage and reverse current for the diode in Figure (b) for each
of the diode models. Also find the voltage across the limiting resistor in each case.
Assume 𝐼𝑅 = 1 𝜇𝐴
DC Power Supply
All active electronic devices require a source of constant dc that can be supplied by a battery,
or a dc power supply. The dc power supply converts the 230V, 50Hz (North American standard
120 V, 60 Hz) ac voltage available at wall outlets (AC mains) into a constant dc voltage. The
dc voltage level required depends on the application, but most applications require relatively
low dc voltages.

A basic block diagram of a complete power supply is shown in Figure. Generally, the ac input
line voltage is stepped down to a lower ac voltage using step-down transformer. A transformer
changes ac voltages based on the turns ratio between the primary and secondary. If the
secondary has more turns than the primary, the output voltage across the secondary will be
higher and the current will be smaller. If the secondary has fewer turns than the primary, the
output voltage across the secondary will be lower and the current will be higher. The rectifier
can be either a half-wave rectifier or a full-wave rectifier. The rectifier converts the ac input
voltage to a pulsating dc voltage, called a half-wave rectified voltage. The filter eliminates the
fluctuations in the rectified voltage and produces a relatively smooth dc voltage. The regulator
is a circuit that maintains a constant dc voltage for variations in the input line voltage or in the
load. Regulators vary from a single semiconductor device to more complex integrated circuits.
The load is a circuit or device connected to the output of the power supply and operates from
the power supply voltage and current.

Voltage Regulators
While filters can reduce the ripple from power supplies to a low value, the most effective
approach is a combination of a capacitor-input filter used with a voltage regulator. A voltage
regulator is connected to the output of a filtered rectifier and maintains a constant output
voltage (or current) despite changes in the input, the load current, or the temperature. The
capacitor-input filter reduces the input ripple to the regulator to an acceptable level. The
combination of a large capacitor and a voltage regulator helps produce an excellent power
supply.

Most regulators are integrated circuits and have three terminals—an input terminal, an output
terminal, and a reference (or adjust) terminal. The input to the regulator is first filtered with a
capacitor to reduce the ripple to <10%. The regulator reduces the ripple to a negligible amount.
In addition, most regulators have an internal voltage reference, short-circuit protection, and
thermal shutdown circuitry. They are available in a variety of voltages, including positive and
negative outputs, and can be designed for variable outputs with a minimum of external
components.

Three-terminal regulators designed for fixed output voltages. Filtering is accomplished by a

large-value capacitor between the input voltage and ground. An output capacitor (typically 0.1
𝜇F to 1.0 𝜇F) is connected from the output to ground to improve the transient response.
Line Regulation The line regulation specifies how much change occurs in the output voltage
for a given change in the input voltage. It is typically defined as a ratio of a change in output
voltage for a corresponding change in the input voltage expressed as a percentage.

Load Regulation The load regulation specifies how much change occurs in the output voltage
over a certain range of load current values, usually from minimum current (no load, NL) to
maximum current (full load, FL).

Clippers or Diode Limiters

Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion of an input signal without
distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.
Diode circuits, called limiters or clippers, are used to clip off portions of signal voltages above
or below certain levels.

i. Positive Clipper or Positive Limiter

A positive clipper limits or clips the positive part of the input voltage. As the input voltage
goes positive, the diode becomes forward biased and conducts current. Point A is limited to
+0.7 V when the input voltage exceeds this value.
When the input voltage goes back below 0.7 V, the diode is reverse-biased and appears as an
open. The output voltage looks like the negative part of the input voltage, but with a magnitude
determined by the voltage divider formed by 𝑅1 and the load resistor, 𝑅𝐿 , as follows:
𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ( )𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑖𝑛

If 𝑅1 is small compared to 𝑅𝐿 , then 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ≅ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .

ii. Negative Clipper or Negative Limiter

A negative clipper limits or clips the negative part of the input voltage.

When the diode is forward-biased during the negative part of the input voltage, point A is held
at -0.7 V by the diode drop. When the input voltage goes above -0.7 V, the diode is no longer
forward biased; and a voltage appears across 𝑅𝐿 proportional to the input voltage.

When the input voltage goes back above -0.7 V, the diode is reverse-biased and appears as an
open. The output voltage looks like the positive part of the input voltage, but with a magnitude
determined by the voltage divider formed by 𝑅1 and the load resistor, 𝑅𝐿 , as follows:
𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ( )𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑖𝑛

If 𝑅1 is small compared to 𝑅𝐿 , then 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ≅ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .

Problem:
What would you expect to see displayed on an oscilloscope connected across 𝑹𝑳 in the
limiter shown in Figure.
Biased Limiters/Biased Clippers
The level to which an ac voltage is limited can be adjusted by adding a bias voltage, 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 , in
series with the diode, as shown in Figure 6. The voltage at point A must equal 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 + 0.7 𝑉
before the diode will become forward biased and conduct. Once the diode begins to conduct,
the voltage at point A is limited to 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 + 0.7 𝑉 so that all input voltage above this level is
clipped off.

Figure 6 (a) : Positive Biased Clippers or Positive Limiters

To limit a voltage to a specified negative level, the diode and bias voltage must be connected
as in Figure 6 (b). In this case, the voltage at point A must go below − 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 − 0.7 𝑉 to forward-
bias the diode and initiate limiting action as shown.

Figure 6 (b) : Negative Biased Clippers or Negative Limiters

By turning the diode around, the positive limiter can be modified to limit the output voltage to
the portion of the input voltage waveform above 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 − 0.7 𝑉, as shown by the output
waveform in Figure 6 (c). Similarly, the negative limiter can be modified to limit the output
voltage to the portion of the input voltage waveform below −𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 + 0.7 𝑉, as shown by the
output waveform.

.
Problem:
Figure shows a circuit combining a positive limiter with a negative limiter. Determine
the output voltage waveform.

When the voltage at point A reaches +5.7 V, diode D1 conducts and limits the waveform to
+5.7 V. Diode D2 does not conduct until the voltage reaches -5.7 V. Therefore, positive
voltages above +5.7 V and negative voltages below -5.7 V are clipped off.

The resulting output voltage waveform is shown in Figure.

Clampers:
A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a resistor, and a capacitor that shifts a waveform
to a different dc level without changing the appearance of the applied signal.

A clamper adds a dc level to an ac voltage. Clampers are sometimes known as dc restorers.

Figure shows a diode clamper that inserts a positive dc level in the output waveform. The
operation of this circuit can be seen by considering the first negative half-cycle of the input
voltage. When the input voltage initially goes negative, the diode is forward biased, allowing
the capacitor to charge to near the peak of the input 𝑉𝑝 (𝑖𝑛) − 0.7 𝑉. Just after the negative peak,
the diode is reverse-biased. This is because the cathode is held near 𝑉𝑝 (𝑖𝑛) − 0.7 𝑉 by the
charge on the capacitor. The AC voltage will be shifted above the ground level by𝑉𝑝 (𝑖𝑛) −
0.7 𝑉. The capacitor can only discharge through the high resistance of 𝑅𝐿 . So, from the peak
of one negative half-cycle to the next, the capacitor discharges very little. The amount that is
discharged depends on the value of 𝑅𝐿 .
If the capacitor discharges during the period of the input wave, clamping action is affected.

The capacitor voltage acts essentially as a battery in series with the input voltage. The dc
voltage of the capacitor adds to the input voltage by superposition.

If the diode is turned around, a negative dc voltage is added to the input voltage to produce the
output voltage as shown in Figure. When the input voltage initially goes positive, the diode is
forward biased, allowing the capacitor to charge to near the peak of the input −𝑉𝑝 (𝑖𝑛) + 0.7 𝑉..
The cathode is held near −𝑉𝑝 (𝑖𝑛) + 0.7 𝑉 by the charge on the capacitor. The AC input voltage
will be shifted below the ground level by −𝑉𝑝 (𝑖𝑛) + 0.7 𝑉. The capacitor can only discharge
through the high resistance of 𝑅𝐿 . The amount that is discharged depends on the value of 𝑅𝐿 .
What is the output voltage that you would expect to observe across RL in the clamping circuit
of Figure? Assume that RC is long compared to the period to prevent significant capacitor
discharge.

Zener Diode
A zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that is designed for operation in the reverse-
breakdown region. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully controlling the
doping level during manufacture.

This volt-ampere characteristic is shown in figure with the normal operating region for zener
diodes shown as a shaded area.

Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown. Zener breakdown occurs in a zener
diode at low reverse voltages. A zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the breakdown voltage.
This causes a very thin depletion region. As a result, an intense electric field exists within the
depletion region. Near the zener breakdown voltage (𝑉𝑍 ), the field is intense enough to pull
electrons from their valence bands and create current.

Figure shows the reverse portion of a zener diode’s characteristic curve. Notice that as the
reverse voltage (𝑉𝑅 ) is increased, the reverse current (𝐼𝑅 ) remains extremely small up to the
“knee” of the curve. The reverse current is also called the zener current, 𝐼𝑍 . At this point, the
breakdown effect begins; the internal zener resistance, also called zener impedance (𝑍𝑍 ), begins
to decrease as the reverse current increases rapidly. From the bottom of the knee, the zener
breakdown voltage (𝑉𝑍 ) remains essentially constant although it increases slightly as the zener
current, 𝐼𝑍 , increases.

The ability to keep the reverse voltage across its terminals essentially constant is the key feature
of the zener diode. A zener diode operating in breakdown can act as a low-current voltage
regulator because it maintains a nearly constant voltage across its terminals over a specified
range of reverse-current values.

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

Figure shows a zener voltage regulator with a variable load resistor across the terminals. The
zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage across 𝑅𝐿 as long as the Zener current is greater
than 𝐼𝑍𝐾 and less than 𝐼𝑍𝑀 .

In the circuit,
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑍 + 𝐼𝐿
No load condition: When the output terminals of the zener regulator are open (𝑅𝐿 = ∞), the
load current is zero and entire current flows through the Zener diode.
i.e., when 𝐼𝐿 = 0 𝐴,
𝑉𝐼𝑁 − 𝑉𝑍
𝐼𝑍(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝐼𝑇 =
𝑅

Full load condition: When a load resistor (𝑅𝐿 ) is connected, part of the total current flows
through the Zener diode and a part of the current through 𝑅𝐿 . The total current through R
remains essentially constant as long as the Zener diode is regulating. As 𝑅𝐿 is decreased, the
load current 𝐼𝐿 increases and 𝐼𝑍 decreases. The zener diode continues to regulate the voltage
until 𝐼𝑍 reaches its minimum value 𝐼𝑍𝐾 . At this point the load current is maximum, and a full-
load condition exists.

When 𝑅𝐿 is minimum, load current is maximum. Hence 𝐼𝑍 will be minimum.

i.e., 𝐼𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝐼𝑇 − 𝐼𝑍(min)

When 𝑅𝐿 is maximum, load current is minimum. Hence 𝐼𝑍 will be maximum.

i.e., 𝐼𝐿(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 𝐼𝑇 − 𝐼𝑍(max)
The load resistance will vary from 𝑅𝐿(min) 𝑡𝑜 ∞. The minimum value of the load resistance is
given by,
𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝑍
𝑅𝐿(min) = =
𝐼𝐿(max) 𝐼𝐿(max)

Problem
Determine the minimum and the maximum load currents for which the zener diode in Figure
will maintain regulation. What is the minimum value of 𝑅𝐿 that can be used? 𝑉𝑍 = 12 V, 𝐼𝑍𝐾
= 1 mA, and 𝐼𝑍𝑀 = 50 mA. Assume an ideal zener diode where 𝑍𝑍 = 0 V and 𝑉𝑍 remains a
constant 12 V over the range of current values.
Optical Diodes
Optical diodes are devices that block light in one direction but allow light to pass in the opposite
direction.
i. Light Emitting Diodes
A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor device, which can emit light when an electric
current passes through it.

Operation of LED:
When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type material
and recombine with holes in the p-type material. These free electrons are in the conduction
band and at a higher energy than the holes in the valence band. The difference in energy
between the electrons and the holes corresponds to the energy of visible light. When
recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the form of photons.
The emitted light tends to be monochromatic (one color) that depends on the band gap (and
other factors). A large, exposed surface area on one layer of the semiconductive material
permits the photons to be emitted as visible light. This process, called electroluminescence.
Various impurities are added during the doping process to establish the wavelength of the
emitted light. The wavelength determines the color of visible light. Some LEDs emit photons
that are not part of the visible spectrum but have longer wavelengths and are in the infrared
(IR) portion of the spectrum.

Figure: Electroluminescence of forward biased LED

LED Biasing The forward voltage across an LED is considerably greater than for a silicon
diode. Typically, the maximum 𝑉𝐹 for LEDs is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V, depending on the
material. Reverse breakdown for an LED is much less than for a silicon rectifier diode (3 V to
10 V is typical). The LED emits light in response to a sufficient forward current. The amount
of power output translated into light is directly proportional to the forward current. An increase
in 𝐼𝐹 corresponds proportionally to an increase in light output. The light output (both intensity
and color) is also dependent on temperature. Light intensity goes down with higher
temperature.
Photo Diode
A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric current.
They are also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and a photo-sensor. Photodiodes are
designed to work in reverse bias condition. The photodiode has a small transparent window
that allows light to strike the pn junction.

A photodiode differs from a rectifier diode in that when its pn junction is exposed to light, the
reverse current increases with the light intensity. When there is no incident light, the reverse
current, 𝐼λ , is almost negligible and is called the dark current. An increase in the amount of
light intensity, expressed as irradiance (mW/cm2), produces an increase in the reverse current.

Figure illustrates that the photodiode allows essentially no reverse current (except for a very
small dark current) when there is no incident light. When a light beam strikes the photodiode,
it conducts an amount of reverse current that is proportional to the light intensity (irradiance).
Varactor Diode
The diode whose internal capacitance varies with the variation of the reverse voltage such type
of diode is known as the Varactor diode. It is used for storing the charge. The varactor diode
always works in reverse bias, and it is a voltage-dependent semiconductor device.

The depletion region acts as a capacitor dielectric because of its nonconductive characteristic.
The p and n regions are conductive and act as the capacitor plates.

Basic Operation:
The capacitance is determined by the parameters of plate area (A), dielectric constant (ε), and
plate separation (d), given by
𝐴𝜀
𝐶=
𝑑
As the reverse-bias voltage increases, the depletion region widens, effectively increasing the
plate separation, thus decreasing the capacitance. When the reverse-bias voltage decreases, the
depletion region narrows, thus increasing the capacitance. In a varactor diode, these
capacitance parameters are controlled by the method of doping near the pn junction and the
size and geometry of the diode’s construction.

The varactor capacitance ratio (CR) is also known as the tuning ratio. It is the ratio of the diode
capacitance at a maximum reverse voltage to the diode capacitance at a minimum reverse
voltage.
𝐶𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝐶𝑅 =
𝐶𝑀𝐼𝑁

Problem
For a certain diode, the capacitance ratio is 6.0. This means that the capacitance value decreases
by a factor of 6.0 as the reverse voltage is increased from 𝑉𝑀𝐼𝑁 = 2 𝑉 to 𝑉𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 20 𝑉. Find
the capacitance range, if 𝐶𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 22 𝑝𝐹.
𝐶𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝐶𝑅 =
𝐶𝑀𝐼𝑁

𝐶𝑀𝐴𝑋 22𝑝𝐹
𝐶𝑀𝐼𝑁 = =
𝐶𝑅 6
𝑪𝑴𝑰𝑵 = 𝟑. 𝟕 𝒑𝑭
The diode capacitance range is from 22 pF to 3.7 pF when 𝑉𝑅 is increased from 2 V to 20 V.