A TEXT BOOK OF

COMMUNICATION SKILLS - I
For
First Semester of Diploma in Engineering

As Per New Revised Syllabus of SBTE Jharkhand, July 2017

With Latest Question Paper

Prof. B. V. PATHAK
Ex. Lecturer in English, Humanities, Industrial Management
and Engineering Economics at Govt. Polytechnic, Pune
and Visiting Lecturer in Government and
Other Engineering Colleges.

N0668
F. Y. Diploma : Semester I - English ISBN 978-93-81237-93-9
Seventh Edition : August 2019
© : Author
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Preface …

I have great pleasure in bringing out the first edition of this book as per the newly

formulated syllabus effective from July, 2017. Great care has been taken to cover the

whole syllabus concerning grammar and language parts prescribed in the new syllabus

by the Board of Technical Examinations, Jharkhand.

I am very thankful to Shri. Abhijeet S. Nawgekar for his immense help in editing and

making all possible improvements in the text. My thanks are also to Shri. Dineshbhai

Furia, Shri. Jignesh Furia, Mr. Malik Shaikh and the entire team of Nirali Prakashan

who have printed this book at the right time of students' need.

I will be glad to receive suggestions on my book, both from teachers and students

so as to consider them for inclusion in the next edition of this book. I extend my good

wishes to all the teachers and students with a genuine hope that this book will be

warmly received by them.

Prof. B. V. Pathak
Syllabus …
Name of Topic Hours Marks
PART I : TEXT
• Comprehension – Responding to the questions from Text.
[Spectrum] 10 18
• Vocabulary – Understanding Meaning of New Words
from Text.
• Identifying parts of speech from the Text.
PART II : APPLICATION OF GRAMMAR
• Verbs 10 18
• Tenses
Do as Directed (Active/Passive, Direct/Indirect,
Affirmative/Negative/Assertive, Interrogative, Question
Tag, Remove Too, Use of Article, Preposition,
Conjunctions, Interjections, Punctuation).
• Correct the errors from the sentences.
PART III : PARAGRAPH WRITING
• Types of Paragraphs. (Narrative, Descriptive, Technical). 04 08
• Unseen Passage for Comprehension.
PART IV : VOCABULARY BUILDING
• Synonyms 06 12
• Antonyms
• Homophones
• Use of Contextual Words in a given Paragraph.
PART V : SOFT SKILL DEVELOPMENT
• Speaking Skill 08 16
• Introduction to Group Discussion
• Process of Group Discussion
• Leadership Skill
• Instant Public Speaking
PART VI : ETIQUETTES AND BODY LANGUAGE
• Telephone Etiquettes Listening / Speaking 04 08
• Problems of Telephonic Conversation
• Verbal/Oral Etiquettes
• Physical Appearance
• Eye Contact/Body Language
• Group Discussion
✱✱✱
Contents …

Part I : Comprehension and Vocabulary 1.1 – 1.16

(1) Comprehension – Responding to the Questions from Text (Spectrum) 1.1

(2) Vocabulary – Understanding Meaning of new words from Text. 1.3

(3) Identifying Parts of Speech. 1.15

Part II : Application of Grammar 2.1 – 2.100

(1) Verbs 2.10

(2) Tenses 2.11

(3) Do as Directed 2.30

(A) Active/Passive 2.34

(B) Direct/Indirect 2.39

(C) Affirmative/Negative 2.47

(D) Assertive/Interrogative 2.52

(E) Question Tag 2.60

(F) Remove Too 2.61

(G) Use of Articles 2.70

(H) Prepositions 2.78

(I) Conjunctions 2.80

(J) Interjections 2.83

(K) Punctuation 2.83

(4) Correct the Errors from the Sentences 2.88

Part III : Paragraph Writing 3.1 – 3.16

(1) Paragraph Writing 3.1

(2) Unseen Passage for Comprehension 3.6

Part IV : Vocabulary Building 4.1 – 4.40
(1) Word Formation 4.2

(2) Technical Jargon 4.9

(3) Use of – 4.12

(A) Synonyms 4.12

(B) Antonyms 4.12

(C) Homophones / Homonyms 4.17

(4) Use of Contextual Words in a given paragraph. 4.30

Part V : Soft Skill Development 5.1 – 5.26

(1) Soft Skills 5.1

(2) Speaking Skills 5.5

(3) Introduction to Group Discussion 5.11

(4) Process of Group Discussion 5.13

(5) Leadership Skill 5.15

(6) Instant Public Speaking 5.20

Part VI : Etiquettes and Body Language 6.1 – 6.24

(1) Telephone Etiquettes Listening / Speaking 6.1

(2) Problems of Telephonic Conversation 6.5

(3) Verbal/Oral Etiquettes 6.12

(4) Physical Appearance / Eye Contact / Body Language 6.15

(5) Group Discussion 6.23

SBT - Jharkhand: Model Question Paper P.1 – P.2

✱✱✱
 Part – I

COMPREHENSION & VOCABULARY

(1) Comprehension – Responding to the Questions from Text (Spectrum)
(2) Vocabulary – Understanding Meaning of new words from Text.
(3) Identifying Parts of Speech.
[Marks 18]

COMPREHENSION

INTRODUCTION
Comprehension is the ability to grasp something mentally and the capacity to understand
ideas and facts. Reading requires understanding, or comprehending, the meaning of the print.
Readers must develop certain skills that will help them comprehend what they read and use this
as an aid to reading. Comprehension skills are the ability to use context and prior knowledge to
aid reading and to make sense of what one reads and hears.
Comprehension is based on :
• knowledge that reading makes sense.
• readers' prior knowledge.
• information presented in the text, and
• the use of context to assist recognition of words and meaning.
Comprehension is...
• the essence of reading.
• active and intentional thinking in which the meaning is constructed through
interactions between the test and the reader (Durkin, 1973).
Definition : The complex cognitive process involving the intentional interaction between
reader and the text to extract meaning is called comprehension.
Reading comprehension is the process of constructing meaning from the text. The goal of all
reading instruction is ultimately targeted at helping a reader comprehend the text. Reading
comprehension involves at least two people: the reader and the writer. The process of
comprehending involves decoding the writer's words and then using background knowledge to
construct an approximate understanding of the writer's message.
While word identification is a process that results in a fairly exact outcome (i.e., a student
either reads the word "automobile" or not) the process of comprehending text is not so exact.
Different readers will interpret an author's message in different ways. Comprehension is affected
by the reader's knowledge of the topic, knowledge of language structures, knowledge of text
structures and genres, knowledge of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, their reasoning
abilities, their motivation, and their level of engagement.

(1.1)
Communication Skills - I 1.2 Comprehension and Vocabulary

Reading comprehension is also affected by the quality of the reading material. Some writers
are better writers than others, and some writers produce more complex reading material than
others. Text that is well organised and clear is called "considerate text". The more inconsiderate
the text, the more work will be required of a reader to comprehend the text.
Reading comprehension skills separates the "passive" unskilled reader from the "active"
readers. Skilled readers don't just read, they interact with the text.
Skilled readers, for instance :
1. Predict what will happen next in a story using clues presented in text.
2. Create questions about the main idea, message, or plot of the text.
3. Monitor understanding of the sequence, context, or characters.
4. Clarify parts of the text which have confused them.
5. Connect the events in the text to prior knowledge or experience.
Reading is a skill. When we read, we get exposed to the language (English) that we read. The
exposure to that language enhances our communication skills, the more we read the more
efficient we become. Effective and efficient reading is essential in present context. One must have
the ability to read voraciously. One must also be able to remember while reading.
The important points in respect of the technique of comprehension are :
1. Good answers to the questions in the comprehension passage can be given when :
(i) The reader understands the meaning of the passage.
(ii) The reader properly understands the questions asked.
(iii) He/She is able to express the meaning of the passage in his own simple and clear
words.
(iv) He must use the track of reading between the lines.
(v) All questions have to be answered in context with the questions.
(vi) Ability to understand the content helps in determining reliability.
(vii) It is necessary to read a passage several times till it is completely understood.
(viii) It is necessary to read the passage carefully atleast three times.
(ix) It is necessary to understand the key ideas.
(x) The reader must get the main theme of the passage i.e. what the author says about
the subject matter.
2. Prepare the answers to the questions.
3. Give attention to the punctuation, grammar.
4. Prepare a gist of the passage and try to understand what the author wants to tell about
the topic.
Example :
Read the following passage and answer the questions given below :
As a small boy, Edison had his laboratory in the cellar of his father's house. It contained two
hundred bottles and they were all marked POISON, to keep people away. When he needed
money to buy more chemicals, he managed to persuade his parents to let him seek a job. With
remarkable enterprise, he obtained permission to sell newspapers on the railway train between
Port Huron and Detroit.
Communication Skills - I 1.3 Comprehension and Vocabulary

This opportunity helped him in three further ways. First, he was able to put in a great deal of
time reading at the Detroit Public Library between trains. Secondly, he thought he would start a
newspaper of his own, printing it on the train and making it up from the bits of local information
picked up on the line. Thirdly, without asking anyone's permission, he set up a laboratory in the
van. One day, when, the train was rounding a piece of badly laid track a stick of phosphorous fell
on the floor and set the van on fire. The fire was extinguished, but the angry crowd hit Edison on
the ear, causing the deafness from which he suffered afterwards.
Q.1 Why did Edison mark all the bottles in his laboratory Poison ?
Ans. Edison marked all the bottles in the laboratory 'Poison' to keep people away.
Q.2 What job did he get when he needed some money ?
Ans. When he needed some money he got the job of selling newspapers on the train.
Q.3 Where did Edison print his newspaper ?
Ans. Edison printed his newspaper on the train.
Q.4 Give the meaning of the following words :
Ans. (a) Enterprise – enthusiasm to undertake a new job.
(b) Remarkable – extraordinary, noteworthy.
Q.5 Use the following in sentences of your own :
Ans. 1. To set on fire : When the train was late, the angry crowd set the train on fire. Or,
People should not set public property on fire.
2. Keep away : One should always try to keep oneself away from bad habits. Or,
One should try to keep oneself away from bad company.

VOCABULARY

The word vocabulary is broadly defined as a person's knowledge about words. For
acquiring mastery of any language it is quite essential to increase one's word-power. In other
words, more the number of words known to a person, more rich is his vocabulary. For enriching
one's vocabulary there are numerous ways one can adopt. The first and foremost is to remember
as many words as possible and make their frequent use in speaking and writing which helps one
to remember those words with little or no efforts. Once a person gets accustomed to this practice,
he or she can shift the emphasis to other aspects of increasing word power.
The further step in this direction is to get acquainted with different derivatives. By
definition, derivatives are the words which are not original but obtained from other words by
addition of affixes which are the meaningful elements but cannot be used independently. Affixes
are either in the form of prefixes like pre -, equi -, in - or suffixes like - ment, - ish, - ly etc. For
example,
pre + planned = preplanned
in + sufficient = insufficient
equi + lateral = equilateral
establish + - ment = establishment
blue + - ish = bluish
Friend + - ly = friendly
Communication Skills - I 1.4 Comprehension and Vocabulary

Sometimes, a word is moved from one grammatical class to another without adding a prefix
or suffix. Such derivatives are called 'zero derivatives'. Derivatives are formed not only from
simple words but also from derivatives. English language is so typical that there are words which
carry different meanings or have different pronunciations even though their spelling is the same.
Such words are called as 'homographs'. There are also words which are spelt or pronounced in
the same way but carry different meanings. For example, the word 'see' is spelt and pronounced
in the same way. But when used as a verb, it means 'to perceive or become aware of something by
using the eyes and if used as a noun, it means' office or jurisdiction of a bishop or archbishop.
For example,
(i) I can see the picture.
(ii) He visited the Holy see.
Vocabulary can also be enriched by studying different words carrying the same meaning i.e.
synonyms, words with opposite meanings i.e. antonyms, compound words, words that can
replace a group of words, phrases, idioms, proverbs, etc. A deliberate attempt towards the above
aspects of words would certainly contribute to increase one's treasure of word-power.
COMMON PHRASES
As defined in English grammar, a phrase means a combination of words that makes sense,
but not complete sense. Phrases can be classified according to the parts of speech for which they
are used as substitutes.
Kinds of Phrases

Noun Phrase Adjective Phrase Adverb Phrase

Noun Phrase : A phrase which performs the function of a noun is called a Noun Phrase.
Adjective Phrase : A phrase that does the work of an adjective is called an Adjective Phrase.
Adverb Phrase : A phrase which does the work of an adverb, is called an Adverb Phrase.
The following examples will illustrate the kinds of phrases :
(i) How to perform this is a difficult task. (Noun phrase)
(ii) The king wears a crown made of gold. (Adjective phrase)
(iii) She cried at the top of her voice. (Adverb phrase)
To acquire command on correct English, it is necessary to learn the use of phrasal verbs
which are the compounds arising from very common words in English. The meanings of these
verbal compounds cannot be easily understood from the mere knowledge of the normal
dictionary meanings of the constituent words. It is a very common practice these days to place
prepositions or adverbs after certain verbs so as to carry different meanings.
For example :
Give away = Give to someone/anyone.
Give up = Abandon.
Look after = Take care of.
Look for = Search for, seek.
Look out = Beware.
Communication Skills - I 1.5 Comprehension and Vocabulary

A student, with the knowledge of the normal meanings of the words viz., give, look, up, after,
out, for etc. would be at a loss when he comes across phrasal verbs like the above formed by these
words. Some of the important phrases are given below with their meaning and have been used in
an appropriate sentence each :
1. Above all - Before every other consideration.
Ex. Above all, you have to study hard.
2. After all - In spite of all that has happened.
Ex. After all, success is the main object of all our attempts.
3. Again and again - Repeatedly, very often.
Ex. It is no use stating the same thing again and again.
4. By and by – Before long.
Ex. By and by he came nearer to his aim.
5. First and Foremost - Before anything else.
Ex. Passing in the examination should be the first and foremost object before the
students.
6. In time - By the proper time.
Ex. We should go to work in time.
7. In the long run - In the end, eventually.
Ex. Hard struggles do bring good results in the long run.
8. Every now and then - Occasionally, at odd moments.
Ex. Every now and then they were complaining about the cost of living.
9. On the contrary -To the contrary, far from admiring.
Ex. On the contrary, I have a liking for the game of cricket.
10. Once again - Once more, something that is repeated.
Ex. Do not make the mistake once again.
11. Once and for all- Not to be repeated again.
Ex. They settled the dispute once and for all.
12. Over and above - In addition to.
Ex. Over and above the price, you have to pay 10 per cent sales tax.
13. To and fro - Backwards and forwards.
Ex. He will be paid to and fro charges for his journey.
14. At the top of - As loud as one can.
Ex. The students were shouting for the top of their voice in the class.
15. Because of - Due to, as a result of.
Ex. He could not appear for the examination because of his ill health.
16. By means of - With the help of.
Ex. The thief entered into the house by means of a rope.
17. By the side of - Beside.
Ex. He was sitting by the side of the President.
18. By virtue of - On the strength of, On the ground of.
Ex. He claimed seniority by virtue of his long service.
19. For the sake of - For the purpose of.
Ex. He worked hard for the sake of his family.
20. For want of - Because of necessity.
Ex. The building remained incomplete for want of funds.
Communication Skills - I 1.6 Comprehension and Vocabulary

21. In accordance with - With reference to, as per.

Ex. His action is not in accordance with the rules.
22. On behalf of - In place of, as a representative.
Ex. He will attend the meeting on behalf of the Principal.
23. In case of - For the reason of.
Ex. I shall use these funds only in case of emergency.
24. In consequence of - As a result of.
Ex. They left the village in consequence of the scarcity conditions.
25. In the course of - During.
Ex. He disclosed the secret in the course of conversation.
26. In defence of - In support of, for strengthening.
Ex. He resigned from service in defence of his honour.
27. In favour of - With inclination, with support.
Ex. He always speaks in favour of socialism.
28. In front of - Before, in the presence of.
Ex. The building was erected in front of the temple.
29. In keeping with- Befitting.
Ex. His attitude was not in keeping with the occasion.
30. In lieu of - Substitute for, equivalent.
Ex. I was paid a month's salary in lieu of notice.
31. In order to - So that.
Ex. I had to study hard in order to pass this examination.
32. In proportion to - In relation to one thing to another.
Ex. Every one has to pay income tax in proportion to one's own income.
33. In respect of - In point of, related to.
Ex. He was a senior in respect of age.
34. In spite of - Notwithstanding.
Ex. He made a mistake in spite of repeated warnings.
35. Instead of - In place of, as a substitute.
Ex. You should keep yourself engaged in work instead of idling away your time.
36. In view of - Considering.
Ex. We must make up our minds, in view of urgency.
37. In the event of - As a result.
Ex. He shall have another chance in the event of failure.
38. In the hope of - With a desired expectation.
Ex. He tried hard in the hope of success.
39. On account of - Due to, for the reason of.
Ex. The college remained closed on account of 'Diwali' vacation.
40. On purpose - Intentionally, deliberately.
Ex. It was not an accident; it was done on purpose.
41. On the brink of - Almost on the last point.
Ex. The country is on the brink of disaster.
42. On the eve of - On certain occasion.
Ex. The celebration was held on the eve of victory.
Communication Skills - I 1.7 Comprehension and Vocabulary

43. On the ground of - For the reason, due to.

Ex. He declined the invitation on the grounds of his previous engagements.
44. On the point of - At the particular moment.
Ex. He is on the point of breaking down.
45. With a view to - In order to.
Ex. Planning was introduced with a view to achieve progress.
46. With reference to - Having relevance to.
Ex. I have nothing to say with reference to your argument.
47. At the same time - Nevertheless.
Ex. We accept your plan, but at the same time we want to put our own conditions.
48. In order that - So that.
Ex. They made indications in order that they would be convinced.
49. Break open- Open something with force.
Ex. The cupboard was broken open as the key was lost.
50. Come true - Turn out to be true.
Ex. What you stated has come true.
51. Cut short - To bring to an end abruptly.
Ex. His life was cut short due to the accident.
52. Fall flat – To fail.
Ex. His speech fell flat on the audience.
53. Fall short - To become inadequate, to become less.
Ex. It fell short of our expectation.
54. Get rid of - Throw it off, escape from.
Ex. I cannot get rid of the troubles.
55. Hold good - Continue in force.
Ex. This rule always holds good.
56. Lay bare or open - Expose.
Ex. He managed to lay bare their secrets.
57. Let loose - To make free, unchain.
Ex. He lets the animal loose at night.
58. Look blank – Showing no emotion.
Ex. He looked blank when he was informed of his dismissal.
59. Make good - Compensate the loss.
Ex. One cannot make good the loss of time.
60. Make much - To treat something as very important.
Ex. I cannot make much of his success.
61. Set right - To put into working order.
Ex. I have to set right the machine.
62. Run short - Become too little; less.
Ex. This much food will run short for the invitees.
63. Set free - Set at liberty.
Ex. I cannot set him free unless he accepts my conditions.
64. Talk big - Boast, exaggerate.
Ex. He talks big of himself.
Communication Skills - I 1.8 Comprehension and Vocabulary

65. Be against - To oppose to

Ex. I am against doing anything that is illegal.
66. Be over - Be finished.
Ex. The storm is over; now we can go out.
67. Blow out - Extinguish.
Ex. Do not blow out the candle.
68. Blow up - Explode.
Ex. The enemy blew up the bridge.
69. Break down - Cease to function properly.
Ex. The machine broke down when we tried to repair it.
70. Break in - Enter by force.
Ex. The thieves broke in the house and took away the jewellery.
71. Break out - Begin, (war, fire, epidemic etc).
Ex. An Epidemic broke out in the city.
72. Break up – Separate, go one’s own way.
Ex. The family broke up as all the children got married.
73. Bring up - Educate or train children, Raise.
Ex. Parents work hard for bringing up their children properly.
74. Burn down - Destroy completely by fire.
Ex. The oil refinery was burnt down.
75. Call for - Demand, require.
Ex. The situation calls for a tactful action.
76. Call off - Cancel something that is not yet started.
Ex. The strike was called off.
77. Call out - To summon someone to leave his house to deal with a situation outside.
Ex. The army was called out to bring the peace.
78. Carry on - Continue
Ex. I must carry on my business.
79. Catch up - Overtake but not pass, match, reach.
Ex. We have to catch up to the progress made by the Westerners.
80. Clean out - Make the things clean and tidy, Declutter.
Ex. I must clean out the room frequently.
81. Clear away - Remove articles etc. to make space.
Ex. The table was cleared away.
82. Clear off - To go away from building, field, etc.
Ex. The landlord directed the dwellers to clear off their huts.
83. Close down - Shut permanently.
Ex. The factory had to be closed down on account of heavy losses.
84. Close in - Come nearer, approach from all sides.
Ex. As the mist was closing in we decided to stay indoor.
85. Close up - Come nearer, together.
Ex. If you close up a little, space will be available to others.
86. Come across - Find by chance.
Ex. When I was cleaning my room I came across the book I had lost.
Communication Skills - I 1.9 Comprehension and Vocabulary

In any language, idioms play an important role. Idioms can be broadly defined as the
expressions which are very peculiar to that language. Idioms in a way, decorate the language and
enrich one's vocabulary.
IMPORTANT IDIOMS
1. A bed of roses - an easy and comfortable situation.
It is wrong to think that the life of an engineer is a bed of roses.
2. At a stretch - without stopping to rest for a long period.
Do you work for six hours at a stretch or get an interval in between ?
3. At an arm's length - at a sufficient distance.
We must hold bad people always at an arm's length.
4. At home - feel comfortable.
He feels quite at home with his friends.
5. At length - in detail, at last.
(i) You must tell me the whole story at length.
(ii) The robber was arrested at length and sent to prison.
6. By and by - later on, before long.
You will come to know every thing by and by.
7. In a nutshell - in short, briefly.
He explained the proceedings of the meeting in a nutshell.
8. To nip in the bud - to check an evil in the very beginning.
You must try to nip your evil habits in the bud.
9. A hair breadth escape - a narrow escape.
I had a hair breadth escape from being overrun by a military truck.
10. A hard nut to crack - difficult to solve.
The population problem in India is a hard nut to crack.
11. Bag and baggage - with all personal possessions or belongings.
He left for his native place with his bag and baggage.
12. In black and white - in writing.
I do not believe in your verbal order. Please give it in black and white.
13. By dint of - by force of.
He gained the first prize by dint of steady application.
14. In full swing - working at the highest speed, with enthusiasm.
Preparations are in full swing for the Diwali Festival.
15. Herculean task - a great task.
It is a Herculean task to conquer poverty in India.
16. Irony of fate - something done by evil fate/something that wasn’t meant to happened
but did.
It is an irony of fate that he died.
17. The ins and outs - full details.
We want such a referee who knows the ins and outs of the game.
18. A red letter day - an important day.
Fifteenth August is a red letter day in the History of India.
19. Ups and downs - rise and fall, fluctuations in the life.
A person who has experienced ups and downs in his life can guide others well.
20. In the nick of time - (just in time)
He reached the station in the nick of time; the train was about to steam off.
Communication Skills - I 1.10 Comprehension and Vocabulary

EXERCISE
Use the following phrases in your own sentences to bring out their correct meanings.
1. Come along – Come with me
2. Come away – Leave (with me)
3. Come in – Enter
4. Come off – Success of a plan or scheme.
Take place, happen as arranged.
5. Come out – Exposed, Revealed, Be published.
6. Come up – Rise to the surface.
7. Crop up – Appear, arise unexpectedly.
8. Cut down – Reduce in size or amount.
9. Cut off – Disconnect, discontinue supply.
10. Cut out – Cut from a piece of cloth, paper etc.
11. Do away with – Abolish
12. Drop in – Pay a short unannounced visit.
13. Drop out – Withdraw or retire from a scheme or a plan.
14. Fade away – Disappear, become gradually fainter.
15. Fall back – Withdraw, retreat.
16. Fall behind – Fail to keep up an agreed rate of payment or progress.
17. Fall in – Get into line.
18. Be fed up with – Be completely bored.
19. Fill in/Fill up – To complete.
20. Find out – To get some information about.
21. Fix up – Arrange.
22. Get away – To have a holiday, vacation.
23. Get back – Recover the possession of
24. Get over – Recover from illness, distress etc.
25. Get through – Finish successfully.
26. Give up – Abandon an attempt.
27. Go ahead – Proceed, continue, lead the way.
28. Go in for – Be specially interested in, practise, enter for a competition.
29. Go through – Examine carefully.
30. Grow up – Become an adult.
31. Handover – Surrender authority or responsibility to another.
32. Hold on – Wait.
33. Keep up – Maintain
34. Lay out – Plan gardens, building sites etc.
35. Leave out – Omit.
36. Let in – Allow to enter, admit.
37. Look after – Take care of.
38. Look ahead – Consider the future for making provision.
39. Look into – Investigate.
40. Make out – Discover the meaning of, understand, see, hear etc. clearly.
Communication Skills - I 1.11 Comprehension and Vocabulary

41. Make up for – Compensate for.

42. Pick up – Raise or lift a person or thing.
43. Point out – Indicate or show.
44. Pull down – Demolish.
45. Put aside – Save for future use.
46. Put down – Bring or lower down a person or a thing usually from the
ground, from a table or chair/to insult a person.
47. Ring up – Telephone.
48. Run after – Pursue.
49. Run away with
(the idea) – Accept an idea too hastily.
50. Run over – Drive over accidently, Overflow.
51. See (somebody) off – Accompany an intending traveller to his plane/boat/ train
etc.
52. See through – Discover a hidden attempt to deceive.
53. Sell out – Sell all that you have.
54. Set out – Start a journey.
55. Settle down – Become accustomed to, and contended in a new place,
job etc.
56. Show off – Display.
57. Shut down – Close down.
58. Stand by (someone) – Continue to support.
59. Stand for – Represent.
60. Take back – Withdraw.
61. Take down – Write.
62. Take off – Leave the ground (aeroplane).
63. Take over – Assume responsibility.
64. Take up – Begin a hobby, sport or kind of study.
65. Think over – Consider.
66. Throw away – Discard.
67. Try out – Test.
68. Turn down – Refuse, Reject an offer, application, etc.
69. Watch out – Look out.
70. Wear away – Gradually reduce, make smooth or flat.
71. Wearout – Use till no longer serviceable.
72. Wind up – Bring to come to an end.
73. Wipe out – Destroy completely.
74. Work out – Find by calculation or study.
Communication Skills - I 1.12 Comprehension and Vocabulary

CLAUSES
A clause can be defined as a 'group of words which forms a part of a sentence and contains a
subject and a predicate'. Sentences are made up of one or more clauses.
Clause Elements
There are four main elements of a clause structure. They are –
Subject (S)
Verb (V)
Object (O)
Complement (C)
For example :
He fell ill
Subject + Verb + Complement
(S) (V) (C)
Kinds of Clauses :
1. Noun Clauses
We know where we can find him (Object of the verb know)
2. Adverb Clauses
We went where we could find him (Adverb clause that modifies the
verb went)
3. Adjective Clauses
We went to the place where we could find him. (Adjective clause that
qualifies the noun place)
Noun Clause
A noun clause is a group of words which contains a subject and a predicate of its own and it
does the work of a noun.
For example : We expect that we shall get first class. - noun clause.
This clause in the bold letter is the object of the verb ' expect '. This is a noun clause as it does
the work of a noun .
For example : That you should say this is very strange.
Here, the clause, 'that you should say' is the subject of the verb 'is'.
Functions of Clauses :
Two clauses in the same sentence may be related either by co-ordination or sub-ordination.
For example :
1. Ram arrived at the office by nine but no one else was there. (Co-ordination clause)
2. Ram arrived at the office by nine before any one else was there. (Sub-ordination clause).
In co-ordination, the two clauses are equal partners in the same structure, whereas in the
subordination it is not the case. There is the sense of one depending on another. They are not
equal in status.
Co-ordination : Ram arrived at the office by nine but no one else was there.
Subordination : Ram arrived at the office by ten before anyone else was there.
Communication Skills - I 1.13 Comprehension and Vocabulary

EXERCISE
Rewrite the following sentences after using noun clauses :
1. We cannot understand ..........
2. We fear ..........
3. I expect ..........
4. Please show me ..........
5. They told us ........, .........
6. Will you tell me ..........?
7. Tell him ..........
8. They forget ..........
9. It is definite ..........
10. I feel certain ..........
Adverb Clause
An adverb clause is a group of words which contains a subject and a predicate of its own
and does the work of an Adverb.
For example :
He may sit where he likes - Adverb clause.
In this sentence 'he' is the subject and (clause where he likes,) is predicate and still it is a
part of the sentence. Since the clause does the work of an adverb, it is called as an adverb clause.
EXERCISE
Rewrite the following sentences after using suitable adverb clauses :
1. Do not go ..........
2. He was so hurried ..........
3. I will miss the bus ..........
4. They cannot see ..........
5. The earth is larger than ..........
6. He is not so intelligent ..........
7. He will not go out ..........
8. I sing exactly ..........
9. The student went out to play ..........
10. They are so busy ..........
Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a group of words which contains a subject and a predicate of its own,
and does the work of an adjective.
The car which has white colour is mine.
Communication Skills - I 1.14 Comprehension and Vocabulary

In the above sentence, the words 'which has white colour' describes the car and does the
work of an adjective. It contains a subject and a predicate of its own. Hence it is called an
adjective clause.
EXERCISE
Rewrite the following sentences after using suitable adjective clauses.
1. We know the place ..........
2. Where is the tool ..........?
3. Students .......... will not be promoted.
4. He went away by the bus ..........
5. The student .......... won the reward.
6. We know the man ..........
7. We found the book ..........
8. She has lost the book ..........
9. Any student .......... will be punished.
10. He met a person ..........
Clause Functions
In terms of function, it is necessary to study what role does a clause play in a sentence.
Clauses can be first classified as subordinate and co-ordinate.
1. Nominal Clause
Nominal clauses function mostly like noun phrases. Hence, as in the case of noun
phrases, the nominal clauses also function as subject, object, complement or pre-positioned
complement.
For example : That they gave a fake name shows that they were doing something dishonest.
In the above sentence, the two clauses introduced by the word 'that ' function as a subject
and as an object respectively.
2. Relative Clause
For example : The person who lives opposite our house is honest.
Here modifying clause introduced by the pronoun who or that are usually the modifiers of
noun phrases. In the above sentence, the relative clause, who live opposite our house, modifies
the noun phrase The person.
3. Comment Clause
Such clauses comment on the truth of the sentence, the manner of saying it, or the attitude of
the speaker.
Example : His plan could, I believe, be an important contribution towards economic
progress.
Communication Skills - I 1.15 Comprehension and Vocabulary

Here the comment clause like "I believe" are only loosely related to the rest of the main
clause. They belong to and function as sentence Adverbials. They are usually marked off from the
other clause or clauses.
For example : The fillers like, 'I mean', 'I am afraid', 'you see', 'you know', 'I think' etc. are
very common in informal speech.
4. Comparative clause
Ram speaks English better than we do.
The Comparative form of adjectives and adverbs are used when it is necessary to compare
one thing with another with a view to point out differences. For this purpose, a sub-clause
beginning with 'than' can be introduced after the comparative word.
5. Adverbial Clause
They have a large number of different meanings such as time, cause, contrast, reason etc.

IDENTIFYING PARTS OF SPEECH

INTRODUCTION
Parts of speech are the main constituents of traditional grammar. It is essential for the
students to learn thoroughly to improve their efficiency and communication skills.
The parts of speech explain the ways words can be used in various contexts. Every word in
the English language functions as at least one part of speech; many words can serve, at different
times, as two or more parts of speech, depending on the context.
adjective : A word or combination of words that modifies a noun (blue-green, central, half-
baked, temporary).
adverb : A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb (slowly, obstinately,
much).
article : Any of three words used to signal the presence of a noun. ‘A’ and ‘an’ are known as
indefinite articles; the is the definite article.
conjunction : A word that connects other words, phrases, or sentences (and, but, or, because).
interjection : A word, phrase, or sound used as an exclamation and capable of standing by
itself (oh, Lord, my goodness).
noun : A word or phrase that names a person, place, thing, quality, or act (Fred, New York,
table, beauty, execution). A noun may be used as the subject of a verb, the object of a verb, an
identifying noun, the object of a preposition, or an appositive (an explanatory phrase coupled with a
subject or object).
preposition : A word or phrase that shows the relationship of a noun to another noun
(at, by, in, to, from, with).
pronoun : A word that substitutes for a noun and refers to a person, place, thing, idea, or act
that was mentioned previously or that can be inferred from the context of the sentence (he, she, it,
that).
Communication Skills - I 1.16 Comprehension and Vocabulary

verb : A word or phrase that expresses action, existence, or occurrence (throw, be, happen).
Verbs can be transitive, requiring an object (her in I met her), or intransitive, requiring only a
subject (The sun rises). Some verbs, like feel, are both transitive (Feel the fabric) and intransitive
(I feel cold, in which cold is an adjective and not an object).
All the above given parts of speech are discussed in detail with examples
and exercises in Chapter 2.

,,,
 Part – II

APPLICATION OF GRAMMAR
(1) Verbs
(2) Tenses
(3) Do as Directed
(A) Active/Passive
(B) Direct/Indirect
(C) Affirmative/Negative
(D) Assertive/Interrogative
(E) Question Tag
(F) Remove Too
(G) Use of Articles
(H) Prepositions
(I) Conjunctions
(J) Interjections
(K) Punctuation
(4) Correct the Errors from the Sentences
[Marks 18]

Language in its widest sense means the sum total of such signs of our thoughts and feelings
as are capable of external perception and could be produced and repeated at will. It can also be
stated as ‘the expression of thoughts’ by means of speech sounds. It is an organisation of sounds
of vocal symbols - the sound produced from the mouth to convey some meaningful message. It
also means that speech is primary to writing.
In any language, the smallest unit of full expression is a sentence. It consists of one or more
utterances arranged according to the specific system of that particular language. The specific
system of any language concerned with the written and spoken form of words and sentences is
broadly termed as 'grammar' of that language.
For any student studying language, it is necessary that he should be conversant with the
basic grammar of that language. When we think of English language, students must be aware
about the basic concepts of grammar and the usages of different parts of speeches. The study of
any language begins with the letters of alphabet and combination of these alphabets to form
words, phrases, clauses and sentences. Sentences are the basic elements from which we get
passages of prose, poetry and other forms.
A written form is essentially a representation of the spoken form. However, we may not
always find exact reflection of spoken form in the written representation. For example, the letters
'ought' have different spoken forms in the words like though, rough, bought, bough, dough, etc.
Thus, it is necessary to understand that there is a difference in the writing form and the spoken
form. Besides, even the written form sometimes differs in the same language. In British system,
the word is spelled as 'colour', while in the American system of writing English, it is 'color'.
Hence, it can be said that writing often fails to represent the sounds fully and accurately.
(2.1)
Communication Skills - I 2.2 Application of Grammar

The traditional grammar works with two main units of grammatical description viz. the
word and the sentence. Both these units are given a practical recognition in the writing system. In
this system, sentence is the highest unit while morpheme is the lowest one. The different units of
writing can be arranged in the scale of rank as (i) sentence, (ii) clause, (iii) phrase, (iv) word,
(v) morpheme. The higher rank is composed of the lower rank. Certain important features of
these units can briefly be stated as below :
Sentence
A sentence is by definition and conveniently taken as the largest unit of the grammatical
analysis. It is the upper limit of structural statement at the grammatical level.
Features of a sentence are as follows :
1. Sentence is preceded and followed by infinite pause or silence;
2. It has the phonetic features associated in each language with pre-pausal position;
3. It is usually marked in writing by final punctuation mark such as full stop (.), question
mark (?), exclamation mark (!) or semi colon (;).
4. It has an intonation tune in speech;
5. There is always a pause at the sentence boundary;
6. In speech, it may be uttered with a pre-pausal intonation tune;
7. Sentence expresses either a complete predication, question or command and each has a
specific logical form;
8. The predicative sentence is often equated with the position of logic;
9. Grammar operates between the upper limit of the sentence and the lower limit of the
morpheme;
10. Between the ranks viz. sentence and a morpheme we have such ranks as clause, phrase
and word.
Clause
A group of words with its own subject and predicate, included in a large sentence is called
as a clause. The phrase and the clause are secondary grammatical units.
Phrase
A phrase can be defined as 'any group of words which is grammatically equivalent to a
single word and does not have its own subject and predicate.
The Word
The term 'word' can be defined as 'speech utterance', or 'verbal expression'. Word is the
smallest unit of any written discourse. The word is a very important fundamental unit.
Certain features of word are as follows :
1. A word possesses a single meaning;
2. It conveys a single idea;
3. It is minimum free form of a language;
4. The word as a stretch of speech admits minimal pause on either side;
5. Words are constituted out of morphemes;
6. How a word can be divided into the smaller grammatical segments is a matter of degree.
For example, the words like 'girl-'s 'call'-s, call-ing, tall-er, tall-est etc. can be segmented
into their constituent parts which may not be readily acceptable.
7. Words are determinate with respect to segmentation;
8. There are words which cannot be segmented. For example: men, teeth, nice, better, best,
worse etc.
9. Morphology deals with the internal structure of words and syntax with the rules
governing their combination in a sentence.
10. The words are represented differently. For example, the phonological form /kæt/ has the
orthographical form <cat>
Communication Skills - I 2.3 Application of Grammar

The corresponding orthographic word 'cut' represents three grammatical forms :

(a) Present tense - cut (b) Past participle – cut (c) Past tense - cut
11. The word can be taken as the union of a particular meaning with a particular complex of
sounds of a particular grammatical employment.
Morpheme
The morpheme is the minimum grammatical unit. For example there are four constituents
'un-faith-ful-ness' in the word unfaithfulness. These constituents are called morphemes.
In each language, there are certain permissible ways of organising morphemes. The
constituents of a sentence are nothing but the morphemes or a group of morphemes which, when
structured into successive components, form utterances (sentence).
For example : “ The poor man ran away ”.
If we wish to split up this sentence into two immediate constituents, that will become –
The poor man and ran away . If we try to split it into still further constituents, it will become

The poor and man , and ran and away . So, a sentence is seen not as a sequence or ‘string
’ of elements like The + Poor + man + ran + away. It is made up of ‘layers’ of constituents, each
cutting ‘points’ or ‘note’ .
Example :
X

Y Y

The Poor Man Ran Away

(Immediate Constituents
The Poor Man Ran Away

The poor Man Ran Away

The Poor Man Ran Away

OR
Sentence

Subject Predicate

Article Adjective Noun Verb Particle

The Poor Man Ran Away

The Poor Man Ran Away

Article Adjective Noun Verb Particle

Subject Predicate

Sentence
Communication Skills - I 2.4 Application of Grammar

The above sentence is made up of five morphemes, which may be defined as the minimum
significant syntactic units :
The Poor Man Ran Away
1 2 3 4 5
These elements are not further analysable at the syntactic level. These constituents are
organised in a particular order in the sentence. A jumble of morphemes thrown together at
random might produce non-sentence like :
* Away Man Poor Ran The
Hence, each human language has certain permissible ways of organising morphemes to make
them a sentence. The sequential ordering of the ultimate constituents shown above is called the
sentence. Thus, morphemes, words, phrases and clauses are all constituents of a sentence though
all of them are not ultimate constituents.
Words are divided into different classes called 'Parts of Speech' according to their use. In
English language we generally speak of eight parts of speech. They are noun, pronoun, adjective,
adverb, verb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. In the traditional grammar, the major
parts of speech were associated with certain typical functions in a simple sentence.
NOUN
A noun is a word used as the name of a person, place, or thing. The word thing includes all
that which we can see, hear, taste, touch or smell i.e. something which we can think of. For
example :
The sun shines brightly.
His courage rewarded him.
The flower smells sweet.
In the above sentences, the words in bold type are nouns.
Nouns can be further classified according to their kinds. They are as follows :
NOUN

1. Common noun 2. Proper noun 3. Collective noun 4. Abstract noun 5. Material noun
Common Noun
A Common noun is a name given in common to every person or thing or a unit of the same
class or kind. Common means it is shared by all. For example, A boy is playing a game.
In this sentence, the word 'boy' is a common noun because it applies to any boy.
Proper Noun
A Proper noun is a name of some particular person or place. Here it means one's own name.
Proper nouns are written with their first letters in capital. For example,
Sita is playing a game.
In the above sentence, the word Sita is a proper noun and the first alphabet of the words are
written in a capital letter.
Collective Noun
A Collective noun is the name of a number (or collection) of persons or things taken together
and spoken of as one whole. For example,
The army is advancing ahead.
They dispersed the crowd.
Communication Skills - I 2.5 Application of Grammar

In the above sentences, the words in bold letters i.e. army and crowd, represent collection of
persons as one whole. Similarly, the words like fleet, class, jury, police, battalion are taken
together and represent the collection as one whole.
Abstract Noun
An Abstract noun is usually the name of quality, action or state considered apart from the
object to which it belongs. Take for example the sentences like,
We have to test the hardness of the metal. They have showed bravery.
In these sentences, the words 'hardness' and 'bravery' are abstract nouns which denote the
mental quality or the characteristics of persons.
Other examples of abstract noun are, goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, brightness,
honesty, wisdom, laughter, theft, movement, judgement, hatred, childhood. boyhood, youth,
slavery, sleep, sickness, death, poverty, art, music, grammar, chemistry etc. All these words
come under the category of Abstract noun.
Material Noun :
A Material noun is the name of material. For example,
Sugar production is considerably increased.
Quality wood is required for the furniture.
In the above sentences; the words 'sugar' and 'wood' are material nouns.
EXERCISE
Use the following nouns in a sentence of your own classifying them into Proper, Collective,
Abstract or Material nouns.
Cattle, soldiers, sailors, cruel, foolish, oil, lazy, rice, truth, class, strength, cleanliness, fleet, the
Ganges, committee, happiness, team, wisdom, room, childhood.
Gender
A noun that shows a female animal is said to be Feminine Gender and the one that denotes
male is said to be Masculine Gender.
A noun that shows either male or female is said to be of Common Gender.
A noun that shows a thing that is neither male nor female is said to be Neuter Gender.
These are three ways to change Masculine Nouns into Feminine Nouns :
1. By using altogether different word
Examples : Masculine Feminine
Boy Girl
Bull Cow
Cock Hen
Father Mother
Man Woman
2. By adding syllables like — 'ess' —'ine' —'trix' — 'a' etc. at the end
Examples : Masculine Feminine
Author Authoress
Lion Loiness
Poet Poetess
Actor Actress
(In certain cases last vowel of the word is dropped)
Tiger Tigress
Master Mistress
Hero Heroine
Sultan Sultana
Communication Skills - I 2.6 Application of Grammar

3. By placing a word before or after

Examples : Masculine Feminine
He goat She goat
Man servant Maid servant
Milkman Milkmaid
Peacock Peahen
The Noun - Number
A noun which shows one person or thing is said to be in the singular number and the noun
which shows more than one person or thing is said to be in the plural form.
Formation of Plurals
1. Plurals of nouns are generally formed by adding suffix 's' to the singular noun.
Examples : Singular Plural
Boy Boys
Pen Pens
Book Books
Room Rooms
2. In some cases, plurals are formed by adding 'es' at the end of the word where the noun
ends in '-s'—'sh'—'ch' or 'x'
Examples : Singular Plural
Class Classes
Branch Branches
Box Boxes
Bush Bushes
Tax Taxes
3. In most of the cases of nouns ending in '– o', plurals are obtained by adding 'es' to the
singular
Examples : Singular Plural
Potato Potatoes
Mango Mangoes
Cargo Cargoes
Echo Echoes
4. In some cases, however, a noun ending with '– o' takes only 'S'
Examples : Singular Plural
Dynamo Dynamos
Photo Photos
Ratio Ratios
5. Nouns that end in 'y' preceded by a consonant, form their plurals by changing '– y' into
'– i' and adding 'es' in the end.
Examples : Singular Plural
Baby Babies
Army Armies
Lady Ladies
City Cities
Communication Skills - I 2.7 Application of Grammar

6. Nouns that end in — 'f' or — fe' form their plurals by changing — 'f, or —'fe' into 'v' and
'es' in the end.
Examples : Singular Plural
Thief Thieves
Life Lives
Knife Knives
Leaf Leaves
Self Selves
Certain cases are exception to this note.
Examples : Singular Plural
Chief Chiefs
Roof Roofs
Grief Griefs
Proof Proofs
7. Certain nouns form their Plural by changing the inside vowel of the singular noun.
Examples : Singular Plural
Man Men
Woman Women
Foot Feet
Tooth Teeth
8. In certain cases, nouns have the same form as their plural form.
Examples : Singular Plural
Sheep Sheep
Hundred Hundred
Dozen Dozen
Fish Fish
9. Some nouns are used only in the plural form.
Examples : Spectacles, tongs, scissors, trousers, thanks, assets etc.
10. Certain plural nouns are commonly used as singular.
Examples : Mathematics, news, mechanics, politics, innings.
11. Some nouns originally singular, are generally used as plural.
Examples : Riches, Alms.
12. Certain collective nouns, singular in form are always considered as plurals.
Examples : Poultry, cattle, people etc.
(When people means nation, it is both singular and plural).
They are hardworking and brave people.
There are many different people in the country.
13. Generally, plural of a compound noun is formed by adding 's' to the root word.
Examples : Singular Plural
Commander-in-chief Commanders-in chief
Son-in-law Sons-in-law
Step-son Step-sons
Maid-servant Maid-servants
Passer-by Passers-by
Communication Skills - I 2.8 Application of Grammar

14. Nouns which are taken in English language from other foreign languages keep their
original plural form.
Examples : Singular Plural
Index Indices
Radius Radii
Axis Axis
Basis Basis
Analysis Analysis
Hypothesis Hypothesis
Phenomenon Phonomena
Criterion Criteria
Madame Madames
15. Some nouns have two forms for their plural, with different meaning.
Examples : Singular Plural
Cloth Clothes (garments)
Cloths (pieces of cloth)
Index Indexes (tables of contents of books)
Indices (signs used in Algebra)
16. Certain nouns have two meanings in the singular form but only one in the plural.
Examples : Singular Plural
1. Radiance
Light Lights (lamps)
2. A lamp
1. Habit
Practice Practices (habits)
2. Exercise of a profession
17. Certain nouns have one meaning in the singular form and two in the plural form.
Example : Singular Plural
1. habits
Custom (habit) Customs :
2. duties levied on imports
1. results
Effect (result) Effects :
2. property

1. fourth parts
Quarter (fourth part) Quarters :
2. lodgings

1. closed land attached to home

Ground 1. Dearth Grounds :
2. Reasons 2. reasons.
18. Certain nouns have different meanings in the singular and in the plural.
Examples : Singular Plural
Advice (counsel) Advice (information)
Good (benefit, well being) Goods (merchandise)
Respect (regard) Respects (compliments)
Force (strength) Forces (troops)
Communication Skills - I 2.9 Application of Grammar

Nouns
1. Use the following nouns in sentences of your own.
Exercise
Amateur Graft Mechanism Self-sufficiency
ambition habitate Mentor Smog
Ancestors husk Metaphor Stability
Astronaut Illustrations Nickel Stage
Championships Imagination Novice Suspicion
Democratization Impropriety Peasants Suspicion
Distaste Impudence Persuasion Synthesis
Electrification Initiative Radiator traverses
Environment Loveliness Rescue Violence
forest Maturity Retrieval Vocation
Fraction Mechanisation Salvation Windbag
Pronoun
A word which is used instead of a noun is called a pronoun. A pronoun can function as a
whole noun phrase, as a subject or an object of a clause. Many of them (pronouns) act as a
substitute or replacement for a noun phrase in the context. Many words can function both as
determiners and as pronouns.
For example : Which instrument is yours ? (Here the word 'which' is a determiner)
Which is yours ? (Here the word 'which' is a pronoun)
This book is mine. (Here the word 'this' is a determiner)
This is my book. (Here the word 'this' is a pronoun)
Forms of Pronouns
1. Demonstrative pronouns (this, that, those, these)
2. Interrogative pronouns (who, which, what, where etc.)
3. Negative pronouns (none, nobody, no one, nothing etc.)
4. Personal and reflexive pronouns (I, my, mine, myself)
5. Reciprocal pronouns (each other, one another etc.)
6. Quantifiers (some, any, someone, everything, anybody, each, all, both, either, much,
many, more, most, enough, several, little, few, less, least etc.)
7. Relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that etc.)
Personal and Reflexive Pronouns
Personal pronouns and reflexive pronouns are related.
Below the table gives all the forms of personal and reflexive pronouns.
Personal pronouns Possessive Reflexive
pronoun
Subjective Objective Acting as Acting as
determiner pronouns
1st Person Singular I me my mine myself
Plural we us our ours ourselves
2nd Person Singular and Plural you your yours yourself
3rd Person Singular Masculine he him his himself
Singular feminine she her her hers herself
Singular non-personal it its itself
Plural they them their theirs themselves
Personal pronouns are classified according to person, number, gender and case.
Important uses of a Pronoun
1. A Pronoun can be used for things without life.
For example : Here is your drawing board take it away.
Communication Skills - I 2.10 Application of Grammar

2. A Pronoun can be used for animals, unless we clearly wish to speak of them as male or
female.
For example : They love their animal and cannot do without it.
3. A Pronoun can be used for a young child.
For example : When we observed the child it was sleeping.
4. A Pronoun can be used to refer to some statement going before.
For example : They deserved their reward, as they knew it.
5. A Pronoun can be used as a provisional and temporary subject before the verb to be
when the real subject follows.
For example : It is easy to find a mistake (to find a mistake is easy).
It is doubtful whether they will come.
6. A Pronoun can be used to give emphasis to the noun or pronoun following.
For example : It was she who began the quarrel.
It was I who first objected.
7. A Pronoun can be used as an indefinite nominative of an impersonal verb.
For example : It rains, It thunders.
Here the pronoun 'it' does not represent any noun whatsoever, though this can be
supplied from the verb. Here it means rains.
8. A Pronoun can be used in speaking of weather or time.
For example : It is five o'clock. It is hot. It is fine.
Since a personal pronoun is used instead of a noun, it must be in the same number, gender
and person as the noun it represents.
EXERCISE
Rewrite the following sentences using correct form of pronouns.
1. It isn't fair for ............. to dictate to me. (they, them)
2. Nobody but ............. was present. (He, him)
3. She is known to my father and ............. (I, me)
4. We are not so rich as ............. (they, them)
5. She is as old as ............. (I, me)
6. Let ............. answer this. (He, him)
7. He and ............. were known friends. (I, me)
8. He is as strong as ............. (I, me)
9. We scored as many marks as ............. (they, them)
10. Hari and ............. were absent (I, me)

1. VERBS
Verb is the most important word in a sentence. It is a word which tells something about a
person or thing i.e. the subject in the sentence. It indicates :
1. What a person or thing does;
2. What is done to a person or thing;
3. What a person or thing is.
Verb

Transitive Verb Intransitive Verb

Communication Skills - I 2.11 Application of Grammar

Transitive verb
When the action denoted by the verb passes from subject to some object, the said verb is
called a transitive verb.
For Example : 1. He played cricket. 2. He wrote a letter.
In the above sentences, the action denoted by the verbs passes over from the doer (subject) to
some object. Therefore, these verbs are called as transitive verbs.
Intransitive Verb
When the action denoted by a verb stops with the doer or subject and does not pass over to
an object, the said verb is called as an ' Intransitive Verb. '
For example : 1. She laughs loudly. 2. He runs.
1. Most transitive verbs take a single object. But there are some verbs like ask, offer, give etc.
which take two objects after them.
For example : (i) The teacher gave him (Indirect) a reward (direct).
(ii) He disclosed to me (Indirect) a secret (direct).
2. Most of the verbs are used both as Transitive and Intransitive. It can therefore, be, said
that a verb is used Transitively and Intransitively.
For example : (i) The driver stopped the car. (used 'Transitively')
(ii) The car stopped at once. (used 'Intransitively')
3. Certain verbs like, come, go, sleep etc. denote actions which cannot be done to anything.
Such verbs are Intransitive.
4. In case the subject and the object both refer to the same person, the verb is said to be used
reflexively.
For example : The person killed himself.
Please keep quiet.
5. Certain verbs can be used reflexively and also as ordinary transitive verbs.
For example : (i) Do not forget my name (Reflexive)
(ii) I forgot his name. (Transitive)
(iii) I enjoy myself alone. (Reflexive)
(iv) She enjoys good health. (Transitive)
EXERCISE
Use the following verbs as transitive and intransitive.
1. Walk 2. Run 3. Fly

2. TENSES
Verb occupies the most significant place among all parts of speech, as it is the backbone of
any sentence which should make sense and serve the basic purpose of correct expression of
thought or action. It is, therefore, quite essential for the students to understand thoroughly the
method of using a verb in a sentence.
In English grammar, verb denotes an action or event. It also indicates the time of the action
and the state of the action. On the basis of these two aspects, the verb takes its exact form to
indicate the time and the degree of completeness attributed to the action. Thus, according to these
factors, the verb may be in
1. Present time 2. Past time 3. Future time.
Communication Skills - I 2.12 Application of Grammar

According to the time factor, there are three main tenses.

TENSES

Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense

1. A verb used for denoting an action in the present time is said to be in the Present Tense.
2. A verb used for denoting an event or an action taken place in the past time is said to be in
the Past Tense.
3. A verb used for denoting an event or an action that will take place in the time to come is
said to be in the Future Tense.
For example : (i) He writes a letter. – Present Tense
(ii) He wrote a letter. – Past Tense
(iii) He will write a letter. – Future Tense
In the above sentences, although the action is the same i.e. of writing a letter, it refers to
different times. In the first sentence it refers to the present time. The verb of this sentence is,
therefore, in the present tense. The second sentence states that the action of writing a letter took
place sometime in the past. As such, the verb in this sentence is in the past tense. However, the
verb in the third sentence refers neither to the present nor to the past but to the action that is yet
to take place or will take place sometime after the present time i.e. in future. As such, the verb in
the third sentence is in the future tense.
Each of these three tenses has four forms based on the state of action or condition of action.
The state or condition of action is that aspect of a verb which explains the degree of completeness
of an action i.e. whether the action is :
1. Indefinite (simple without indicating completeness or incompleteness of the action).
2. Imperfect (incomplete or continuous going on).
3. Perfect (completed, finished or perfect at the time of speaking).
4. Perfect continuous. (Part of the action completed at the time of speaking and would
continue in future also).
Thus, according to the state of action, each tense is further divided into four forms viz.

Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous

(Indefinite) (Imperfect)
1. When an action is simply mentioned without anything being said about the
completeness or incompleteness of it, the form of the verb is called Indefinite.
For Example :
1. He writes a letter ––– Present Indefinite.
2. He wrote a letter ––– Past Indefinite
3. He will write a letter – – – Future Indefinite.
2. When an action is spoken of as going on at a point of time either in the present or in the
past or in the future, the form of the verb is said to be in the continuous or Imperfect. This
means that the verb shows that the action mentioned is incomplete, and is still going on
at the time of speaking and hence imperfect.
Communication Skills - I 2.13 Application of Grammar

Consider the following examples :

1. He is playing a game ––– Present Continuous or Imperfect.
2. He was playing a game ––– Past Continuous or Imperfect.
3. He will be playing a game ––– Future Continuous or Imperfect
When an action is completed just at the time of speaking or perfect either in the present or in
the past or in the future, the form of the verb is called perfect.
4. When an action is a combination of present, past and future it is said to be a
Perfect continuous one. This can be better explained through an example :
I have been writing a letter
In this sentence, the action of writing letter has already started at a point of time before the
moment of speaking; part of it is completed at the time of speaking and shall be further continued
in the time to come i.e. in future. This is the present perfect continuous. It is applicable in the
same sequence for all tenses viz. past and future perfect continuous tenses.
For Example :
(a) I have written a letter ___ Present Perfect.
(b) I had written a letter ___ Past Perfect.
(c) I shall have written a letter ___ Future Perfect.
In the above sentences, the verb shows that the action of writing a letter is finished just at the
time of speaking (Completed) either in the present or in the past or in the future.
For example,
I had been writing a letter ___ Past Perfect Continuous.
I shall have been writing a letter ___ Future Perfect Continuous.
For example :
1. I have been writing a book ___ Present Perfect Continuous.
2. I had been writing a book ___ Past Perfect Continuous.
3. I shall have been writing a book ___ Future Perfect Continuous.
1. The Present Simple or Indefinite Tense :
In the present simple or Indefinite tense, the verb shows that the action mentioned in the
sentence indicates habit. Without being said anything about its completeness or otherwise.
I play a game
We play a game
You play a game
He plays a game
She plays a game
It plays a game
They play a game
Here you can notice that in case of the sentence using third person singular number as a
subject, 's' or 'es' is added to the main verb. From the above sentences, it can be noted that the
sentence in the present simple tense has a particular structure as given below :
Subject + Main Verb (Transitive) + Object
If we remember the structure of the sentence in this tense, we can form any number of
sentences of this type.
Usages : The Simple Present or which is also known as Present Indefinite tense is used :
(a) To express what is actually taking place at the present moment.
For example : Rama plays with his toys.
See, how it falls.
Communication Skills - I 2.14 Application of Grammar

(b) To express universal truths :

For example : The earth is round.
Honesty is the best policy.
(c) To express a habitual action.
For example : Hari drinks tea daily.
We exercise in the evening.
(d) To express futurity when it is indicated by context ; (instead of using future tense).
For example : I plan to go to Mumbai next week.
(e) To express vivid narrative as a substitute for the past tense. (This type is also called the
Historic present).
For example : Shivaji escapes from Agra and comes back to his capital in disguise.
2. The Present Continuous or Imperfect Tense
In the Present Continuous Tense, which is also called as the present imperfect tense, the verb
shows continuity of the action mentioned. That is to say that the action is going on or incomplete
or is in progress at the time of speaking.
I am writing a book
We are writing a book
You are writing a book
He is writing a book
She is writing a book
It is writing a book
They are writing a book
From the above examples, it can be seen that the structure of sentences in the Present
Continuous Tense is as given below :
Subject + is/am/are + Main Verb (in the present participle form i.e. main verb + ing) +
object.
Usages : The present continuous tense is used to express :
(a) An action going on at the time of speaking.
For example : He is going home.
(b) An action which is to take place in the near future.
For example : I am leaving for Mumbai tomorrow.
3. Present Perfect Tense :
The present perfect tense shows the action started sometime before in the past and just
finished at the time of speaking :
I have written a letter
We have written a letter
You have written a letter
He has written a letter
She has written a letter
It has written a letter
They have written a letter
In the present perfect tense, auxiliary verb 'to have' is used as a verb helping to the main verb.
From the examples given above, it will be seen that the structure of sentences in the present
perfect tense is as below :
Subject + have/has + Main verb (in the past participle form) + Object
Communication Skills - I 2.15 Application of Grammar

Usages :
The present perfect tense is used to express an action started in the past and has just been
completed. It is also used instead of the past tense to represent past action which it refers to
present.
For Example : We have lived here for ten years.
We lived here for ten years.
In the first sentence, the sentence denotes that we are likely to live here in the future, whereas
the second sentence, denotes that we are no longer living here.
4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense :
In the present perfect continuous tense, the verb shows that the action referred is started in
the past, partly completed at the time of speaking and still continues in the future. The present
perfect tense carries the sense of a single action completed at the time of speaking; whereas, in the
use of the present perfect continuous tense, there is a sense of continuity or that the action is
prolonged in the future.
I have been writing a letter
We have been writing a letter
You have been writing a letter
He has been writing a letter
She has been writing a letter
It has been writing a letter
They have been writing a letter
From the above examples, it will be seen that the structure of sentences in the present perfect
continuous tense can be represented in the following ways :
Subject + have/has + been + Main Verb (in the Present participle form i.e. verb + - ing) +
Object. (ing)
Past Tense :
(1) The Past Simple or Past Indefinite Tense : In the past simple tense the verb shows that
the event was completed in the past and thus it is separated from the present.
I wrote a letter
We wrote a letter
You wrote a letter
He wrote a letter
She wrote a letter
It wrote a letter
They wrote a letter
From the above sentences, it can be seen that the structure of a sentence in the past simple or
indefinite is given as follows.
Subject + Main verb in the past tense form + object.
Usages :
The past simple or indefinite tense is used to express :
(a) An action that took place and completed in the past.
(i) She went home. (ii) They saw a picture.
(b) Sometimes an action in the past continuous tense can also be expressed in simple past
tense.
He played (i.e. was playing) while I watched (i.e. was watching).
Communication Skills - I 2.16 Application of Grammar

In this case it means that the use of simple past tense is made instead of past continuous
tense.
(c) To express habitual action in the past.
He took tea daily.
(2) The Past Continuous Tense : The past continuous tense represents the action which was
going on at a point of time in the past.
I was writing a letter
We were writing a letter
You were writing a letter
He was writing a letter
She was writing a letter
It was writing a letter
They were writing a letter
From the above sentences, it can be seen that the structure of a sentence in the past
continuous tense is as given below :
Subject + was/were + Present participle form of the Main Verb
(i.e. verb + ing) + Object
Usages : The past continuous tense is used to denote an action that was in progress or going
on at a point of time in the past.
(3) Past Perfect Tense : The past perfect tense which is also known as the plu-perfect tense
denotes an action completed at a point of time in the past to which the context relates. The past
perfect tense is used only when we have to show priority of one past event over another past
event. Where no such priority of one event over another event is implied, the past indefinite tense
should be used.
The structure of sentences in the Past Perfect Tense is as follows :
Subject + had + Main Verb (in the past participle form) + Object
Subject Had Main Verb in past Object + Clause for indicating priority
participle form
I had drunk the milk before I went to bed
We had drunk the milk before we went to bed
You had made a noise even before the dog entered the room.
Rama had played cricket before he joined school.
She had sung a song before the guest arrived
They had read a book before it was banned.
Usages : The past perfect tense is used to denote an action completed at some point of time in
the past before another action commenced.
For example : I had written a letter, before he came back.
In the above example, two actions in the past i.e.
(i) Writing a letter and
(ii) Coming of a person, are relatively mentioned.
One action has a context with the other. The action which preceds (writing letter) another
action (coming), is expressed in the Past Perfect Tense while the latter action is expressed in the
Simple Past Tense.
(4) Past Perfect Continuous : The past perfect continuous tense represents an action that −
(i) Started some time in the past.
Communication Skills - I 2.17 Application of Grammar

(ii) Partly completed at a point of time in the context and had been continued beyond the
time mentioned.
I had been writing a letter
We had been writing a letter
You had been writing a letter
He had been writing a letter
She had been writing a letter
It had been writing a letter
They had been writing a letter.
The above examples indicate that the action referred in the sentence has a reference to a
particular time in the past when the action of writing of a letter already started and was partly
completed before the particular moment. The structure of sentences in the past perfect continuous
tense is as given below.
Subject + had + been + Main Verb (ing) + Object.
Usages : The past perfect continuous tense is used whenever we want to state an action that
started in the past, partly completed at a point of time referred in and further continued for
further period in the past.
Future Tense : Future tense of all verbs is formed with the help of the auxiliary verbs ‘shall’
and ‘will’. ‘Shall’ is used when the subject is in the first person while ‘will’ is used when the
subject is in the second and third person. Consider the use of this tense with the personal
pronouns :
I/We shall speak
You will speak
He/She/It will speak
They will speak
Thus, the use of "shall" with the first person and "will" with the second person and third
person indicates simple futurity of the action. However, the use of "will" with the first person and
'shall' with the second and third person expresses emphasis or determination of the speaker to
perform the action.
Person For expressing mere Emphasis determination
futurity obligation
First I shall speak. I will speak.
Second We shall speak We will speak
You will speak. You shall speak.
You will speak You shall speak
Third He/she/it will speak. He/she/it shall speak.
They will speak. They shall speak.
1. Future Indefinite Tense : The future Indefinite tense represents an action that will take
place in future.
I shall write a letter
We shall write a letter
You will write a letter
He will write a letter
She will write a letter
It will write a letter
They will write a letter
The structure of a sentence in the future Indefinite tense can be represented as :
Subject + shall/will + Main Verb + object.
Communication Skills - I 2.18 Application of Grammar

Usages : Future Indefinite Tense is used to denote an action which is to take place at a point
of time in future.
2. The Future Continuous Tense : The future continuous tense represents an action which
shall be going on or would be in progress at a certain point of time in the future.
I shall be writing a letter
We shall be writing a letter
You will be writing a letter
He will be writing a letter
She will be writing a letter
It will be writing a letter
They will be writing a letter.
The structure of sentences in the future continuous tense is as follows :
Subject + shall/will + be + Main Verb (ing) + Object.
Usages : The future continuous tense is used to describe an action that will be
going on at some point of time in the future that is to be finished at a particular time in future.
It is also used to express two future actions one of which will be completed earlier than the
other.
For Example : He will have reached there before you start.
3. The Future Perfect Tense : The future perfect tense represents an action that will be
completed at a particular point of time in the future.
I shall have played a game
We shall have played a game
You will have played a game
He will have played a game
She will have played a game
It will have played a game
They will have played a game
From the above example, it will be seen that the structure of sentences in the future perfect
tense is as follows :
Subject + shall/will + have + Main Verb (past participle) + Object.
Usage : The future perfect tense is used to express an action that would have just completed
at a point of time in the future.
4. The Future Perfect Continuous Tense : The future perfect continuous tense represents
an action which might begin at some definite time in the future partly completed at the particular
point of time in future and would be in progress thereafter also in future.
I shall have been writing a letter
We shall have been writing a letter
You will have been writing a letter
He/She/It will have been writing a letter
You will have been writing a letter
They will have been writing a letter
From the above examples it will be seen that the structure of sentences in the future perfect
continuous tense is as follows :
Subject + shall/will + have + been + Main Verb (in the present participle form i.e. verb + ing)
+ Object.
Usages : The future perfect continuous tense is used to express an action which will begin at
some definite time in future shall be partly completed at, a particular time and shall be in
progress for some time in the future beyond the particular time.
 A Chart showing the various tenses [Active Voice + Form] M.V. = Main Verb
Simple Present Present Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous
Communication Skills - I

Subject + M.V. + Object Subject + is/am/are + M.V. (ing) + Subject + has/have + M.V. (Past Subject + has/have + been + M.V.
I play a game. Object Participle + Object (ing) + Object.
We play a game. I am playing a game. I have played a game. I have been playing a game.
You play a game. We are playing a game. We have played a game. We have been playing a game.
He/She/It plays a game. You are playing a game. You have played a game. You have been playing a game.
They play a game. He/She/It is playing a game. He/She/It has played a game. He/She/It has been playing a game.
They are playing a game. They have played a game. They have been playing a game.
Simple Past Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous
Subject + M.V. (in paste tense) + Subject + was/were + M.V. (ing) Subject + had + M.V. (Past Participle) Subject + had + been + M.V. (ing) +
Object + Object + Object Object.
I played a game. I was playing a game. I had played a game. I had been playing a game.
2.19

We played a game. We were playing a game. We had played a game. We had been playing a game.
You played a game. You were playing a game. You had played a game. You had been playing a game.
He/She/It played a game. He/She/It was playing a game. He/She/It had played a game. He/She/It had been playing a game.
They played a game. They were playing a game. They had played a game. They had been playing a game.
Simple Future Future Continuous Future Perfect Future Perfect Continuous
Subject + shall/will + M.V. + Object Subject + shall/will + M.V. (ing) + Subject + shall/will + have + M.V. Subject + shall/will + have + been +
I shall play a game. Object (Past Participle) + Object M.V. (ing) + Object.
We shall play a game. I shall be playing a game. I shall have played a game. I shall have been playing a game.
You will play a game. We shall be playing a game. We shall have played a game. We shall have been playing a game.
He/She/It will play a game. You will be playing a game. You will have played a game. You will have been playing a game.
They will play a game. He/She/It will be playing a game. He/She/It will have played a game. He/She/It will have been playing a
They will be playing a game. They will have played a game. game.
They will have been playing a game.
Application of Grammar
Communication Skills - I 2.20 Application of Grammar
Communication Skills - I 2.21 Application of Grammar

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verbs given in the brackets. Answers to
the First twenty sentences have been given in a bracket against each.
1. He (go) to polytechnic every day. (goes)
2. The sun (rise) in the east. (rises)
3. I (sit) on a chair and (eat) an apple. (sat, ate)
4. Some students never (study) hard. (study)
5. The teacher (point) at the black board, when he,(want) to (write) something. (points,
wants, write)
6. Engineers (make) the plans of the buildings. (make).
7. He always (meet) her in the institute. (meets)
8. The baby (cry) because of pains. (cried)
9. Aeroplane (fly) from Bombay to Delhi everyday. (flies)
10. He (travel) to Bombay tomorrow. (will travel)
11. See, a man (run)-after the bus. He (want) to get in. (runs, wants)
12. See, how, he (run). (runs)
13. The sun (warm) the air and (give) us light. (warms, gives)
14. Seeta (study) for an examination now. (is studying)
15. Wood (float) on water but iron not float. (floats, does not float)
16. He (read) when-she came in. (was reading)
17. The sun (shine) when he went out. (was shining)
18. He (sit) in the garden when the snake (come) out. (was sitting, came).
19. When they (came) in, he (write). (came, was writing)
20. I came in while he (sleep). (was sleeping)
EXERCISE
(1) It (rain) this morning when I got up.
(2) We (work) all day yesterday.
(3) We (live) in Poona when the war began.
(4) The boy jumped off the bus while it (move).
(5) The train started while I (get) on.
(6) He (sit) in a hotel, when I (see) him.
(7) When I (go) out the sun (shine).
(8) The boy (fall) down while he (run).
(9) The light (go) out while I (have) tea.
(10) When it (rain) she (carry) an umbrella.
(11) She (die) while she (run) after a bus.
(l2) When the phone (ring) I (have) a bath.
(13) He waited for his friends until they (come).
(14) He speaks as one who (know).
(15) He (run) as fast as he could.
(16) Her health improved since she (leave) Pune.
(17) Whenever they (meet), they talk of old times.
(18) He ran because he (to be) in a hurry.
(19) He eats as much as he (can).
(20) She rode as swiftly as she (can).
(21) He ran away because he (to be) afraid of the danger.
Communication Skills - I 2.22 Application of Grammar

(22) I walked so fast that he (can) not overtake me.

(23) When I (see) him, he (sit asleep) in the chair.,
(24) He (write) a letter now.
(25) He already (write) two letters this morning.
(26) I (learn) English for the last several years and now I (study) Hindi too.
(27) My wife (not come) home yet. She never (come) home before night.
(28) When water (boil) the liquid (change) to vapour that (be call) steam.
(29) She never (see) the sea. She (want) to go last year but she (have) no money.
(30) I (expect) you (hear) how he (win) a medal for bravery.
(31) Last year they (begin) to build a new building.
(32) The town (change) its appearance since 1960.
(33) Two years ago they (call) in an expert architect.
(34) He already (design) some public buildings.
(35) Sometimes the roofs (leak) and (let) in the rain.
(36) They already (repair) some of the machines and (make) them more suitable for work.
(37) Lend me your pencil. I (have) to write a letter.
(38) I (see) you yesterday. You (drink) tea in the hotel, but you (not see) me.
(39) Butter is usually (pack) in packets of 100 gms.
(40) English (study) almost everywhere.
(41) His book (read) everywhere.
(42) Many things (make) from plastic.
(43) Electricity (generate) in a power station.
(44) The news (broadcast) at 9.00 p.m.
(45) That scientist (teach) me a lot since 1970.
(46) If we set out late tomorrow, we (be) late for the function.
(47) While he (write) a letter, the telephone rang.
(48) He (go) to the college in time everyday.
(49) Next year by this time we (complete) our work.
(50) Aeroplanes only became possible when suitable engine (invent).
(51) I (wish) I (know) the answer now.
(52) He (look) very nervous when I (meet) him yesterday.
(53) I (lose) my English book yesterday.
(54) The patient (die) before the doctor came.
(55) I (hear) a knock just after I (finish) the story.

THE VERB : PERSON AND NUMBER

1. The verb has three persons viz., the first the second and the third.
For example : (i) I talk (verb in first person)
(ii) You talk (verb in second person)
(iii) He talks (verb in third person)
Verb takes the same person as its subject.
2. The verb, like the noun and pronoun, has two numbers viz. singular and plural.
For example : (i) He talks (verb in singular)
(ii) They talk (verb in plural).
It means that the verb agrees with its subject in Number.
Communication Skills - I 2.23 Application of Grammar

3. The verb must agree with its subject both in number and person.
For example : (i) I am here
(ii) They are here
(iii) He is here.
4. In modern English, verbs have lost their inflections except in the second and the third
person of the singular number.
For example : I talk We talk
You talk You talk ('you' is both singular and plural)
He talks They talk
The verb ' to be ' is an exception. It takes different forms with different persons.
For example : I am We are
You are You are
He/She/It is They are
Agreement of the verb with the subject
1. The verb agrees with the subject in number and person
(i) In case two or more subjects are connected by 'and', they usually take a verb in the
plural.
For example : Ram and Hari are going out.
He and his friend have left.
(ii) In case two singular nouns refer to the same person or thing, the verb takes a
singular form.
For example :
(i) The orator and statesman has left. (It means that the orator and statesman
are one and the same person as only one article is used)
(ii) The orator and the statesman have left. (It means that orator and statesman
are two different persons as two separate articles are used)
(iii) In case two subjects together express one idea, the verb must be in a singular
form.
For example : Slow and steady wins the race.
(iv) In case singular subjects are preceded by each or every, the verb is usually in
singular form.
For example : Every boy and girl is ready.
Every man and woman were present for the function.
Every day and each hour brings certain difficulties.
2. Two or more singular subjects connected by or, nor, either or, neither nor take a verb in
the singular form.
For example : No nook or corner was left.
Neither he nor I was present.
Either Ram or Hari has done that work.
Neither Ram nor his brother was present.
3. In certain cases when subjects joined by or, nor, are of different numbers, the required
verb must be in plural form and the plural subject has to be placed next to the singular
subject.
For example : Ram or his sisters have failed to do this job.
Neither the teacher nor the students were present.
Either the boy or his parents have raised the objection.
Communication Skills - I 2.24 Application of Grammar

4. When subjects of different persons are joined by or, nor the verb agrees with the nearest
person.
For example : Neither he nor I have committed mistake.
Neither you nor he is taking responsibility.
5. In case of subjects differing in number, or person or both, are connected by and, the verb
must be in plural number.
For example : You and he are birds of the same feather
6. A collective noun takes a singular verb when the collection is taken as a whole.
For example : The Parliament has elected him.
The fleet has set sail.
A group of students was present in the class.
The mob has wrong tendency.
7. Certain nouns which are plural in form but singular in meaning, take singular verb.
For example : The News is good.
Physics is a branch of science.
8. Certain nouns which are singular in form but plural in meaning, take a plural verb.
For example : Three dozen cost one hundred rupees.
9. In case plural noun comes between a singular subject and its verb, it should agree with
the real subject.
For example : Each of the brothers is intelligent.
Each of the students was rewarded.
Neither of them was tall.
A variety of objects charms us.
The quality of the products was not upto the mark.
If it were possible to get glimpses, we would have become happy.
10. Words joined to a singular subject by "with" "together with", "In addition to" or "As well
as" are parenthetical and do not affect the number of the verb.
For example : The chief, with all his men, was present.
Ram, as well as his brothers, deserves credit.
Ram, and not you, has won the game.
THE INFINITE
All verbs in the indicative, subjective and imperative mood are Finite, because they are
limited by the person and number and their subject.
For example : They always find mistake in my work.
In this sentence the verb 'find' has 'they' for its subject, Hence the verb 'find' is limited by
person and number. Hence such verb is called as 'Finite Verb '
VERB

Finite Verb Infinite Verb

Infinite verb merely names the action denoted by the verb and is used without mentioning
any subject. Hence, it is not limited by person and number as a verb that has a subject, and is,
therefore, called the verb Infinite or simply that Infinitive.
For example : They always try to find mistakes in my work.
The Past Participle
A participle is that form of a verb which partakes of the nature both of a verb and of an
object. (It means the verb is partly adjective and partly verb).
Communication Skills - I 2.25 Application of Grammar

For example : Hearing the noise, he came out of the room.

In this sentence the phrase, 'Hearing the noise' which is introduced by a participle is called as
'participle phrase'. (It is an adjective phrase).
The Gerund
A Gerund is that form of the verb which ends with '– ing' and has the force of a noun and a
verb.
For example : Reading is his favourite habit.
In the above sentence, the subject 'Reading' is a gerund. Like a noun, it is the subject of a verb,
but like a verb, it also takes an object. It also shows the force of a verb. Such verbs are called
gerund.
Strong and Weak Verbs
When a verb is changed into past tense by adding "-d", "ed " or 't' to its present tense form, it
is called as a "Weak Verb".
For example :
Present Tense Past Tense
Walk Walked
Require Required
Play Played
Want Wanted
Send Sent
In case the verb changes into past tense merely by changing a vowel in its present tense form,
it is called as a strong verb. In other words, if a verb does not require the addition of 'ed' or 'd' or
't' for changing it into the past tense form, it is called as a strong verb.
For example :
Present Tense Past Tense
Catch caught
Break broke
Choose chose
Teach taught
A List of some useful strong verbs
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
Abide abode abode
Arise arose arisen
Bear (bring forth) bore borne
Bear (carry) bore borne
Beat beat beaten
Become became become
Beget begot begotten
Begin began begun
Communication Skills - I 2.26 Application of Grammar

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle

Behold Beheld beheld, beholden
Bid bade, bid bidded, bid
Bind bound bound
Bite bit bitten, bit
Blow blew blown
Break broke broken
Chide chided chided, chidden, chid
Choose chose chosen
Cling clung clung
Come came come
Dig dug dug
Do did done
Draw drew drawn
Drink drank drunk, drunken
Drive drove driven
Eat ate eaten
Fall fell fallen
Fight fought fought
Find found found
Fling flung flung
Fly flew flown
Forbear forbore forborne
Forbid forbade forbidden
Forget forgot forgotten
Forsake forsook forsaken
Freeze froze frozen
Get got got, gotten
Give gave given
Go went gone
Grind ground ground
Grow grew grown
Hide hid hid, hidden
Hold held held
Know knew known
Lie lay lain
Ride rode ridden
Ring rang rung
Rise rose risen
Run ran run
See saw seen
Shake shook shaken
Shine shone shone
Shoot shot shot
Communication Skills - I 2.27 Application of Grammar

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle

Shrink shrank shrunk, shrunken
Sing sang sung
Sink sank sunk
Sit sat sat
Slay slew slain
Slide slid slid
Sling slung slung
Slink slunk slunk
Smite smote smitten
Speak spoke spoken
Spin spun spun
Spring sprang sprung
Stand stood stood
Steal stole stolen
Stick stuck stuck
Sting stung stung
Stink stank stunk
Stride strode stridden
Strike struck struck
String strung strung
Strive strove striven
Swear swore sworn
Swim swam swum
Swing swung swung
Take took taken
Tear tore torn
Throw threw thrown
Tread trod trodden, trod
Wear wore worn
Weave wove woven
Win won won
Wind wound wound
Wring wrung wrung
Write wrote written
Exercise 1 :
Verbs
Use the following verbs in sentences of your own.
abominate enrich impede snatch
aggravates Facilitate Inflicted spill
Alleviate fantasize leap stonewall
cease flown oxidize surpass
dazzle goaded regulate utilize
decipher graft rescue venture
disrupt ignited segregate yearn
Communication Skills - I 2.28 Application of Grammar

Adverbs
A word which modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb is called as
an Adverb.
For example : 1. He runs quickly.
2. He runs more quickly.
3. He is a highly intelligent person.
In the first sentence, the word 'quickly' shows the manner of running. Therefore, the word,
quickly modifies or adds to the meaning of the verb 'run'. In the second sentence the word 'more'
modifies the adverb 'quickly'. In the third sentence, 'highly' modifies an adjective 'intelligent'. All
these three words viz. quickly, more and highly are the adverbs.
Kinds of Adverbs
1. Adverbs of Time (before, daily, already etc.). (It shows when).
2. Adverbs of Frequency (twice, again, once etc.). (It shows how often.)
3. Adverbs of Place (here, up, out etc. (It shows where.)
4. Adverbs of Manner (bravely, soundly, well etc.). (It shows how.)
5. Adverbs of Degree or quality (almost, fully, quite etc.). (It shows how much, in what
degree.)
6. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation (surely, certainly, not etc.).
7. Adverbs of Reason (hence, therefore etc.).
8. Simple adverbs (yes, no, when these are used as equivalent of sentence)
Position of Adverbs
1. Adverbs of manner are generally used after the verb or after the object.
For example : The car is moving slowly.
He speaks well.
2. Adverbs of place and of time are placed after the verb or after the object if there is one.
For example : They will come here.
He looked everywhere.
3. When there are two or more adverbs after a verb (and its object), the normal order is,
adverb of manner, adverb of place, adverb of time.
For example : He played well in the games.
He should go there tomorrow morning.
He spoke sincerely at the meeting yesterday.
4. Adverbs of frequency (always, never, often, rarely, usually, generally, almost, nearly etc.)
are normally put between the subject and the verb, if it consists of only one word. In case
there are more than one word in the verb, they are placed after the first word.
For example : We usually take our meals at ten.
He has never observed such happening.
We quite agree with him.
5. In case the verb is a form of 'to be' (am/are/is/was) an adverb is placed after the verb.
For example : I was never late for college.
They are always at home at night.
6. Adverbs are usually placed before an auxiliary or the single verb 'be', when it is used for
giving stress on the action.
For example : 1. "When will you complete this work ?" "But I already have
completed it."
2. " Do you work ? " "Yes, I sometime do ".
Communication Skills - I 2.29 Application of Grammar

7. The auxiliaries 'have to' and 'used to' prefer the adverb before them.
For example : We often have to go to polytechnic on bicycle.
He always used to agree with him.
8. An adverb that modifies an adjective or another adverb, usually comes before the word it
modifies.
For example : He is a rather lazy student.
The speech is very interesting.
9. The adverb 'enough' is always placed after the word it modifies.
For example : He was rash enough to stop.
They spoke loud enough to be heard.
10. The word 'only' should be placed immediately before the word it modifies.
For example : He worked only two hours.
They have taken only two hours to complete the work.
EXERCISE 1
Rewrite the following sentences appropriately using the words : out, off, through, by :
1. He has ruled ______ the division of the state.
2. He drag ______ hearings to enhance the fees.
3. The tension has eased ______ .
4. The plane will take ______ soon.
5. Our plan for holiday fell ______ because of his objection.
6. He will surely back ______ at the last moment.
7. Defective machinery wear ______ soon.
8. It can take ______ vertically.
9. It will put ______ the fire in short period.
10. Come ______ with concrete proposals.
EXERCISE 2
Rewrite the following sentences by appropriately completing the verb phrases :
1. He laid ______ his life for his country.
2. His interest in studies has fallen ______ recently.
3. I was held ______ in traffic jam.
4. ______ keep cost in high in this plan.
5. He has not turned ______ at the meeting.
6. Speak ______ please.
7. I soon put ______ the light and lay ______ to sleep.
8. What do these letters stand ______ ?
9. Write it ______ in full, please.
EXERCISE 3
Use the following Adverbs in sentences of your own.
commendably eventually logically quickly
Doggedly Exclusively manually seemingly
easily globally obviously slowly
Economically ideally physically triumphantly
entirely Intuitively Predominantly Utterly
Communication Skills - I 2.30 Application of Grammar

3. DO AS DIRECTED
(Transformation of Sentences)
Sentences are units made up of one or more clauses. Every sentence has two parts :
1. The part called subject which names the person or thing we are speaking about ;
2. The part called predicate which tells something about the subject of the sentence.
The subject of a sentence usually comes first; but sometimes it can be used after the
predicate. In case of imperative sentences, the subject is left out. See the following sentences :
1. The earth is round .

2. The news made him happy .

3. They elected him President .

We see that the above sentences have subject and predicate. Such sentences are called as
simple sentences.
Sentences are classified on the basis of two aspects viz. Syntactic i.e. based on the
arrangement of words, phrases and clauses and semantic i.e., based on the sense the sentence
carries.
Sentence (Types)

Syntactic Semantic
(based on arrangement of words, phrase and clauses) (based on the meanings or sense)
1. Simple 1. Assertive (Declarative)
2. Complex 2. Interrogative
3. Compound 3. Imperative
4. Multiple 4. Exclamatory
Syntactic Types :
1. Simple sentences : A simple sentence is one which has one subject, one predicate and
one finite verb.
For example : The earth is round
subject predicate
Finite verb
2. Complex sentence : Complex sentence is one which consists of a main clause together
with one or more subordinate clauses.
For example : He hoped that he would pass
main clause subordinate clause
3. Compound sentence : Compound sentence is one which contains two or more main
clauses. These clauses are said to be co-ordinate, that is, of equal rank. Such clauses are
joined by co-ordinate conjunctions such as and, but, or, nor, for, etc.
For example : God made the country and man made the town.
main clause conjunction main clause
4. Multiple sentence : A multiple sentence is one which contains more than two main
clauses and may contain one or more subordinate clauses and depending upon one of the
main clauses.
For example : His mother said that he had gone to the market to make a few purchases
but that I should not on that account go away as he would return soon.
Communication Skills - I 2.31 Application of Grammar

Analysis of complex, compound and multiple sentences :

Analysis of a complex sentence involves detailed consideration and classification of the
subordinate clauses. On the basis of the function they perform, the clauses are classified as noun
clauses, adjective clauses and adverb clauses. They are briefly explained below :
The following are the types of subordinate clauses and the different ways they are used in
the complex, compound and multiple sentences. The clauses are classified on the basis of the
function they perform in a given sentence.
Clauses

Noun-Clauses Adjective Clauses Adverb Clauses

(i) Subject of a verb. (They are not (i) Time
(ii) Object of a verb. classified. They are (ii) Place
(iii) Complement of a verb. introduced by a relative (iii) Manner
(iv) Object of preposition. pronoun or relative (iv) Reason or cause
(v) In opposition to noun or pronoun. adverb). (v) Purpose
(vi) Result
(vii) Condition
(viii) Concession
(ix) Comparison
Noun clause : Noun clause can be used in five ways :
1. As a subject of a verb
2. As an object of a verb
3. Predicatively (complement)
4. As an object of a preposition
5. In apposition to a noun or pronoun.
1. Subject of a verb
For example : That the distinguished visitor was about to enter the class became
apparent to the curious students.
2. Object of a verb :
For example : Ram asked the teacher whether he was to be given another chance to
answer the question.
3. Complement of a verb of incomplete predication : Ram's excuse was that he was
inattentive.
4. Object of preposition :
For example : From what I heard there will be no game today.
5. In apposition to a noun or pronoun
For example : 1. I am firm in my conviction that he will win.
2. It is evident that he has lost the game.
Adjective clause : There is no 'kind' or 'classification' in adjective clause. Adjective clauses
are mostly introduced by a relative pronoun or relative adverb. The relative pronoun or relative
adverb is often omitted.
For example : 1. That is not the book (which) I read last week.
2. The reason (why) he left so hurriedly is not known.
Adverb clause : There are nine kinds of adverb clauses showing time, place, manner, cause
or reason, purpose, result, condition, concession, comparison or degree.
1. Adverb clause of Time : An Adverb clause of Time is generally introduced by the
following subordinate conjunctions :
1. Since 2. When 3. Whenever 4. While
5. Until 6. Till 7. Before 8. After.
Communication Skills - I 2.32 Application of Grammar

For example : He entered the room when the door opened

↓
Adverb clause of Time.
2. Adverb clause of Place

For example : Please accompany where he goes

3. Adverb clause of Manner

For example : He played as he was expected to play

4. Adverb clause of reason or cause

For example : 1. I returned home because I could not see him

2. As he was ill he could not attend the class.

5. Adverb clause of purpose

For example : 1. He ran fast that he might catch the bus

2. He ran fast lest he should miss the bus

6. Adverb clause of Result : This clause is introduced by 'that' which is generally preceded
by 'so' or 'such' in the principal clause.

For example : She sang such sweet songs that we were very happy

7. Adverb clause of condition : This clause is introduced by the conjunctions like "If" and
"unless". Sometimes, 'if' is not expressed but understood.

For example : 1. If you try , you can succeed.

2. Unless you are confident of success , you should not make that
venture.

3. Had I been present , I would have prevented the mishap.

8. Adverb clause of concession :

For example : Although he is poor , he is honest.

9. Adverb clause of comparison

For example : (Introduced by 'than')

He played better than his friend did .

Sometimes a clause of comparison is suppressed after 'than'.

For example : He looks better than when I saw him last (than he did then)
Communication Skills - I 2.33 Application of Grammar

Semantic Type
A group of words which makes complete sense is called a sentence. There are four kinds
of sentences.
1. Assertive Declarative
OR
Statements
Example : They attended the class.
2. Interrogative
OR
Questions
KINDS OF SENTENCES Example : Where do you stay ?

3. Imperative
(Command , Requests)
Example : Keep quiet.
4. Exclamatory
Example : How hot the day is !
1. A sentence which makes a statement or assertion is called as Declarative or Assertive
sentence.
For example : I have a good memory
The earth moves around the Sun
The Sun rises in the east
No one can serve two masters.
2. Interrogative sentence : Interrogatives are the words which introduce wh – questions.
The English interrogative words are – who, whom, where, what, which whose, whether,
why, when, how, if (They are taken as Wh–words). Whether and if are used only in
interrogative Sub-clauses.
For example : What time is it ? (Determiner)
What's the time ? (Pronoun)
3. Imperative (Command, Request)
A sentence that expresses a command is called as Imperative sentence. The subject of a
verb in imperative sentence is usually omitted.
For example : Write properly.
Keep silence.
Go away.
Pay the bill.
Exclamatory : A sentence that expresses strong feeling or emotion is called as an
Exclamatory sentence.
For example : What a pity !
What a piece of work this is !
On that he is safe !
What a beautiful scene this is !
It is this type of sentence, which is used to express the speaker's feeling or attitude.
Communication Skills - I 2.34 Application of Grammar

(A) Active and Passive Voice

[Refer Chart given on page no. 2.20]
Voice is that form of the verb which shows whether the person (doer of the action) or thing
denoted by the subject acts, or is acted upon.
A verb is said to be in the Active Voice when the person or thing denoted by the subject
performs an action. An active verb cannot be turned into the passive, unless it has an object. In
other words, only transitive verbs have a passive voice.
VERB

Transitive Verb Intransitive Verb

Transfer of action from   transfer of action
No
Subject to object side  as there is no object 
Example : I Wrote a letter.
(In this example, we can see that the verb 'wrote' is used transitively, as the sentence has an
object, 'letter.' For performing that action, there is a transfer of action from the subject to the
object. The above mentioned verb can, therefore, be said to be used transitively).
Example : He runs quickly.
In this example, the object is not used and hence there is no question of transfer of action. It
can be said that the verb is used intransitively. Hence, such sentences cannot be changed into
Passive Voice.
The following important points should be considered, while transforming a sentence from
active voice to passive voice.
He wrote a letter
Subject Verb Object
I. Mark out the subject(s), verb(v) and object in the given sentence ((o)) .
(a) In some cases, when it becomes difficult to find the object from the given sentence, it
is better to ask the question "What + S + V." The answer we get is the exact 'object.'
What he wrote .............. a letter (object)
(b) The sentence must have an object or an object understood, without which we cannot
transform the given sentence from active voice to passive voice.
II. Interchange the places of the words used at the place of subject and object. (Object
becomes subject & subject becomes object)
He wrote a letter
Subject Verb Object
A letter : was written = by + him
(Subject) Verb (Object)
Subjective Pronouns Objective Pronouns
1. I me
2. We us
3. You you
4. He him
5. She her
6. It it
7. They them
Communication Skills - I 2.35 Application of Grammar

III. Use one of the forms of the verb 'to be' according to tense and number of the subject
taken in the Passive Voice.
(Simple Past) He wrote a letter (Active voice)
S V O
A letter [was] ............. him
Active Voice Sentence Use one of the To be's form
1. Present simple → is/am/are
2. Past simple → was/were
3. Future Simple → shall/will be
4. Continuous
(Present/Past/Future) → being
5. Perfect
(Present/Past/Future) → been
6. Perfect Continuous → (Such Passive Voice sentences are not in use)
IV. Use the main verb in the past participle form in Passive Voice.
(Simple Past) He wrote a letter (Active voice)
S V O
A letter was written by him
S O
(Past Participle form)
V. Use 'by' as a preposition before the object.
(Simple Past) He wrote a letter (Active voice)
S V O
A letter was written by him.

Subject by Object
(Auxiliary (main verb Preposition
verb To in past
be's group Participle Form).
To sum up, let us see what we have done while converting the active voice sentence. 'He
wrote a letter' into a passive voice sentence. A letter was written by him.'
Here,
(i) Subject became object ;
(ii) Object became subject ; (subjective pronoun becomes objective pronoun)
(iii) Use appropriate form of the auxiliary verb 'to be' with reference to the subject and
tense of the verb.
(iv) Main verb is converted into 'past participle' form.
(v) Use of preposition 'by' before the new object. (Refer Page No. 2.20)
Now, we will try to transform the same sentence, taking it in all other possible tenses.
I. [Present simple] He writes a letter [Active voice]
S V O
A letter is written by him. [Passive voice]
[Structure in Subject + is/am/are + Main Verb in Past Participle form + by + Object
Passive voice
II. [Past simple] He wrote a letter [Active voice]
S V O
A letter was written by him. [Passive voice]
[Structure in Subject + was/were + Main Verb in Past Participle form + by + Object
Passive voice]
Communication Skills - I 2.36 Application of Grammar

III. [Future simple] He will write a Letter [Active voice]

S V O

A letter will be written by him. [Passive voice]

Verb
[Structure in Subject + shall/will + be + Main Verb in Past Participle form + by + Object
Passive voice]
IV. [Present He is writing a letter [Active voice]
continuous] Subject Verb Object
A letter is being written by him [Passive voice]
Subject Verb Object
[Structure in Subject + is/am/are + being + Main Verb in Past participle form +
Passive voice] by + object.
V. [Present He was writing a letter [Active voice]
A letter was being written by him. [Passive Voice]
[Structure in Subject + was/were + being + Main verb in Past Participle form + by
passive voice] + Object.
VI. [Future He will be writing a letter [Active voice]
continuous]
(Passive voice form of sentences are not in use).
VII. [Present perfect] He has written a letter. [Active voice]
S V O
A letter has been written by him. [Passive voice]
[Structure in Subject + has/have + been + Main verb in Past Participle form +
Passive voice] by + Object.
VIII. [Past perfect] He had written a letter. [Active voice]

A letter had been written by him. [Passive voice].

Structure in Subject had + been + Main Verb in Past Participle Form + by
Passive voice] + object.
IX. [Future Perfect Continuous] He will have written a letter.
[Active Voice]
A letter will have been written by him. [Passive Voice]
[Structure in Subject + shall/will + have + been + Main Verb in Past participle
passive voice] form + by + Object.
X. Passive voice of all Present / Past / Future Perfect Continuous Tenses are not in use.
Imperative sentence : Pay the bill today
Main Verb Object
Let the bill be paid today. [Passive voice]
[Structure] : Let + Subject + be + Main verb in Past Participle Form + Remaining part of
the sentence.
Imperative sentences start with the main verb and the subject always remains understood.
Therefore, the Passive Voice Sentence starts with 'let' and the other part of the sentence structure
follows the same method, which we have followed in case of the previous sentences.
Interrogative Sentences :
Example 1 : Who taught you this subject ?
By whom were you taught this subject ? [Passive voice]
Communication Skills - I 2.37 Application of Grammar

{If 'who' appears in the beginning of an interrogative sentence, that changes into 'by whom').
The structure of the sentences changes as follows :
Interrogative Pronoun + Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Main Verb + Object + Question mark ?
Example 2 : Does he write a letter ?
It is a letter written by him ?
(Here, in case the verb do and its form ‘did’ and ‘does’ are used in active voice, they are not
taken ; because in the passive voice, we take one auxiliary verb i.e. to be with its form appropriate
to subject and tense of the verb used.
Change the Voice :
1. We can control the number of splitting atoms.
Ans. The number of splitting atoms can be controlled by us.
2. Engineers bore holes, every hundred yards.
Ans. Holes are borne every hundred yards by engineers.
3. They invited me to deliver a speech.
Ans. I was invited by them to deliver a speech.
4. The Committee has prepared the plan of the project in a great hurry.
Ans. The plan of the project has been prepared in a great hurry by the Committee.
5. We shall have to look into the matter.
Ans. The matter will have to be looked into by us.
6. We have to knock down the buildings.
Ans. The buildings have to be knocked down by us.
7. The directors might turn down our proposal to employ more assistants.
Ans. Our proposal to employ more assistants might be turned down by the directors.
8. He taught me Physics at the University.
Ans. I was taught Physics at the University by him.
OR
Physics was taught to me at the University by him.
9. The General Manager has promised the employees to more wages.
Ans. The employees have been promised to more wages by the General Manager.
OR
More wages have been promised to be given to the employees by the General Manager.
10. We shall send our sister a nice Diwali gift.
Ans. A nice Diwali gift will be sent to our sister by us.
11. People say that diffused light is good for reading.
Ans. It is said by the people that diffused light is good for reading.
12. The scientists believe that there is no life on Mars.
Ans. It is believed by the scientists that there is no life on Mars.
13. The artisans suggested that the raw materials should be of good quality.
Ans. It was suggested by the artisans that the raw materials should be of a good quality.
14. We shall recommend that the factory should have a computer.
Ans. It will be recommended by us that the factory should have a computer.
Communication Skills - I 2.38 Application of Grammar

15. It is time to call over the names.

Ans. It is time for the names to be called over.
16. I wrote a letter.
Ans. A letter was written by me.
17. He gave her the remaining money.
Ans. The remaining money was given to her by him.
OR
She was given the remaining money by him.
18. Take him to the King.
Ans. Let him be taken to the King.
19. Turn the ship homewards.
Ans. Let the ship be turned homewards.
20. Give me back my dear Eurydice.
Ans. Let my dear Eurydice be given back to me.
21. He never took it seriously.
Ans. It was never taken seriously by him.
22. Keep this in mind.
Ans. Let this be kept in mind.
23. Everyone knows her.
Ans. She is known by everyone.
24. One expects better behaviour from a college student.
Ans. Better behaviour is expected from a college student.
25. Who called your names ?
Ans. By whom were your names called ?
26. Who taught you grammar ?
Ans. By whom were you taught Grammar ? OR
By whom was Grammar taught to you ?
27. Did you write the letter ?
Ans. Was the letter written by you ?
28. What can we do now ?
Ans. What can be done by us now ?
29. How much do you earn ?
Ans. How much is earned by you ?
30. The incoming President is organizing a National Provincial Service.
Ans. A National Provincial Service is being organised by the incoming President.
EXERCISE
Change the voice in the following sentences :
1. The telephone wire has been cut.
2. Have you not finished the work yet ?
3. I declined the offer.
4. The firm has been supplying us inferior goods.
5. Who broke this jug ?
Communication Skills - I 2.39 Application of Grammar

6. It is time to shut up the shop.

7. Tools cannot be made by animals.
8. They were questioning the thief.
9. We are all liable to forget this.
10. When you have read these, cast them into the fire.
11. She is selling her old ornaments.
12. Votes are cast by registered voters.
13. The criminal was arrested by the police.
14. Who drew that picture on the wall ?
15. Why were you punished by the teacher ?
16. Promises should be kept.
17. The fire damaged the building.
18. We offered her a chair.
19. Advertise the post.
20. The young man did not write home any letter.
21. Their army has been defeated by us.
22. Some one has picked my pocket.
23. You must endure what you cannot cure.
24. I shall explain this later.
25. The master appointed him monitor.

(B) Direct and Indirect Speech

In the English language, there are two ways of reporting conversation or a talk. They are
known as :
1. Direct Speech and
2. Indirect Speech.
A proper understanding of these methods is essential in order to make efficient use of the
English language.
1. The Direct Speech : It reports the exact words of the speaker, and they are enclosed with
single or double quotation marks.
For example : He said, "I am playing a game."
In this example, the sentence or the words uttered by the speaker are reproduced by the
reporter without making any changes. If the sentence is reproduced without changes or
additions, it is called as a Direct Speech.
2. Indirect Speech : Indirect speech reports the words of the speaker, without quotation
marks, i.e. in an indirect way. Here, the exact words of the speaker are not generally
reproduced. Consider the following sentence :– He said that he was playing a game.
This is an example of an indirect speech. In this sentence, the verb 'said' introduces the
speech to be reported. It is called as a "Reporting verb" and the speech is called a
"Reported Speech". The reporting verb is connected by the joining word 'that', after
making a few changes in the original speech and after removing the quotation marks.
Communication Skills - I 2.40 Application of Grammar

This will be more clear from the following illustration :

" I am playing a game ".

A B

Y - Reporter Direct speech : " I am playing a game."

Y-X Indirect speech : He said that he was

Reporting verb playing a game

A A
Direct speech : He said, " I am playing a game."

Reporting speech

Indirect speech : He said that he was playing a game

Reported Conjunction Reported

verb speech
Necessary points to be remembered
1. Tenses 2. Reporting verb 3. Kinds of sentences 4. Pronouns, 5. Nearness.
Rules for the conversion of Direct Speech into Indirect Speech
1. The quotation marks should be removed.
2. A suitable joining word should be used to report the statements, particularly in the case
of questions and exclamatory sentences.
3. Generally, the first and the second person pronouns in the direct speech are changed to
the appropriate third person pronouns in the direct speech. The pronouns in the third
person remain unchanged.
4. Whenever the antecedents of pronouns appear to be doubtful, it is better to put the
antecedents within brackets after the pronouns.
5. Unnecessary modification in the structure of a sentence should be avoided.
Change in Tenses : (In transformation from direct to indirect speech)
(a) If the reporting verb is in the present tense, the tense of the reported speech remains
unchanged.
For example :
Direct speech : He says, "I play a game."
Indirect Speech : He says that he plays a game.
: R.V. : Present Tense [R.V. – Reporting Verb]
Here, the reporting verb is in the present tense, hence the direct speech remains in the
same tense i.e. present tense.
Communication Skills - I 2.41 Application of Grammar

(b) If the reporting verb is in the future tense, the tense of the verb in the reported speech
remains unchanged.
Direct : He will say, "I play a game."
Indirect : He will say that he plays a game.
Here, the reporting verb is in the future tense, hence the Indirect Speech remains in the
future tense.
(c) If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the verb in the reported speech must be changed
to its corresponding form in the past tense.
Direct speech :
Present Simple : He said, "I play a game."
Present Continuous : He said, "I am playing a game."
Present Perfect : He said, "I have played a game."
Present Perfect Continuous : He said, "I have been playing a game."
Indirect Speech
Past Simple : He said that he played a game.
Past Continuous : He said that he was playing a game.
Past Perfect : He said that he had played a game.
Past Perfect Continuous : He said that he had been playing a game.
(d) If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense of the verb in the reported speech
remains unchanged.
For example :
Direct speech : He said, "I played a game."
Indirect speech : He said that he played a game.
(Here the reporting verb is in the past tense, hence the reported speech is kept in the same
tense).
Note : Sometimes, the simple past tense of the reported speech changes into the past perfect tense.
For example :
Direct speech : He said, "I played a game yesterday." (Simple past tense)
Indirect speech : He said that he had played a game the day before. (Past perfect tense)
Direct speech : He said, "I was playing a game." (Past continuous tense)
Indirect speech : He said that he was playing a game. (Past continuous tense)
Note : Sometimes, the past continuous tense changes into the past perfect continuous if the specific
point of time in the past tense is indicated in the direct speech.
For example :
Direct speech : He said, "I was playing a game yesterday."
: (Past continuous tense with specific time i.e. yesterday)
Indirect speech : He said that he had been playing a game the day before.
: (Past perfect continuous)
Direct speech : He said, "I had played a game." (Past perfect tense)
Indirect speech : He said that he had played a game.
: (Past perfect tense)
(Here, the tense remains unchanged).
Communication Skills - I 2.42 Application of Grammar

Direct speech : He said, "I had been playing a game."

Indirect speech : He said that he had been playing a game.
(The tense in the reported speech also remains unchanged).
(e) If the reporting verb is in the past tense and the reporting speech is also in the past tense,
the indirect speech remains unchanged, but sometimes, it changes as shown below :
Direct speech Indirect speech
1. Past Simple 1. Past simple :
1. He said, "I played a game." He said that he played a game. (No change in
Sometimes : tense).
2. He said, "I played a game yester-day." Sometimes : He said that he had played a game
2. Past continuous : the day before. (Past perfect)
1. He said, "I was playing a game." 2. Past continuous : He said that he was playing a
Sometimes : game. (No change in tense)
2. He said, "I was playing a game yesterday." Sometimes : He said that he had been playing a
3. Past Perfect : game the day before (Past perfect tense).
He said, "I had played a game." 3. Past Perfect : He said that he had played a game.
4. Past Perfect : (No change in tense)
He said, "I had been playing a game." 4. Past Perfect Continuous : He said that he had
been playing a game. (No change in tense)
Continuous.
If the reporting verbs are in the past tense and the tense of the reporting speech is in the
future tense, the reported speech changes as follows :
Direct speech Indirect speech
1. Future simple : He said, "I will play a 1. He said that he would play a game.
game."
2. Future continuous : He said,"I will be playing 2. He said that he would be playing a game.
a game."
3. Future Perfect : He said, "I will have 3. He said that he would have played a game.
played a game."
4. Future Continuous : He said, "I will have 4. He said that he would have been playing a
been playing a game." game.
Note : If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense of the auxiliary verb in the reported speech
is changed into the corresponding past tense.
For Example :
1. Can changes to could.
2. May changes to might.
3. Will changes to would.
4. Shall changes to should.
Changes in the Pronouns in Reported Speech
1. The first person pronoun is changed to the corresponding third person pronoun in the
reported speech, if the speaker is in the third person.
For example :
Direct speech : He said, "I play a game".
Indirect speech : He said that he played a game.
Direct speech : He said, "I – we – me us"
Indirect speech : He said that he they him them
Communication Skills - I 2.43 Application of Grammar

2. If the speaker is in the second person, the first person pronoun in the reported speech is
changed to the second person.
For example :
Direct speech : You said, "I play a game."
Indirect speech : You said that you played a game.
3. If the speaker is in the first person, the first person pronoun in the reported speech is not
changed.
Direct speech : I said, "I am writing a letter."
Indirect speech : I said that I was writing a letter.
4. A second person pronoun, in direct speech is changed in the indirect speech, to the same
person of the pronoun being the object of the reported verb or the preposition following
the reported verb.
For example :
1. Direct speech : He said to him, "You play a game."
Indirect speech : He told him that he played a game.
2. Direct speech : He said to you, "You play a game."
Indirect speech : He told you that you played a game.
3. Direct speech : He said to me, "You play a game."
Indirect speech : He told me that I played a game.
4. A third person in the direct speech remains unchanged in the indirect speech.
Direct speech : He said, "He plays a game."
Indirect speech : He said that he played a game.
Direct speech : He said, "He, she, it – they him, her, it, them

Indirect speech : He said that he, she, it they him, her, it them
Adjectives and adverbs indicating nearness in the direct speech are changed to the
corresponding adjectives and adverbs indicating distance in the indirect speech as shown below :
Direct speech Indirect speech
1. Now then
2. this that
3. these those
4. here there
5. ago before
6. thus so
7. today that day
8. tomorrow the next day
9. yesterday the day before
10. last night the night before.
Interrogative sentences :
If an interrogative sentence is to be converted into indirect speech, it is necessary to make the
following changes :
1. For introducing the reported speech, instead of the verb 'said', the verbs like 'asked',
'questioned', 'enquired' etc. may be used.
2. The joining word 'that' is not used to introduce the reported speech.
Communication Skills - I 2.44 Application of Grammar

3. If the question begins with interrogative pronouns or interrogative adverbs such as

which, when, whom, whose, where, why, how, etc. the same is retained to introduce the
reported speech.
4. If the question begins with an auxiliary verbs like shall, will, do, etc., with forms of to be,
the conjunction 'if' or 'whether' is used to introduce the reported speech.
5. The interrogative form of a sentence is changed to the statement form.
6. Interrogative mark '?' is not required in indirect speech.
Example No. 1 :
Direct speech : He said to him, "Where are you going ?"
Indirect speech : He asked him where he was going.
In this sentence, the reporting verb 'said' is changed into asked and the interrogative form of
the reporting speech is changed into a statement form, by changing the places of the subject and
verb of the Reported Speech).
Example No. 2 :
Direct speech : He said to me, "What are you doing ?"
Indirect speech : He asked me what I was doing.
Example No. 3 :
Direct speech : The teacher said to her, "Why do you laugh ?"
Indirect speech : The teacher asked her why she laughed.
In this direct sentence, 'do' is used to make the sentence interrogative; but in Indirect Speech,
the sentence is changed into a statement removing the auxiliary verb 'do'.
Example No. 4 :
Direct speech : He said to me, "Are you not well today ?"
Indirect speech : He asked me whether I was not well that day.
If the direct speech starts with an auxiliary verb and it is an interrogative sentence, the
conjunction 'whether' or 'if' is used to introduce the indirect speech.
Example No. 5 :
Direct speech : The boy said to father, "May I go out?"
Indirect speech : The boy asked the father if he might go out.
Imperative Sentences
In imperative sentences, we come across orders, commands and requests. The sense of the
direct speech determines the rule.
Example 1 :
Direct speech : He said to the players, "Leave the ground at once."
Indirect speech : He ordered the players to leave the ground at once.
The following method should be adopted for transforming an imperative sentence in the
direct speech into indirect speech.
1. Rewrite the part which comes before the Reporting verb.
2. The reporting verb 'said' is to be changed to 'ordered, informed, instructed, directed,
commanded' or any other word with the same meaning and used after the subject.
3. The preposition 'to' that appears after ‘said’, should be removed.
Communication Skills - I 2.45 Application of Grammar

4. The part which appears after 'to' should be written without making any changes.
5. As the Imperative form changes into the infinitive form, 'to' should be used and the
complete sentence without any change is to be rewritten after making suitable changes
(according to the rule) in the pronoun.
Example 2 :
Direct speech : He said to his father, "Pardon me this time and I shall do my best."
Indirect speech : He begged his father to pardon him that time and he would do his best.
Example 3 :
Direct speech : He said to me, "Let us go home".
Indirect speech : He proposed me that we should go home.
Example 4 :
Direct speech : My mother said to me, "Never make that mistake."
Indirect speech : My mother warned me never to make that mistake.
Exclamatory Sentences
In this type of sentence, the exclamatory words and marks of exclamations are used.
For example,
Direct speech : They said‚ "Hurrah! We have won the game."

Indirect speech : They exclaimed with joy that they had won the game.

Direct speech : They said‚ "Alas! . We are undone."

Indirect speech : They exclaimed with sorrow that they were undone.
In the case of exclamatory sentences, the following changes are to be made while changing
the direct speech into indirect speech.
1. The word of exclamation should be suitably changed into indirect speech and should be
supported by an appropriate word indicating the underlying feelings such as sorrow, joy, etc. in
the exclamatory verbs.
2. Here, the conjunction 'that' is used.
3. Other changes in pronouns and tense are done as in the case of assertive sentences.
Some more Examples :
1. Direct Speech : He said, "I am ready to go out,"
Indirect Speech : He said that he was ready to go out.
2. Direct Speech : I said to him, "My sister has gone out."
Indirect Speech : I told him that my sister had gone out.
3. Direct Speech : Hari said to me, "I have been reading for four hours."
Indirect Speech : Hari told me that he had been reading for four hours.
4. Direct Speech : She said to her mother, "Sister was writing a letter."
Indirect Speech : She told her mother that her sister was writing a letter.
5. Direct Speech : The teacher said to him, " You may come."
Indirect Speech : The teacher told him that he might come.
Communication Skills - I 2.46 Application of Grammar

6. Direct Speech : The teacher said, "Man is mortal."

Indirect Speech : The teacher said that man is mortal.
7. Direct Speech : He said to me, "When do you intend to leave Pune ?"
Indirect Speech : He asked me when I intended to leave Pune.
8. Direct Speech : Hari said to me, "Thank you for the help." I could not have completed the
task without your help”.
Indirect Speech : Hari thanked me for all my help and said that he could not have
completed the task without my help.
9. Direct Speech : The teacher said to the boy, "Have you completed your writing work ?"
Indirect Speech : The teacher asked the boy whether he had completed his writing work.
10. Direct Speech : The teacher said to the boy, "Go out of the room at once."
Indirect Speech : The teacher ordered the boy to go out of the room at once.
11. Direct Speech : Hari said to me, "Let us play a game."
Indirect Speech : Hari proposed playing a game with me.
12. Direct Speech : He said, "The bird died in the night"
Indirect Speech : He said that the bird had died in the night.
13. Direct Speech : My teacher often says to me, "If you do not study hard, you will fail."
Indirect Speech : My teacher often warns me that if I do not study hard, I will fail.
14. Direct Speech : The Captain, addressing his troops, said, "You have brought disgrace
upon a famous regiment. If you had grievances, why did you not lay them before your
own officers ? Now, you must first suffer punishment for your offence before your
complaints can be heard."
Indirect Speech : The Captain told his troops that they had brought disgrace upon a
famous regiment. He asked them why they had not laid their grievances before their own
officers. He then stated that they must suffer punishment for their offence, before their
complaints could be heard.
15. Direct Speech : The traveller said, "Can you tell me the way to the nearest inn ?"
"Yes" said the peasant ; "do you want one in which you can spend the night ?" "No",
replied the traveller ; "I only want a meal."
Indirect Speech : The traveller enquired of the peasant if he could tell him the way to the
nearest inn. The peasant replied that he could, and asked whether the traveller wanted an
inn in which he could spend the night. The traveller answered that he did not wish to
stay there, but only wanted a meal.
EXERCISE
Change into indirect speech :
1. The old man said to his son, "What harm have I done to you ?"
2. She replied, "I'm going to walk where I like. We've got liberty now."
3. He said to the policeman, "Did you see a tall, fair man walking along the street
yesterday ?"
4. The teacher said to the student, "Why did you misbehave in the class ?"
5. He said, "Mohan comes to college daily."
Communication Skills - I 2.47 Application of Grammar

6. He said to us, "Are you coming to the meeting today ?"

7. Sita said, "What a pretty flower this is !"
8. He said, "How many brothers do you have?"
9. He said, "What a kind-hearted man you are !"
10. The old man said, "My sons, I am dying. I wish you get all my riches."
11. I said to him, "Let us go out for a walk."
12. The boy said to the Headmaster, "Good morning, Sir. Thank you for your kindness."
13. "Alas ! What shall I do ?" Cried Lucy, "I have lost my way in the snow."
14. The speaker said, "I entirely object to your proposal. Have you considered all that this
proposal involves ? Gentlemen, I entreat you to be cautious."
15. She said to the King, "I have recognised my ring on the hand of the beggar who sits by
the side of the garden. Father, send for him that we may find out how the ring came
into his hands."
16. He said, "I have been waiting here for a long time."
17. Her mother said, 'You must go straight to your grandmother's cottage and do not loiter
on the way. There is a wolf in the wood through which you are going ; but if you keep
to the road he won't do you any harm. Now will you be a good girl and do as I tell you
?"
18. "You say", said the judge, "that the bag you lost contained one hundred and ten
pounds." "Yes, my lord", replied the miser. "Then as this one contains one hundred
pounds it cannot be yours."
19. The old man said to his friend, "Sit down and rest yourselves here on this bench. My
good wife has gone to see what you can have for supper."
20. The teacher became angry with the student and said, "Why have you again disturbed
the class in this way ? I have told you before that when I am speaking, you shall be
silent. Leave the room and do not show me your face again today."

(C) Affirmative and Negative Sentences

The form of a sentence can be changed without changing the meaning. In this topic, we will
study how affirmative sentences can be changed into negative sentences; and vice-versa.
Example 1 : He was doubtful whether it was you.
He was not sure whether it was you.
1. Mark out the word which can be changed into antonym.
2. Find out the exact opposite meaning of the word.
3. Rewrite the sentence using opposite (antonym) of that word.
4. Before using antonym use one negative word and complete the remaining part of the
sentence.
5. Note that transforming the sentence from one form to another, the meaning of the
sentence should not change.
Communication Skills - I 2.48 Application of Grammar

Conversion of (i) affirmative to negative and (ii) negative to affirmative.

Example 2 : He was too weak to walk.
He was so weak that he could not walk.
(Here, in this example, the method of Remove 'too' is used to make sentence negative).
Example 3 : As soon as he came, she went out.
No sooner did he come than she went out.
(Here, in this example, 'As soon as' is replaced by 'No sooner .... than' for converting the given
sentence into negative).
Example 4 : She is the tallest girl.
No other girl is as tall as she.
(Here, in this example, change of degree has been used to make sentence negative).
Make Negative :
1. It was doubtful whether it was you.
Ans. It was not sure that it was you.
2. I shall always remember your goodness.
Ans. I shall never forget your goodness.
3. I am a poor man.
Ans. I am not a rich man.
4. It is difficult to kill Medusa.
Ans. It is not easy to kill Medusa.
5. You are very brave.
Ans. You are not a coward.
6. Always speak the truth.
Ans. Never tell a lie.
7. Everybody will admit that English is a great language.
Ans. Nobody will deny that English is not a great language.
8. He is sometimes foolish.
Ans. He is not always wise.
9. She was too weak to run.
Ans. She was so weak that she could not run.
10. As soon as the teacher came, the boys stood up.
Ans. No sooner did the teacher come than the boys stood up.
11. He was the tallest boy.
Ans. No other boy was as tall as he.
12. He needs only love.
Ans. He needs nothing but love.
13. His mission was successful.
Ans. His mission did not fail.
14. It's a strange bird.
Ans. It is not a common bird.
Communication Skills - I 2.49 Application of Grammar

15. It's empty.

Ans. There is nothing in it. It's not full.
16. I envy the mighty sleepers.
Ans. I do not like the mighty sleepers.
17. And the cranks are always with us.
Ans. And the cranks are never away from us.
18. Her husband was dead.
Ans. Her husband was not alive.
19. Both pictures would be correct.
Ans. Neither of the pictures would be incorrect.
20. You misunderstood me.
Ans. You did not understand me correctly.
21. He could only talk about his illness.
Ans. He could talk about nothing but his illness.
22. Be careful.
Ans. Don't be careless.
23. It's risky to navigate the ship in darkness.
Ans. It's not safe to navigate the ship in darkness.
24. The light was dim.
Ans. The light was not bright.
25. They differ in face and figure, food and clothing.
Ans. They are not similar in face and figure, food and clothing.
26. Its transit failed to produce the desired stamp.
Ans. Its transit did not produce the desired stamp.
27. The smoking habit was considered dangerous.
Ans. The smoking habit was not considered safe.
28. I'll remember that.
Ans. I won't forget that.
29. In this respect it closely resembles alcohol.
Ans. In this respect it does not differ from alcohol.
Make Affirmative
1. Sounds are not easy to translate into words.
Ans. Sounds are difficult to translate into words.
2. The suitcase wasn't heavy.
Ans. The suitcase was light.
3. These shelters were not permanent.
Ans. These shelters were temporary.
4. It can't be true.
Ans. It must be false.
Communication Skills - I 2.50 Application of Grammar

5. He is not dull.
Ans. He is clever.
6. He cannot play.
Ans. He is unable to play.
7. She does not attend.
Ans. She fails to attend.
8. It is of no use.
Ans. It is useless.
9. There is nobody in the class.
Ans. There is hardly anybody in the class.
10. No one was present.
Ans. Hardly anyone was present.
11. He left no plan untried.
Ans. He tried every plan.
12. He is not happy.
Ans. He is unhappy.
13. He did not know it.
Ans. He knew little of it.
14. The light was not on.
Ans. The light was off.
15. She did not like it.
Ans. She disliked it.
16. There was nothing to see.
Ans. There was hardly anything to see.
17. I shall never break my promise.
Ans. I shall always keep my promise.
18. His sorrow knew no bounds.
Ans. His sorrow was boundless.
19. But Shankar paid no heed.
Ans. But Shankar was heedless.
20. This feeling did not prove to be far wrong.
Ans. This feeling proved to be nearly right.
21. He didn't know anything. OR
He knew nothing.
Ans. He was quite ignorant.
22. He will not be able to do it.
Ans. He will be unable to do it.
23. I can't wait any longer.
Ans. I can wait only for a while.
Communication Skills - I 2.51 Application of Grammar

24. This was not the first struggle in the life of Shri. Bapat.
Ans. There had been several other struggles earlier in the life of Shri. Bapat.
25. I don't see anything wonderful about it.
Ans. I fail to see anything wonderful about it.
I see nothing wonderful about it.
26. We didn't have much money.
Ans. We had only little money.
27. But this does not complete the task of the village worker.
Ans. But this leaves the task of the village worker incomplete.
28. No two persons will think exactly alike.
Ans. Any two persons are bound to think somewhat differently.
29. The poet was not the only one who had heard the strange melody.
Ans. There were others besides the poet who had heard the strange melody.
30. This has never been more true than in our own age.
Ans. This is more true in our own age than it has ever been.
EXERCISE
Change the following Negative sentences into Affirmative sentences and vice-versa :
1. I shall not forget your kindness.
2. There is no smoke without fire.
3. He is sometimes foolish.
4. Calcutta is the biggest city in India.
5. The two friends are not unlike each other.
6. I am not puzzled by this.
7. He is not illiterate.
8. As soon as we entered the compartment, the train started.
9. I am not tired.
10. The knife is not sharp.
11. The brave alone deserves the fair.
12. Napolean was the greatest general of his time.
13. All men are mortal.
14. Only graduates need apply for the job.
15. This fact is too evident to require a proof.
16. These fishing nets are all the wealth I own.
17. No sooner did he see the tiger than he fled.
18. I am not so intelligent as you.
19. Old men are not always wise.
20. No one but a millionaire can afford such luxuries.
Communication Skills - I 2.52 Application of Grammar

(D) Interchange of Interrogative and Assertive Sentences

A question is sometimes set, not for the sake of getting information, but to suggest the
answer that the speaker or writer desires to give.
In such interrogatives, when the question is affirmative (see example No. 1), a negative
answer is implied, and when the question is negative, (see example No. 2), an affirmative answer
is implied.
Example 1 : Interrogative : A wounded spirit who can bear ?
Assertive : No one can bear a wounded spirit.
Example 2 : Interrogative : Is not blood thicker than water ?
Assertive : Blood is thicker than water.
Transformation of Assertive into Interrogative :
Example 3 : Assertive : We were not sent into the world to make money.
Interrogative : Were we sent into the world simply to make money ?
Auxi- Sub- Main
liary ject Verb
verb.
Following method may be adopted for changing the assertive sentence to interrogative :
1. Mark out the auxiliary verb (or main verb)
2. Put the auxiliary verb (if there is no auxilliary verb but main verb) before the subject.
3. Place the subject after verb.
4. Use one negative word after subject, if there is no negative word in the first sentence.
If there is a negative word in the first sentence, remove it.
5. Use main verb and remaining part of the sentence.
6. Use interrogative mark at the end of the sentence.
Example 4 : Assertive : He was a villian to do such a deed.
Interrogative : Was he not a villian to do such a deed ?

(Negative word)
(Here negative word is used in an interrogative sentence as it is not there in the first sentence).
Example 5 : Assertive : Their glory can never fade.
Negative word
Interrogative : Can their glory ever fade ?
Here negative word is removed as it is there in the first sentence.
Make Interrogative :
1. He is a fool to do such a deed.
Isn't he a fool to do such a deed ?
2. We should not waste money on useless things.
Should we waste money on useless things ?
3. He is a very naughty boy.
Isn't he a very naughty boy ?
Communication Skills - I 2.53 Application of Grammar

4. No one can be so hard-hearted.

Can anyone be so hard-hearted ?
5. We shall never forget our kind friend.
Shall we ever forget our kind friend ?
6. We were not sent into the world simply to make money.
Were we sent into the world simply to make money ?
7. I could not bear this injustice.
Could I bear this injustice ?
8. There is nothing better than a busy life.
Is there anything better than a busy life ?
9. Death does not make any difference between man and man.
Does death make any difference between man and man ?
10. No one has seen the other face of the moon.
Has anyone seen the other face of the moon ?
11. He is the person who got the first prize.
Isn't he the person who got the first prize ?
12. I shall never forget those happy days ?
Shall I ever forget those happy days ?
13. She is a good girl.
Isn't she a good girl ?
14. There is nothing to forgive.
What is there to forgive ?
Is there anything to forgive ?
15. There is nothing nobler than love.
Is there anything nobler than love ?
16. I can never forget your kindness.
Can I ever forget your kindness ?
17. Everybody worships the rising sun.
Who doesn't worship the rising sun ?
18. We should not waste our time in idle speculations.
Should we waste our time in idle speculations ?
EXERCISE
Make Interrogative
1. I never asked you to do it.
2. I shall never forget those happy days.
3. The action of the sea is very powerful.
4. Coal mining has always been a dangerous occupation.
5. No one has found any kind of life on the moon.
6. Dr. Bhabha was a very extraordinary scientist.
7. He was a villain to do such a deed.
Communication Skills - I 2.54 Application of Grammar

8. I can never forget your kindness.

9. The child is very lovely.
10. It is foolish of Sharma to throw up his job.
11. Their glory can never fade.
12. No one can build a house on sand.
13. We were not sent into the world simply to make money.
14. He was a villain to do such a deed.
15. There is no sense in doing that.
16. Health is more precious than wealth.
17. It is useless to preach religion to a hungry man.
18. The leopard cannot change its spots.
19. That is not the way a gentleman should behave.
20. You cannot please everybody.
Conversion of Simple Sentences Into Complex
A simple sentence can be converted into a complex sentence by expanding a word or phrase
into a subordinate clause. The subordinate clause may be either (i) noun clause
(ii) adjective clause or (ii) adverb clause depending upon the nature of the sentence to be
converted.
Example 1 : Simple : He hoped to pass. (Noun clause)
Complex : He hoped that he would pass.
While converting a simple sentence into a complex one, the following steps would be
useful :
1. Find out the word or phrase which can be expanded into a subordinate clause.
2. Rewrite the main sentence.
3. Use proper conjunction for making the sentence complex.
4. Use appropriate pronoun for subordinate clause for the second sentence.
5. Use proper verb in the second sentence, keeping in mind the tense of the first
sentence.
In the above example, the main verb in the first part of the sentence is in the past
tense, hence the verb in the second sentence is also kept in the past tense.
6. Do not disturb the sequence of the tense.
7. Use the remaining part of the sentence as it is.
Example 2 : Simple : An honest man is the noblest work of God. (Adjective clause)
Complex : An honest man is the noblest work that God has created.
Follow the same method as mentioned in case of the first example and transform the
sentence.
Example 3 : Simple : He rises with his brother. (Adverb clause)
Complex : He rises when his brother rises.
Follow the same method as mentioned in case of the first example and transform the
sentence into complex.
Make complex :
1. I was certain of passing the examination.
I was certain that I would pass the examination.
Communication Skills - I 2.55 Application of Grammar

2. I helped the poor man with a large family.

I helped the poor man who had a large family.
3. Only on my friend's arrival we went to the circus.
As soon as my friend arrived, we went to the circus.
4. He studied hard to pass the examination.
He studied hard so that he might pass the examination.
5. Keep quiet, or you will be punished.
Unless you keep quiet, you will be punished.
6. The uranium atom is hit by a neutron to split it.
The uranium atom is hit by a neutron so that it may split.
7. The rock was too heavy for them to move.
The rock was so heavy that they could not move it.
8. It was good for him to hear the siren.
It was good that he heard the siren.
9. They did not know what to do .
They did not know what they should do.
10. The engineers could not decide where to build the bridge.
The engineers could not decide where they should build the bridge.
11. He made changes in the plan to make it more useful.
He made changes in the plan so that it could be more useful.
12. He was very happy to get his appointment order.
He was very happy when he got his appointment order.
13. The workers are agitating to get better wages.
The workers are agitating so that they may get better wages.
14. Mercury is not easily visible but it may sometimes be seen without a telescope.
Though Mercury is not easily visible, it may sometimes be seen without a telescope.
15. The train entered a tunnel but the lights did not go on.
Though the train entered a tunnel, the lights did not go on.
16. We have not been told when to start the work.
We have not been told when we should start the work.
17. This is the job for the artisans to complete today.
This is the job which the artisans should complete today.
18. The Russians sent a rocket past Venus to know more about the planet.
The Russians sent a rocket past Venus so that they could know more about the planet.
19. The directors were satisfied to see the scale model.
The directors were satisfied when they saw the scale model.
20. The model car is put to severe tests to make it foolproof.
The model car is put to severe tests so that it can be made foolproof.
21. He has gone to the U.S.A. to specialise in glass technology.
He has gone to the U.S.A. so that he may specialise in glass technology.
Communication Skills - I 2.56 Application of Grammar

22. Being tired, we returned home.

We returned home because we were tired.
23. The boys stood up at the entry of the teacher.
As soon as the teacher entered, the boys stood up.
24. I make a promise, only to keep it.
If I make a promise, I keep it.
25. He is rich but he is not happy.
Though he is rich, he is not happy.
26. Having finished his work, he left the office.
When he finished his work, he left the office.
27. Here comes the girl with blue eyes.
Here comes the girl whose eyes are blue.
28. Behave well or you will be punished.
Unless you behave well, you will be punished.
29. The job was difficult but they did not give it up.
Although the job was difficult, they did not give it up.
30. Any task well–accomplished gives satisfaction.
Any task, which is well–accomplished, gives satisfaction.
Conversion of Complex Sentences into Simple
Complex sentences, containing noun clause, introduced by the conjunction "that", a Relative
pronoun and Relative adverb, can be converted into simple ones by the substitution of nouns for
such noun clauses.
Example 1 : Complex : He confessed that he was guilty.
Simple : He confessed his guilt.
1. Mark out the subordinate clause.
2. Remove the conjunction.
3. Remove the pronoun (It means remove the subject of the second sentence).
4. Use proper word which can be perfectly substituted.
5. Rewrite the remaining part of the sentence, if any.
Example 2 : Complex : Tell me when and where you were born.
Simple : Tell me the time and place of your birth.
(Follow the same method as mentioned in the first example)
Example 3 : Complex : You are at liberty to criticise what I did.
Simple : You are at liberty to criticise my action.
(Follow the same method as mentioned in the first example).
Make Simple :
1. He finished his work and went home.
After finishing his work he went home.
2. We must help those who are in need.
We must help the needy.
Communication Skills - I 2.57 Application of Grammar

3. He accepted that he was wise.

He accepted his wisdom.
4. He was so poor that he could not pay his fees.
He was too poor to pay his fees.
5. Though he is wealthy, he is not happy.
In spite of his wealth, he is not happy.
6. He collects a lamp from the lamp room and goes to the pit head.
Collecting a lamp from the lamp room, he goes to the pit head.
7. My friend arrived, and we went for a walk.
On my friend's arrival, we went for a walk.
8. You must not be late or you will be punished.
In the event of your being late you will be punished.
9. He worked hard but he did not succeed.
In spite of his hard work, he did not succeed.
10. They were surprised when they saw the atomic reactor at Trombay.
They were surprised to see the atomic reactor at Trombay.
11. The man ran so that he could catch the bus.
The man ran to catch the bus.
12. We are proud that we have built the bridge in a year.
We are proud to have built the bridge in a year.
13. They build fuel tanks so that they can store petrol for the trucks.
They build fuel tanks to store petrol for the trucks.
14. The manager knows who he should order for the supply of the parts.
The manager knows who to order for the supply of the parts.
15. The engineer advised the overseer what he should do in the situation.
The engineer advised the overseer what to do in the situation.
16. The car is so expensive that I cannot buy it.
The car is too expensive for me to buy.
17. Chlorine is added to water so that it may kill the germs.
Chlorine is added to water to kill the germs.
18. The bank gave him a loan so that he may set up a factory.
The bank gave him a loan to set up a factory.
19. A volcano gives plenty of warning before it is going to erupt.
A volcano gives plenty of warning before erupting.
20. He must start early or he will not reach the office in time.
Without starting early he will not reach the office in time.
21. She was unhappy because she had lost her passport.
Having lost her passport, she was unhappy.
22. He expected that he would see his friend at the function.
He expected to see his friend at the function.
Communication Skills - I 2.58 Application of Grammar

23. As the invaders had gained the victory, they left at once.
Having gained the victory, the invaders left at once.
24. Success often comes to people who work hard.
Success often comes to hard – working people.
25. I know what he is thinking.
I know his thoughts.
26. He tried hard but he could not mend the engine.
In spite of trying hard he could not mend the engine.
27. The workers were so tired that they did not wake up.
The workers were too tired to wake up.
28. What you really want is to sell the land.
You really want to sell the land.
29. It has not only lengthened life but it has deepened its quality.
Besides lengthening life, it has also deepened its quality.
30. Keep this in mind and act accordingly.
Keeping this in mind, act accordingly.
EXERCISE
Make complex sentences :
1. He was obviously a well–intentioned person.
2. His father is not likely to punish him.
3. They started with breaking a cup.
4. Sudhir admitted his guilt.
5. I have informed him of our success.
6. The fog having lifted, the plane took off.
7. Being an air hostess, she has seen most of the world.
8. In spite of all precautions, the dam burst.
9. Let us wait till his arrival.
10. He was too weak to walk.
11. On seeing the police, he ran away.
12. He bought his brother's property.
13. The reason for his arrest is still unknown.
14. Only on my friend's arrival we went for a walk.
15. At the end of the war, the United Nations was formed.
16. I saw a wounded bird.
17. This proves his innocence.
18. Hard–working pupils may win a prize.
19. Tell me the time and place of your birth.
20. The sun having set, we had better start for home.
Conversion of compound sentences into simple sentences :
The form of a sentence can be changed without changing the meaning. In this topic, we will
study how compound sentences can be changed into simple sentences and vice–versa.
A compound sentence can be transformed into a simple sentence by converting the coordinate
clause into a phrase.
Communication Skills - I 2.59 Application of Grammar

For example :
1. They worked hard, but they did not succeed. (Compound Sentence)
In spite of hard work, they did not succeed. (Simple Sentence)
2. That dress can't be yours, for it is too big. (Compound)
That dress is too big to be yours. (Simple)
3. You must stop consuming sugar or you cannot recover from this illness. (Compound)
You must stop consuming sugar to recover from the illness. (Simple)
4. He completed his studies and went home. (Compound)
Having completed his studies, he went home. (Simple)
5. He was tired, so he lay down. (Compound)
Being tired, he lay down. (Simple)
EXERCISE
Rewrite the following compound sentences as simple ones :
1. They were ill, and, therefore, they could not attend the meeting.
2. He was careless, yet he passed.
3. Make haste or you will miss the train.
4. He is rich, but he is not satisfied.
5. They are poor, but they do not complain.
6. The manager took all precautions, yet the workers went on Strike.
7. The boiler suit cannot be yours, for it is too short.
8. He ate excessively, so he suffered from fatness.
9. Students must study hard or they will not pass.
10. Not only men, but women and children were also affected.
Complex Sentences into Compound sentences
A complex sentence can be transformed into compound sentence by changing the
subordinate clause into a co-ordinate clause.
For example :
1. He takes regular exercise so that he may be fit. (Complex)
He wants to be fit; therefore, he takes regular exercise. (Compound).
2. If you don't study sincerely, you will lose your position in the class. (Complex)
Study sincerely or else you will lose your position in the class. (Compound)
3. Though I warned him again, the boy did not care to correct himself. (Complex)
I warned the boy again, but he did not care to correct himself. (Compound)
4. Unless you improve your behaviour, you will be expelled from the institute. (Complex)
Improve your behaviour or else you will be expelled from the institute. (Compound)
5. The mob dispersed as soon as the police arrived. (Complex)
The police arrived and the mob dispersed. (Compound)
Communication Skills - I 2.60 Application of Grammar

EXERCISE
Rewrite the following complex sentences as compound sentences :
1. In spite of the fact that we helped him in every way, he failed.
2. It is unfortunate that he has failed.
3. I like the book which my friend had presented to me.
4. We are quite sure that they will come here.
5. It began to rain heavily when I reached the institute.
6. He came first in his class is a matter of great pride.
7. I know that he is a liar.
8. I went home after I had finished my practicals.
9. He accepted the advice that I gave him.
10. He must suffer because he is mistaken.
Interchange of exclamatory sentences to Assertive Sentences
An exclamatory sentence can be transformed into an assertive sentence with the same
meaning.
For example :
1. How attractive this picnic spot is ! (Exclamation)
This picnic spot is very attractive. (Assertion)
2. What a fool he is ! (Exclamation)
He is a great fool. (Assertion)
EXERCISE
Write the following exclamatory sentences as assertives carrying the same meaning :
1. How glad was I to be in my house once again !
2. What a beautiful scene this is !
3. How depressed he looks !
4. What a coward he is !
5. Oh if I were young again !
EXERCISE
Rewrite the following assertive sentences as exclamatory sentences :
1. They are very foolish.
2. It was a horrible accident.
3. It was avery tragic message.
4. She sings very sweetly.
5. He made a silly mistake.
6. His performance is very poor.

(E) Question Tag

The term Question Tag, which is also called ‘tag question’, is a phrase added at the end of a
statement so as to turn it into a question in order to ascertain that the statement made is correct.
To use a question tag is common practice in a conversation. This phrase is generally in the form of
a short question. For example,
It is very cold, isn't it ?
or
He can't read, can he ?
Communication Skills - I 2.61 Application of Grammar

The underlined phrases in the above examples are called as question tag or tag question.
The general pattern of question tag is –
(i) Auxiliary verb + n't + subject, if the statement is positive and
(ii) Auxiliary verb + subject, if the statement is negative.
It is a point to be noted that the subject of the question tag is always a pronoun but never
a noun. It should also be noted that the question tag is negative when the main sentence is
positive and it is positive when the main sentence is negative.
Some more examples of question tag are given below :
(1) He is always ready, isn't he ?
(2) She doesn't know him, does she ?
(3) He is busy, isn't he ?
(4) My mother sings well, doesn't she ?
(5) It is pouring outside, isn't it ?
(6) Ashok doesn't play well, does he ?

EXERCISE
Add question tag to the following :
(1) He is wrong.
(2) She doesn't argue.
(3) They have purchased a plot.
(4) His father is an engineer.
(5) We are working hard.
(6) She lost her temper.
(7) My job is over.
(8) They are shouting loudly.
(9) The college is very big.
(10) People are not lazy.

(F) Remove Too

The transformation of sentences concerns with the changing of sentence from one
grammatical form to another without altering its sense or meaning.
Removing an adverb 'too' is one of the methods of transforming a sentence. There are
different ways and means of transforming different types of sentences by using the adverb 'too.'
(i) So ......... that ......... not/cannot .........
Example : You are too young to understand this.
After removing too the sentence becomes :
You are so young that you cannot understand this.
In this type, the main verb from the original sentence takes the form in a negative sense
after removing the adverb 'too'.
Communication Skills - I 2.62 Application of Grammar

(ii) More than necessary.

Example : Too many cooks spoil the broth.
After removing too the sentence becomes : More than necessary cooks spoil the broth.
(iii) Excessively.
Example : Do not be too eager to praise.
After removing too the sentence becomes : Do not be excessively eager to praise.
In order to attempt this question the following steps be followed :
1. First of all mark out the main sentence and phrase.
2. Use 'so' in the place of 'too' and rewrite the sentence.
3. Use one suitable conjunction 'that or which' – whichever is applicable.
4. Use one suitable pronoun, according to the sense of the first sentence to work as the
subject of the second sentence.
5. Main sentence Use in Second Sentence
(a) Present Tense Cannot
(b) Past Tense. Could not.
6. Use the remaining part of the sentence.
7. In some sentences, the second sentence can be changed to Passive Voice, to make the
meaning clear.
For removing the adverb 'too', [questions can be asked in different ways]. The following are
the methods by which the question can be asked :
(A) Remove 'too'
(B) Use 'so'
(C) Make complex
(D) Make negative.
It means that, in removing the adverb 'too' we are expected to follow all the above
conditions. Only then, the given question can be transformed without changing its sense.
Remove 'too'
1. This tree is too high for me to climb.
Ans. This tree is so high that I cannot climb it.
2. The motor–cyclist was going too fast for the police–car to overtake it.
Ans. The motor–cyclist was going so fast that he could not be overtaken by the police-car the
police-car could not overtake him.
3. He was sobbing too deeply to answer.
Ans. He was sobbing so deeply that he could not answer.
4. This news is too good to be true.
Ans. This news is so good that it cannot be true.
5. He is too old to walk.
Ans. He is so old that he cannot walk.
6. He is too proud to beg.
Ans. He is so proud that he will not beg.
Communication Skills - I 2.63 Application of Grammar

7. These mangoes are too cheap to be good.

Ans. These mangoes are so cheap that they cannot be good.
8. She was too weak to move about in the house.
Ans. She was so weak that she could not move about in the house.
9. He was too tired to work.
Ans. He was so tired that he could not work.
10. He was too busy to pay attention to his son's education.
Ans. He was so busy that he could not pay attention to his son's education.
11. It is too late for us to do anything this evening.
Ans. It is so late, that we cannot do anything this evening.
12. The light was too dim for him to take aim.
Ans. The light was so dim that he could not take aim.
13. The slippers were too large for her to wear properly.
Ans. The slippers were so large that she could not wear them properly.
14. The ice was too thick to break into pieces.
Ans. The ice was so thick that it could not be broken into pieces.
15. The class is too crowded to be controlled.
Ans. The class is so crowded that it cannot be controlled.
16. Akbar was too shrewd to be deceived by the words of the courtiers.
Ans. Akbar was so shrewd that he could not be deceived by the words of the courtiers.
17. The summer is too severe to change the place of the regiment.
Ans. The summer is so severe that the place of the regiment cannot be changed.
18. He was too excited to eat.
Ans. He was so excited that he could not eat.
19. It was too late for them to save their fishing gear.
Ans. It was so late that they could not save their fishing gear.
20. The stone was too heavy to move.
Ans. The stone was so heavy that it could not be moved.
21. She is too fat to run.
Ans. She is so fat that she cannot run.
22. You love your girls too much to neglect such an acquaintance.
Ans. You love your girls so much that you cannot neglect such an acquaintance.
23. This fact is too evident to require proof.
Ans. This fact is so evident that it does not require proof.
24. The example is too difficult for him to solve.
Ans. The example is so difficult that he cannot solve it.
The example is excessively difficult for him to solve.
25. It was too cold for me to go out.
Ans. It was so cold that I could not go out.
26. It is too dark to see.
Ans. It is so dark that nothing can be seen.
27. They were too late to avoid another disaster.
Ans. They were so late that they could not avoid another disaster.
28. It is never too late to mend.
Ans. It is never so late that it cannot be mended.
Communication Skills - I 2.64 Application of Grammar

29. He is too poor to afford a car.

Ans. He is so poor that he cannot afford a car.
30. It was too expensive for her to buy.
Ans. It was so expensive that she could not buy it.
EXERCISE
Remove 'too' from the following sentences :
1. She was too old to walk fast.
2. Her sorrow was too deep to be wept away.
3. He is too honest to deceive his neighbours.
4. The news is too absurd to believe.
5. The resistance of air was too great for the aeroplane to fly at a high speed.
6. The question is too difficult to solve.
7. They are too poor to pay for shelter.
8. The crowd was too fierce to control.
9. Sheela was too proud to talk to us.
10. Shekhar is too fat to run.
11. It is too far to go on foot.
12. The boy was too clever to be taught.
13. He is too old to work.
14. The teacher speaks too fast to be understood.
15. The book is too lengthy to complete within a day.
16. The news is too bad to be false.
17. He is too clever to be deceived.
18. It is too hot to drink.
19. He is too poor to buy books.
20. The weather is too bad for us to go out.
21. The building is too old to be repaired.
22. We reached the station too late to catch the train.
23. He is too ill to go to school today.
24. He is too good to do harm to anybody.
25. He was too reserved to make any friends.
Change of Degree :
Comparison of Adjective
Change of degree has a basic concern with the part of speech viz. adjective. Hence the
concept of what is an adjective must be very clear in the minds of the students. An Adjective can
be defined as "A word used with a noun to describe, or point out, the person, animal, place or
thing which the noun names, or to tell the number or quantity." In other words, it can be stated
as a word used with a noun to add something to its meaning.
For example : He is a happy boy.
Here, the word 'happy' shows what kind of boy he is. However, the extent of
happiness of the boy is not clear.
He is happier than Hari.
In this sentence, however, the adjective 'happier' tells us that his happiness is greater than
Hari's happiness, when compared with one another.
He is the happiest boy in the class.
Communication Skills - I 2.65 Application of Grammar

Here, the adjective 'happiest' tells us the highest degree of happiness.

It can be seen from the above examples that the adjective 'happy' changes its form to happier
or, happiest to show the comparison. They are called Degrees of Comparison.
1. The adjective 'happy' is said to be in the Positive Degree.
2. The adjective 'happier' is said to be in the Comparative Degree.
3. The adjective 'happiest' is said to be in the Superlative Degree.
The Positive Degree of an adjective is in its simple form. It denotes a mere existence of some
quality of what we speak. It is used when no comparison is made.
The Comparative degree of an adjective denotes a higher degree of the quality than that of
the positive, and it is used when two things (or sets of things) are compared.
The Superlative Degree of an adjective denotes the highest degree of the quality, and is used
when more than two things are compared.
Formation of Comparative and Superlative forms of adjectives :
1. Most of the adjectives of one syllable and some of more than one syllable form the
comparatives by adding 'er' and the Superlative by adding 'est' to their Positive form.
Example :
Positive Comparative Superlative
Tall (one syllable) Taller Tallest
Happy (More than Happier Happiest
one syllable).
2. Adjectives of more than two syllables, and also many of those with two syllables, form
their Comparatives by using the adverb more and their Superlatives by using the adverb most
with the positive form.
Example :
Positive Comparative Superlative
Beautiful more beautiful Most beautiful
Useful more useful Most useful
Irregular Comparison
There are also certain adjectives which are termed as irregular; that is, their comparative and
superlative are not obtained from the Positive. In other words, the comparatives and superlatives
are altogether different from their positives.
Example :
Positive Comparative Superlative
Good, well better best
Bad, evil, ill worse worst
Much more most
Many more most
Far farther farthest
Little less, lesser least
Fore former, further foremost, first, furtherest
The following method be adopted for transforming sentences from one degree to another
degree.
1. Mark out the adjective from the given sentence.
2. Find out the degree of the adjective, and write it.
3. Interchange the places of both the nouns.
Communication Skills - I 2.66 Application of Grammar

4. Use an appropriate verb without changing the tense of the second sentence.
5. Use one negative word before the adjective, if it is not used in the first sentence. If
there is a negative word in the first sentence, remove that negative word.
6. Use the adjective in the required degree.
7. After using the adjective, use the conjunction 'than.'
8. Keep the remaining part of the sentence as it is.
Example :
Hari is as tall as Rama. (Positive)

Adjective
Rama is not taller than Hari. (Comparative)
Verb negative word adjective conjunction.
Interchange of the Degrees of Comparison
The following example shows that it is possible to change the degree of comparison of an
adjective into other degrees like positive degree and superlative degree, without changing the
meaning of the sentence. This can be well illustrated by taking an example of a sentence in the
comparison.
Change from Positive to Comparative :
The following method may be adopted for transferring sentences from positive to
comparative.
1. Find the adjective from the given sentence.
2. The last noun mentioned in the sentence is to be taken in the beginning as the subject
for the Comparative Degree.
3. Use the proper verb, without changing the tense.
4. Use the adjective, in the required degree, i.e., in comparative.
5. After using the adjective, it is necessary to use the conjunction 'than'.
6. In case the positive degree starts with 'No other', it is necessary to use 'Any other' after
the conjunction in the Comparative Degree.
7. Use the noun which comes in the beginning of the positive sentence.
8. Use the remaining part of the sentence, as it is.
Example :
Positive No other city in India is as beautiful as Mumbai.

Comparative Mumbai is more beautiful than any other city in India.

Comparative Degree
conjunction
Superlative Mumbai is the most beautiful city in India.
In the example mentioned above, comparison is done between one city and the remaining
cities in India.
Change from Comparative to Superlative :
The following methods may be adopted for transferring sentences from comparative to
superlative.
A. 1. Use the same subject, as it is used in the Comparative Degree.
2. Use the proper verb without changing the tense.
Communication Skills - I 2.67 Application of Grammar

3. Use 'the'.
4. Use the adjective in the Superlative Degree.
5. Use the noun.
6. Use the remaining part of the sentence.
Example :
In this example, comparison is done between a few and the remaining cities in India.
Positive Very few cities in India are as beautiful as Mumbai.

Comparative Mumbai is more beautiful than most other cities in India

Superlative Mumbai is one of the most beautiful cities in India.

B. 1. Find the adjective as well as its degree from the given sentence.
2. The last noun mentioned in the sentence is to be taken in the beginning as the subject
for the comparative degree.
3. Use the proper verb, without changing the tense.
4. Use the adjective in the required degree.
5. After using the adjective, it is necessary to use the conjunction 'than'.
6. In case the positive degree starts with "very few", it is necessary to use "most other"
after the conjunction in the comparative degree.
7. Use the noun which comes in the beginning of the positive sentence.
8. Use the remaining part of the sentence.
Change of Degree from comparison to positive (when the comparison is between two objects).
1. Ram is cleverer than Hari.
Ans. Hari is not as clever as Ram.
2. Seeta is taller than Geeta.
Ans. Geeta is not as tall as Seeta.
3. Plastic is cheaper than rubber.
Ans. Rubber is not as cheap as plastic.
4. It's much more interesting than your album of film stars.
Ans. Your album of film stars is not as interesting as this.
5. Soft-footed animals are a little more difficult to track than hard-footed ones.
Ans. Hard–footed animals are not as difficult to track as soft-footed ones.
6. Nephews are worse than nieces.
Ans. Nieces are not as bad as nephews.
7. Light music is more popular than classical music.
Ans. Classical music is not as popular as light music.
8. Iron is more useful than copper.
Ans. Copper is not as useful as iron.
9. Astrologers are more popular than astronomers.
Ans. Astronomers are not as popular as astrologers.
10. I could see better than I had ever seen in my life.
Ans. I had never in my life seen as well as I could see then.
Change of Degree from superlative to comparative and positive.
When the comparison is between (a) One and remaining (b) Few and remaining.
(a) One and remaining
1. Ram is the cleverest boy in the class. (Superlative)
Ram is cleverer than any other boy in the class. (Comparative)
No other boy in the class is as clever as Ram. (Positive)
Communication Skills - I 2.68 Application of Grammar

2. Calcutta is the largest city in India. (Superlative)

Calcutta is larger than any other city in India. (Comparative)
No other city in India is as large as Kolkata. (Positive)
3. Alfred was the best assistant in the shop. (Superlative)
Alfred was better than any other assistant in the shop. (Comparative)
No other assistant in the shop was as good as Alfred. (Positive)
4. Television is the quickest means of reaching out to our people. (Superlative)
Television is quicker than any other means of reaching out to our people (Comparative)
No other means of reaching out to our people is as quick as television. (Positive).
5. Onam is the biggest festival in Kerala. (Superlative)
Onam is bigger than any other festival in Kerala. (Comparative)
No other festival in Kerala is as big as Onam. (Positive)
6. Spring is the lovelist season. (Superlative)
Spring is lovelier than any other season. (Comparative)
No other season is as lovely as spring. (Positive)
7. Helen was the most beautiful woman. (Superlative)
Helen was more beautiful than any other woman. (Comparative)
No other woman was as beautiful as Helen. (Positive)
8. Iron is the most useful metal. (Superlative)
Iron is more useful than any other metal. (Comparative)
No other metal is as useful as iron. (Positive)
9. Village work is the best form of recreation. (Superlative)
Village work is better than any other form of recreation. (Comparative)
No other form of recreation is as good as village work. (Positive)
10. The most important of all this services was his contribution in the field of education.
(Superlative)
His contribution in the field of education was more important than any other of his
services. (Comparative)
No other of his services was as important as his contribution in the field of education.
(Positive)
(b) Few and remaining :
1. Ram is one of the cleverest boys in the class. (Superlative)
Ram is cleverer than most other boys in the class. (Comparative)
Very few boys in the class are as clever as Ram. (Positive)
2. Swimming is one of the healthiest exercises. (Superlative)
Swimming is healthier than most other exercises. (Comparative)
Very few other exercises are as healthy as swimming. (Positive)
3. Mumbai is one of the biggest cities in India. (Superlative)
Mumbai is bigger than most other cities in India. (Comparative)
Very few cities in India are as big as Mumbai. (Positive)
4. Einstein is one of the greatest scientists of modern times. (Superlative)
Einstein is greater than most other scientists of modern times. (Comparative)
Very few other scientists of modern times are as great as Einstein. (Positive)
5. Birbal was one of the most famous ministers of Emperor Akbar. (Superlative)
Birbal was more famous than most other ministers of Emperor Akbar. (Comparative)
Very few other ministers of Emperor Akbar were as famous as Birbal. (Positive)
6. She is one of my best friends. (Superlative)
She is better than most of my other friends. (Comparative)
Very few of my friends are as good as she is. (Positive)
Communication Skills - I 2.69 Application of Grammar

7. Mr. Bennet was among the earliest of those who waited on Mr. Bingley. (Superlative)
Mr. Bennet was earlier than most others who waited on Mr. Bingley. (Comparative)
Very few others who waited on Mr. Bingley were as early as Mr. Bennet. (Positive)
8. Curiosity is one of the noblest instincts of man. (Superlative)
Curiosity is nobler than most other instincts of man. (Comparative)
Very few other instincts of man are as noble as curiosity. (Positive)
9. He was one of the happiest farmers in his town. (Superlative)
He was happier than most other farmers in his town. (Comparative)
Very few other farmers in his town were as happy as he. (Positive)
10. This is one of the best books on the subject. (Superlative)
This is better than most other books on the subject. (Comparative)
Very few other books on the subject are as good as this. (Positive)
EXERCISE
Change the degree of the following sentences :
1. Madras is one of the biggest cities in India.
2. Sir John Cochrane was the most formidable rebel.
3. Gold is the most precious of all metals.
4. No leader in India was as popular as Mahatma Gandhi.
5. India is one of the hottest countries in the world.
6. No other metal is as useful as iron.
7. In the Grammar School she was the brightest of all the girls.
8. Riding is the best kind of exercise.
9. Einstein is one of the greatest scientists of the modern times.
10. Mumbai is one of the richest towns in India.
11. Everest is higher than all other peaks.
12. His father is richer than all other men in the town.
13. The aeroplane flies faster than do the birds.
14. The rose is the sweetest of all flowers.
15. The Kohinoor is one of the largest of diamonds.
16. The air of plains is not so cool as that of hills.
17. A wise enemy is better than a foolish friend.
18. Milk is the most nourishing food.
19. This is the most interesting novel I have read.
20. The Ganges is the longest river in India.
EXERCISE
Use the following adjectives in sentences of your own.
accountability efficient luxurious rigorous
aeronautical embracing Measurable Tiniest
Appreciative enthusiastic Mechanism Traditional
Arrant Ghastly Multinational tragic
atmospheric Glamorous Organic Transparent
breezier Hostile Photographic Unanimous
Despondent Humanitarian Provincial unintelligivly
destructive incomparable racist vulgar
disable Inevitable Rhythmic wispy
Communication Skills - I 2.70 Application of Grammar

(G) Use of Articles

In modern grammar, the term determiner is frequently used. A determiner is a word that
comes before a noun to limit its meaning. The determiners are broadly classified
into :
(i) Articles,
(ii) Demonstrative adjectives,
(iii) Possessive adjectives and,
(iv) Adjectives of quality.
DETERMINERS

Articles Demonstrative Possessive adjectives Adjectives of

adjectives quantity & number
a this my Some
an that our Any
the these your Much
those his Many
her All
its Both
their Few
Little
Each
Every
Either
Neither
One
Two
First
Second etc.
(i) Articles : Articles are of two types :
Articles
_____________________

Indefinite Definite
The articles 'a' and 'an' are called indefinite articles. They are called indefinite because they
do not specify a person or a thing spoken of.
For example :
(i) A teacher guides many students.
(ii) Take an umbrella for protection from rain.
In the above sentences, the words teacher and umbrella are nouns preceded by the articles 'a'
and 'an' respectively. They do not specify any particular teacher or umbrella but any teacher or
any umbrella. The article 'the' is called as a definite article as it is used to denote something
specific in the context.
Communication Skills - I 2.71 Application of Grammar

1. Indefinite Article
(a) The choice between a and an is determined by the sound with which the noun begins.
Before a singular countable noun beginning with a consonant-sound, the article 'a' is
used while before the singular countable noun beginning with a vowel - sound, the
article 'an' is used.
For example :
Singular nouns beginning with a consonant Singular nouns beginning with a vowel
sound sound
A book An engine
A pen An enemy
A table An hour
A chair An honest man
A teacher An elephant
A pencil An instrument
A duster An umbrella
The nouns under Col. 1 are preceded by the indefinite article 'a' while those under Col. 2 are
preceded by the indefinite article 'an'.
The words like hour, honest though begin with a consonant, the initial consonant 'h' is not
pronounced i.e. it is silent. As a result, their pronunciation begins with a vowel sound; hence they
are preceded by the article 'an'. The words like European, university although begin with a
vowel, the initial vowel is not pronounced like the word, 'you'. Similarly, in the word like 'one',
the initial vowel 'w' and hence takes the article 'a'.
(b) The articles a/an are used to denote one.
For example : We can visit Pune, if we get a days' holiday.
Twelve inches make a foot.
Not a word was said by him.
A word to the wise is enough.
(c) Articles a/an are used in the vague sense as _____
For example : One morning, a student visited my house. Here 'a student' means not a
particular student.
(d) They can also be used in the sense of 'any' i.e. to single out an individual as the
representative of a class.
For example : A student should respect his teacher.
(e) Indefinite articles 'a' and 'an' are used to convert a proper noun into a common noun.
For example : A Daniel comes to judgement.
The word 'A Daniel' stands for a very wise man.
2. Definite Article :
'The' is called as a Definite article because it points out some particular person or thing in the
context :
Uses of the Definite Article 'the'.
The Definite Article 'the'
(1) When we speak of a particular person or thing or the one already referred to.
For example : We like the fellow.
The book we want is not available.
Let me go to the club.
In the above sentences, the words 'fellow', 'book' and 'club' are particular in the context.
Communication Skills - I 2.72 Application of Grammar

(2) When a singular noun is meant to represent a whole class.

For example : The horse is a useful animal.
The word 'horse' in the above sentence represent the whole class of horses.
The two nouns viz. 'man' and 'woman' used in the general sense to denote the whole class
do not take any article.
For example : Man is an intelligent being.
(3) With the names of gulfs, rivers, seas, oceans, groups of islands and mountain ranges.
For example : The Indian Ocean, the Himalayas, the Laccadive Islands, the Ganges.
(4) Before the names of certain books.
For example : The Ramayan, the Vedas.
(5) Before nouns which are the names of the things unique of their kind.
For example : The Sun, the sky, the moon, and the earth.
(6) 'The' is used before a proper noun only when it is qualified by an adjective or a defining
adjectival clause.
For example : The Mr. Patil whom you met yesterday is my brother.
(7) With superlatives.
For example : This is the best book I have ever read.
(8) With ordinals.
For example : She was the first woman to arrive.
(9) Before musical instruments.
For example : She can play the flute.
(10) Before an adjective when the noun is understood.
For example : The rich are never with us.
(11) Before a noun (with emphasis) to give the force of superlative.
For example : The verb is the word (the main word) in a sentence.
(12) As an adverb with comparatives.
For example : The more we get, the more we want.
Omission of Articles
No article is used –
(1) No article is used before a noun when used in its widest sense.
For example : Man is mortal.
(2) before material nouns.
For example : Silver is a precious metal.
Tea is grown in India.
(3) before proper nouns.
For example : Kolkatta is a big city.
Mumbai is the Capital of Maharashtra.
Newton was a great scientist.
Article 'the' is, however, used before a proper noun when it is used in the sense of
common nouns.
For example : Mumbai is the Manchester of our country.
(4) before Abstract nouns used in the general sense.
For example : Honesty is the best policy.
The article is however, used before an Abstract noun, when it is qualified by an adjective
or an adjectival phrase or clause.
For example : We cannot forget the kindness with which they treated us.
Communication Skills - I 2.73 Application of Grammar

(5) before languages.

For example : He is studying English.
We speak Marathi.
(6) before the name of a college, school, temple, bed, table, hospital, market, prison, when
these places are visited or used for their primary purpose.
For example : We learnt Marathi at School
We visit temple daily
They stay in bed till early morning.
The article 'the', is however, used with these words when we refer them as a definite
place, building or object rather than a place, building or object where the normal activity
goes on.
For example : The school is near my house.
I met him at the temple.
The bed is neat and clean.
(7) before names of relations, like mother, father uncle, aunt and also cook and nurse
meaning 'our cook' or 'our nurse'.
For example : Father has come.
Mother wants to see him.
Cook has left home.
(8) before predicative norms denoting a unique position i.e. a position that is normally held
by one person only at one time.
For example : He is elected president of the Council.
Mr. Patil became principal of the College in 1994.
(9) certain phrases consisting of transitive verb followed by its object.
For example : To catch fire, to give battle, to send word, to lose heart, to leave home etc.
(10) The article is omitted in certain phrases consisting of a preposition followed by its object.
For example : At home, in hand, at daybreak, at noon, at sunset etc.
EXERCISE 1
Use 'a' or 'an' wherever necessary and rewrite the following sentences :
1. _______ spade is _______ instrument.
2. _______ potato is _______ vegetable.
3. _______ cigar is made of _______ tobacco.
4. _______ oil refinery is _______ place where _______ crude oil is purified.
5. We can write _______ letter in _______ ink.
6. _______ magnet attracts _______ piece of _______ iron.
7. What is _______ volcano ? It is not _______ mountain of _______ fire as most of us think.
8. _______ coat is made of _______ wool.
9. _______ cloud of _______ smoke hangs over the crater, out of which _______ molten rock
pours.
10. _______ butter and _______ cheese are made from _______ milk.
11. _______ water soaks slowly downward through _______ sand and _______ gravel.
12. In _______ ordinary electric power station we burn _______ fuel to get _______ heat.
13. Blard's first apparatus was made of _______ old tea–chest _______ biscuit tin _______
thick lens and _______ toy electric motor.
Communication Skills - I 2.74 Application of Grammar

14. Galileo was _______ lecturer in _______ mathematics at _______ university in _______
town called Pisa in _______ Italy.
15. A dog is _______ animal.
16. _______ chair is made of wood.
17. _______ eye is blue or brown.
18. _______ fish can swim.
19. _______ cow gives milk.
20. _______ picture is pretty.
21. _______ apple grows on _______ tree.
22. We can make _______ cake with flour, milk and _______ egg.
23. A writer writes _______ book.
24. Copper is _______ useful metal.
25. He returned after _______ hour.
26. I first met him _______ year ago.
27. Yesterday _______ European met me.
28. He came without _______ umbrella.
29. She is _______ untidy girl.
30. I bought _______ horse, _______ ox and _______ buffalo.

EXERCISE 2
Rewrite the following sentences inserting articles (a, an, or the) wherever necessary :
1. Only best quality is sold by us.
2. What kind of bird is that ?
3. It was proudest moment of his life.
4. April is fourth month of year
5. Man cannot live by bread alone.
6. Umbrella is of no use against storm.
7. Iron is metal.
8. There is fly in Lemonade.
9. Some birds can fly very high in sky.
10. I should like a house in country.
11. He went to fetch pale of water.
12. Do you prefer book of Engineering science ?
13. Youngest brother is at school now. If you go to school by bus, you will be just in time to
see him.
14. Book on that shelf is interesting one.
15. He took up swimming as sport.
16. Telex looks like large typewriter.
17. Yesterday he met man, man was engineer.
18. Specification is a secret document passed on to stylist and engineers stylists study
document very carefully.
19. Sun has risen but moon can still be seen in sky.
20. My friend took me to site of dam.
21. I saw mechanical shovel at work site.
22. He has become politician.
Communication Skills - I 2.75 Application of Grammar

23. Concrete that is used for building this road is not good.
24. Water that we use is free from germs.
25. Vapour when cooled turns into liquid.
26. Mason fell off scaffolding. Immediately mason was rushed to hospital.
27. Boy took pen from table and wrote letter.
28. River was spanned by iron bridge.
29. Moon did not rise till after ten.
30. There is nothing like staying at home for comfort.
(ii) Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives show a person or thing spoken about. They answer the question
'which' ?
The demonstrative adjectives this and that are used with singular nouns, while, 'these' and
'those' are used with plural nouns.
For example : This student is stronger than Rama.
That lady is intelligent.
These fruits are sweet.
Those persons must be rewarded.
(iii) Possessive Adjectives
Following are the possessive adjectives which belong to the group of determiners :
(My, our, your, his, her, its, their)
For example : This is my pen.
(Possessive adjectives are formed from pronominal adjectives)
The word 'his' can be used both as an adjective as well as a pronoun.
For example : This is his pen. (Possessive Adjective)
This pen is his. (Possessive pronoun)
(iv) Adjectives of quantity and number
Following determiners belong to the group of adjectives of quantity and number.
Some, any , much, many, all, both, few, little, each, every, either, neither, one, two, first,
second etc.
Some : 'Some' is used with countables as well as uncountables in affirmative sentences. When
it is used with a countable noun, it is the plural of ‘an’ and means 'an unknown number' of the
noun. When it is used with an uncountable noun, it means 'an unknown quantity' of that noun.
For example : Some (of these) chemicals are used for protecting plants. (unknown number)
Some (of the) oil is used for fuel. (unknown quantity).
Any : Any is used with countables and uncountables in interrogative and negative sentences
in the sense of one or some.
For example : Is there any student here ? (countables)
There are hardly any students in the class (countables)
Are there any hills in that part ? (uncountable)
There is hardly any material left of the work (uncountable)
Communication Skills - I 2.76 Application of Grammar

EXERCISES 3
Use 'some' and 'any' where required in the following sentences and rewrite them :
1. There is no student in the class.
2. Is there petrol left in the tank ?
3. Are there such planes that travel as fast as sound ?
4. The supervisor found tracks near the dam site.
5. Put more fruits in the bag.
6. "Is there progress in the construction work ?" "Yes, there is ; but it is not up to the mark."
7. Do not make noise. Let me have sleep. I did not have last night.
8. They have not got time to do more work.
9. Some scraping will have to be done to level the ground.
10. Do you expect to get money from the office ? If yes, I would like to borrow from you.
Much : Much is used with uncountable nouns in interrogative and negative sentences. It is
not used by itself in affirmative sentences. Instead, plenty of, a lot of, a great deal of are used.
Example : How much sugar is produced in India ? (uncountable)
Not much oil is produced in our country. (uncountable)
A lot of oil is produced in Middle East.
This is too much for him; he cannot consume all of it.
Many : Many is used with countable nouns in interrogative and negative sentences.
It can be used by itself in affirmative sentences. However, the use of plenty of, a lot of, instead of
many is preferred.
Example : How many people eat this kind of food ?
Not many eat this kind of good.
Plenty of people eat this kind of food.
A good many people have not liked to change.
Little, a little, the little :
(A) The adjective little has a negative meaning when it is used without article (a, the). Here,
little gives the meaning as 'hardly any' or 'not much'.
For example : 1. He has little influence over his friends.
2. He has little appreciation of good work.
(B) A little has a positive meaning when it is used with article 'a'. Here 'a little' gives the
meaning as 'Some though not much.'
For example : A little tact would have saved him.
A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
(C) The little has meaning of not much but there is some.
For example : The little knowledge of engineering that he possessed helped him in his
profession.
(Here the meaning is that the knowledge of engineering he possessed was not much ;
but whatever knowledge he possessed helped him a good deal)
Few, a few, the few :
1. Few means not many or hardly any and has a negative meaning.
2. A few mean's some and it has a positive meaning and is opposed to 'none.'
3. The few means not many; but there is some.
Communication Skills - I 2.77 Application of Grammar

EXERCISE 4
Insert much, many, little, a little, the little, few, a few, the few, in the following sentences
wherever required and rewrite them :
1. Not people have telephones in India.
2. Only copies of the book are left with the book seller : the remaining have been sold out .
3. Grain they had was damaged by rains.
4. Precaution is necessary in handling that instrument.
5. Persons can keep a secret.
6. Men are free from faults.
7. Care should have prevented accident.
8. People are so hopeless as drunkards.
9. Clothes we had were all torn.
10. Public libraries are not well equipped.
11. Knowledge of English that he has is likely to be very useful to him in Engineering field.
12. It is a question of spending rupees.
13. When I met him years after he looked old.
14. I am not interested in coal minimising. I know about it.
15. How work can be finished today ?
16. The job is very dangerous workmen would be willing to do it up.
Insert in the blanks suitable adjectives of quantity and number and rewrite them :
17. _______ hints on essay-writing are quite to the point.
18. _______ months that he spent in Mahableshwar did him a lot of good.
19. In _______ words I expressed my gratitude.
20. _______ influence that he has, he uses to get employment.
21. _______ knowledge of carpentry he possessed helped him to get the job.
22. He showed _______ concern for his brother.
23. He showed _______ mercy to a poor person.
24. How _______ engineers are useful for the supervision.
25. Atoms are very small _______ too to be seen.
26. It seems there is very _______ oxygen on other plants.
27. After _______ minutes the mist cleared.
28. _______ days, rest is needed.
29. _______ days that are left to him he spends in solitude.
30. _______ men reach the age of one hundred years.
Modifiers
A word or phrase that modifies another word or phrase is called as a modifier. Most of the
adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding suffix 'ly'.
For example : Adjective Adverb
Frank Frankly
Happy Happily
Adverbs have two important functions to perform. They are :
1. Adverbial in a sentence and
2. Modifier of adjectives, adverbs and other phrases.
Communication Skills - I 2.78 Application of Grammar

(H) Prepositions
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to show in what relation the
person or thing denoted by it stands in regard to something else. In other words, it can be
stated as "that which is placed before".
Kinds of Prepositions
Following are the kinds of prepositions :
1. Simple Prepositions (by, for, from, in, on, out, etc.).
2. Compound Prepositions (About, along, around, behind etc.).
3. Phrase Prepositions (in addition to, in case of, in front of etc.).
4. Participle Prepositions (concerning, during, regarding etc.).
1. Prepositions usually precede the words they govern or control.
He told us about the course.
The boy in the corner is my friend.
2. Prepositions indicate time.
He worked in the factory from 1992 until 1995.
3. Prepositions indicate positions.
He noticed the aeroplane above that building.
4. Prepositions indicate direction.
They left for Pune this morning.
5. Prepositions indicate the direction from the point of starting.
The road runs from Pune to Mumbai.
6. Certain prepositions indicate direction.
The road runs across the forest.
Relations expressed by Prepositions
Following are some of the most common relations indicated by prepositions.
1. Place (about, across, against, among etc.).
He ran across the road.
2. Time (after, at, before, by, for, from etc.).
He will return the goods at an early date.
3. Agency (Instrumentality) - (at, by, through etc.).
Please send the parcel by post.
4. Manner (by - with)
He faught with courage.
5. Cause, reason, purpose (of, for, from etc.).
He did it for our good.
6. Possession (of, by, with etc.)
He is a man of means.
7. Measure, standard, rate, value (at, by etc.).
Bank will charge interest at ten per cent.
8. Contrast, concession (after, with etc)
After every effort he failed.
9. Inference, Motive, Source, Origin (from)
Light comes from the sun.
Communication Skills - I 2.79 Application of Grammar

EXERCISE – I
Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions and rewrite the sentences.
1. We talked .......... books.
2. The sky is .......... our heads.
3. His behaviour is .......... suspicious.
4. Day .......... day we worked hard.
5. He fell ill on Monday and recovered four days ..........
6. We shall see you .......... dinner.
7. One should guard .......... cold.
8. They spoke .......... the scheme.
9. Don't lean .......... the wall.
10. I have nothing to say .......... him.
11. He gazed .......... the lovely scene.
12. My memory was .......... fault.
13. I walked .......... him.
14. I must see you .......... Monday.
15. I met him the day .......... yesterday.
16. The sun has gone .......... the clouds.
17. He was just .......... me.
18. His class is .......... his control.
19. He lives .......... his income.
20. I was tired .......... the evening.
21. We learn .......... experience.
22. They won the match .......... fifty runs.
23. He cried .......... help.
24. He has purchased two books .......... me.
25. This is a suitable place .......... study.
26. He was absent .......... college yesterday.
27. What stopped you .......... coming ?
28. I remained .......... the home.
29. Write your report .......... ink.
30. He is .......... trouble.

EXERCISE – II
Use appropriate prepositions wherever required and rewrite the sentences.
1. I want to hammer this plan your head.
2. He complained to me your rudeness.
3. He was killed an accident.
4. Have you informed them your plan ?
5. Have I asked too much you ?
6. He seems to be hard hearing.
7. He is very keen going.
8. They insisted going with me.
9. Student depend their parents.
10. He resolved making an early start.
11. He is lying a couch.
12. We went a journey.
13. I have no money to spend books.
Communication Skills - I 2.80 Application of Grammar

14. The island lies the coast.

15. He jumped the fence.
16. He is the point.
17. He hit the ball the boundary.
18. There is a bridge the over.
19. He jumped the lane.
20. Your advice is very useful me.

EXERCISE – III
Construct sentences containing the following expressions.
1. Appropriate to 2. Allowance for
3. Abstain from 4. Contrary to
5. Beneficial to 6. Worthy of
7. Accountable to 8. Addicted to
9. Entitled to 10. Incentive to
11. Famous for 12. Fond of
13. Divided into 14. Wish for
15. Inaccessible to 16. Liable to
17. Confined to 18. Adapted to
19. Derived from 20. Profited by

(I) Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word which merely joins together sentences, and sometimes words.
To make sentences more compact, conjunctions are used. Conjunctions are also termed as
sentence connectives.
Classes of Conjunctions
1. Co-ordinating conjunctions :
(Man walks and birds fly) clauses of equal rank.
Example : And, but, for, or, nor, also, either-or, neither-nor.
(i) Cummulative (adds)
They carved not a line and they raised not a stone.
(ii) Adversative (contrast)
He was slow, but he was sure.
(iii) Disjunctive or Alternative (choice)
Run quickly, else you will not overtake him.
(iv) Illative (Inference)
All precautions must have been neglected, for the disease spread rapidly.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions :
They ran away because they were afraid.
Example : After, because, if, that, though, although, till, before, unless, as, when, where,
while.
(i) Time (before, till, since etc).
He returned home after I left.
Communication Skills - I 2.81 Application of Grammar

(ii) Cause or Reason (because, since, as)

Since I wish it, it will be done.
(iii) Purpose (that, lest etc).
We eat that we may exist.
(iv) Result (that)
I was so tired that I could hardly stand.
(v) Condition (if, unless etc).
I will come if you accompany.
(vi) Concession (though, although)
Though he blamed me, yet l like him.
(viii) Comparison (than)
Ram is stronger than Hari.
EXERCISE
Use the following conjunctions and rewrite the sentences given below (Unless, since, if,
till, before, after, than)
1. I will not succeed .......... I work hard.
2. He waited .......... the train arrived.
3. Do not go out .......... I leave.
4. .......... you say so, they must .......... believe.
5. You will get the class .......... you deserve it.
6. I will be unhappy .......... you do that
7. She was sorry .......... she had done it.
8. He is stronger .......... I am.
9. His father died .......... he was born.
10. Catch him .......... you can.
Uses of Some Important Conjunctions
SINCE
1. When 'since' is used as a conjunction, it gives the meaning as 'from and after the time'
mentioned.
For example : Many changes have taken place since I left Polytechnic.
2. 'Since' also gives the idea of 'seeing that', in as much as, for the reason etc.
For example :
Since you wish it, it will be performed.
Since you will not work, you shall not be paid.
Since that is the case, we shall excuse you.
OR
1. When 'OR' is used as a conjunction, it gives the meaning as 'alternative'.
For example : One must work or starve.
2. 'OR' also gives a choice between any two in the series.
For example : I may study Law or Engineering or Medicine or I may enter into a
business.
3. 'OR' is also used to introduce alternative names or synonyms.
For example : The violin or fiddle has become an instrument of the modern era.
4. 'OR' also gives the meaning as 'otherwise'.
For example : We must work hard or face the worst situation.
Communication Skills - I 2.82 Application of Grammar

IF
1. 'If ' gives the meaning as 'on the condition'.
For example : If that is so, I am satisfied.
2. 'If' gives the meaning as 'admitting that'.
For example : If we are poor, yet we are honest.
3. 'If' gives the meaning as 'whether'.
For example : I asked him if he would come.
4. 'If' gives the meaning as 'whenever'.
For example : If we feel any doubt we enquire.
THAT
1. 'That' can be used to express reason or cause and is equivalent to because, for that, in that
etc.
For example : He was angry that he was opposed.
2. 'That' can be used to express a consequence, result etc.
For example : I am so tired that I could not stand.
THAN
When the word 'than' is used as a conjunction, it follows adjectives and adverbs in
comparative.
For example : Wisdom is better than riches.
I know him better than you do.
We will rather suffer than you give what you want.
LEST
It can be used as a subordinating conjunction expressing a negative purpose, and is
equivalent to 'in order that ........ not'. For fear that etc.
For example : They fled lest they should be punished.
WHILE
While is used to mean :
(i) During the time that, as long as
(ii) At the same time that
(iii) Whereas, as
For example : While there is life, there is hope.
The girls sang while the boys played.
While it is true of some, it is not true of all.
ONLY
The word 'only' can work as a conjunction meaning except that, but, were it not (that),
For example : They do well, only that they are nervous at the start.
I would agree, only in difficulties.
BECAUSE, FOR, SINCE
Of these three conjunctions, 'because' denotes the closest causal conjunction; 'for' the weakest
and 'since' comes between the two.
EXERCISE
Use the following conjunctions in sentences of your own.
1. Than 2. Since 3. Except 4. Only 5. That.
Communication Skills - I 2.83 Application of Grammar

(J) Interjections
An interjection is a word which expresses sudden feeling or emotion.
For example : Alas ! — (expresses grief)
Ha ! (suprise etc).
For example : Alas ! he is no more.
Hurrah ! we win the match. (express 'joy').
In the above sentences, the words 'alas', 'ha', 'hurrah', etc. have no definite meaning of their
own. They are used to express feelings or emotions alone. They are used for giving emphasis on
the corresponding feelings.

(K) Punctuation
Punctuation :
The modern trend is to use punctuation marks, only where they are required, in order to
keep the clarity of expression.
Punctuation Marks :
1. Comma [,]
2. Semicolon [;]
3. Colon [:]
4. Full stop [.]
5. Question mark [?]
6. Quotation marks [“”]
7. Dash [—]
8. Hyphen [–]
9. Brackets [()]
Capitalisation :
Sometimes capitals are used to make a written message easy to read and understand.
Generally, capitals are used for names of places, persons, organisations, designations, days,
months, holidays, religious days, abbreviations etc.
Numerals :
Numerals are used while writing messages to make the content easy to understand.
For example :
1. I, II, III, IV
2. 10 hours
3. Sixty-two motors
4. Six grams of salt
5. Rs. 3/-
6. Fig. 10
Abbreviations :
Abbreviations are the short forms of words or phrases :
For example,
1. Sun – Sunday
2. Wed. – Wednesday
3. Jan. – January
4. Smt. – Shrimati
Communication Skills - I 2.84 Application of Grammar

5. Prof. – Professor
6. amp. – amphere
7. g – gram
8. km. – kilometer
9. do – ditto
10. p – page
11. mm – millimeter/millimeters.
Certain Spelling Rules
I. A silent ‘e’ at the end of the verb is deleted while adding ‘ing’
For example,
1. Write – Writing
2. Make – Making
3. Hope – Hoping
II. A single 'e' at the end of a word is deleted when suffixed by 'able' – except where 'e' is
needed to soften 'c' or 'g'.
For example :
1. love – lovable
2. debate – debatable
3. notice – noticeable
4. manage – Manageable
III. In case combination 'le.', or 'el,' is pronounced as 'ee', 'l' is used before 'e' except after 'c' –
believe, field, grief, relief.
For example :
1. Receive
2. Ceiling
3. Perceive
Exception Seize, Species, Seige
IV. If words end with 'l' preceded by only one vowel, the last 'L' is doubled when added by
a suffix.
Jewel – Jeweller
Quarrel – Quarrelled
V. Words ending in 'y' preceded by a consonant change to the plural following the rule :
Change the 'y' into 'i' and add 'es'.
1. Dry – Dried
2. Merry – Merrily
3. Ally – Alliance
4. Joy – Joyous
5. Boy – Boyish
Words ending in 'y' preceded by a consonant change to the plural following the below
rule :
Change the 'y' into 'i' and add 'es' :
1. Army – Armies
2. Copy – Copies
3. City – Cities
Communication Skills - I 2.85 Application of Grammar

But if the final 'y' is preceded by a vowel, just add 's'

1. Monkey – Monkeys
2. Joy – Joys
3. Day – Days
The same rule is applied when the tense of a verb changes :
1. Reply – replied
2. Apply – Applied
3. Play – played
4. Destroy – Destroyed
Exceptions :
1. pay – paid
2. lay – laid
3. say – said
VI. Words ending in a single consonant preceded by a stressed vowel, double the final
consonant when adding ed, ing, er.
1. Thin – Thinner
2. Run – Running
3. begin – beginning
4. bat – batted
In case the vowel is not stressed, the consonant is not doubled.
1. benefit – benefited
2. Profit – profiting
VII. The following words are written as one word :
Almost – meanwhile
anyone – newspaper
anything – otherwise
already – sometimes
anyhow – something
afterwards – outside
cannot – whenever
everyday – throughout
however – within
into – without
moreover
VIII. The following words are written separately
all right – all round
inspite of – per cent
do not – young man
in fact
Spelling :
While writing a message it is always necessary to give full attention towards correct spelling
of words, otherwise it creates confusion in comprehending the message and leads to bad
impression about the writer.
Communication Skills - I 2.86 Application of Grammar

Certain commonly misspelt words

Abbreviate acceptance absence accessory
accede accommodate accessible accumulate
accidentally achievement accountant acquaintance
accustomed actually acknowledge advantageous
acquire administrator adherence affectionately
advertisement advisable advisory aggrieved
agreeable affiliate agenda ambiguity
ambiguous alignment allowance annually
apologise analyse analytical appropriate
approximate appearance appendix audience
artificial arbitrate argument auxiliary
auditor ascertain assessor
average authorise authoritative
abridgement available abundance
bankruptcy beggar beginning bureaucracy
believe beneficent behaviour
brochure budget benefitted
Calender cancellation capacity collateral
characteristic casually catalogue commission
colleague clearance clientele comparison
comprehensive commencement comparable conscience
conscientious commitment conference consideration
consignor conscious consecutive contradict
controllable controversial convene courteous
convertible co-operation career
creditor curiosity changeable
debenture discipline deference definitely
deductible demonstrate demurrage dependence
deliberate development dissent disapprove
determine deceive decision distinguish
earnest expiry explain explanation
eighth economical economic efficient
eliminate embrassed elementary eligible
envelope equity endeavour experience
excellent exception excise extraordinary
exclamation exhibition existence
familiar fitted Fourteen fulfilled
feasible forty foreign fulfilment
February forecast forfeit
generally grandeur guarantee
genuine grievance guardian
haphazard height honorarium hypothecation
harass hindrance humour
hedging honorary humorous
Communication Skills - I 2.87 Application of Grammar

illiterate irrevocable incorporate incorrigible

incredible immediately indemnity indispensable
industrialisation indemnify inferior influence
influential inference initial instalment
inspection instruction instrument interrupt
interview invoice irrelevant irreparable
January jealous judgement jurisdiction
knot knowledgeable
labelled labour language lawyer
leather legible liaison liberalise
lien liquidate liquor literature
lodging lottery luxury luxurious
machinery manageable mediate misappropriate
magnificent manufacture memorandum messets
maintain measure millionaire miscellaneous
maintenance mechanism messenger
necessary neither neuter nineteen
neighbour ninety ninth northern
notable noticeable November numerous
necessarily negligible negotiate
obedience October offence official
occurrence omission omitted opinion
opportunity opposition original overwhelming
objectionable obvious occasionally
pamphlet patronage permitted perpetual
partner percentage persuasion petition
perceive permissible predecessor preferred
permanent persuade prevalent preference
persistence possibility proceed prior
pioneer preliminary programme procedure
prejudice probability prospectus provision
privilege psychology pursue pursuit
profession parliament particular
propriety peculiar penalty
parallel performance perishable
quarrelled questionnaire queue quorum
receipt recurrence regrettable repetition
rectify registration religion restaurant
register relieve recommend revocable
reliable repeat referred reputable
resolution resource reference reveal
revenue review relevant ridiculous
receive recognise remembrance
Communication Skills - I 2.88 Application of Grammar

salable seize summary straight

sampling separate sincerely subscribe
satisfactory simultaneous skill superintendent
Saturday specimen skilful superior
schedule succeed speculation supervision
scientific sufficiently statistics surely
secretary suitable statute
tariff technical technique temperament
temporary tenure thoroughly tiresome
transferred treasurer truly twelfth
unanimous underpaid utilise utterance
until usually unique
vacation vacuum valuable variable
variety vehicle voluntary volunteer
waive warranty willing
withdrawal writing

4. CORRECT THE ERRORS FROM THE SENTENCES

(Correct Usage)
Following are the important hints which are useful for correcting the incorrect sentences.
(I) Agreement of the verb with the subject :
(a) A verb must agree with its subject in Number and Person.
For example :
She is at home.
The number of women was small.
(b) The noun following one of the best should be in plural number.
For example :
Utkarsh is one of the best students in the group.
(c) Two or more singular nouns or pronouns joined by and require a plural verb.
For example :
− Sometimes luck and power have no relation.
(d) If the nouns denote the same person or thing, the verb and the pronoun should be
singular.
For example :
Slow and steady wins the race.
The writer and poet is no more.
Time and tide waits for no man.
(e) In case the two nouns connected by and have an article placed before each of them, they
refer to two different persons or things, and take a verb in the plural.
The writer and the philosopher are no more.
Communication Skills - I 2.89 Application of Grammar

(f) When the subject consists of two or more nouns joined by with, together with, or as well as,
the verb agrees with the noun preceding these.
For example :
English, as well as Marathi, is taught in the class.
The politician with his wife and the rest of the people, was present.
(g) Two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular verb.
For example :
Our happiness or our luck is largely due to our own deeds.
Neither youth nor beauty is safe against age.
(h) When two or more subjects of different persons are joined by or, or nor, the verb agrees
with the one nearest to it.
For example :
Either you or he is wrong.
(i) The distributive each, every, either, neither, refer to each individual of a class and are
therefore followed by a verb in the singular.
For example :
Every one of the robbers was arrested.
(j) When two nouns are qualified by each or every though connected by and, they require a
singular verb.
For example :
Each day and each hour brings its duties.
(k) Some nouns which are singular in form, but plural in use, take a plural verb.
For example :
Cattle are coming.
Mankind are liable to make mistakes.
(l) Conversely, some nouns are in plural uniform but singular in meaning, these require the
verb in singular.
For example :
This news is so good that it cannot be true.
The reward of sin is death.
(m) A collective noun requires a verb in the singular when it denotes the collection as a
whole, and the verb in the plural when it denotes the individual in the collection
separately.
For example :
The group was dismissed.
The whole group were in tears.
(II) Pronouns :
(a) When the complement of the verb to be is a pronoun, it is placed in the nominative case.
For example :
It is I who am your best friend.
It is he who did it.
Communication Skills - I 2.90 Application of Grammar

(b) When the object of a verb or of a preposition is a pronoun, it is placed with the objective
case.
For example :
Between you and me (not I) he is a rogue.
(c) A pronoun must agree with its Antecedent in Gender, Number and person.
For example :
Every person must sustain his own burden.
Each of the boys went to his house.
(d) The indefinite pronoun one must always be followed by one, one’s. For example,
One must be definite when one makes the statements.
One must do one’s job.
(e) The case of the Relative Pronoun. The Relative Pronoun is in the Nominative Case, when
it is the subject of a verb, and in the objective, when it is the object of a verb, or
preposition.
For example :
The prize was given to the student who, the masters said really deserved it.
The boy, whom you praised so much has failed.
(f) A Relative Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in Gender, Number and person.
For example :
He is one of those men who are always finding fault with other people.
(g) When the verb is understood, as is always used.
For example :
This is the same notebook as mine.
(III) Adjectives :
(a) The comparative degree is used in comparing two things or classes of things.
For example :
Metal is more useful than wood.
(b) The superlative degree is used in comparing one thing with all others of the same kind.
For example :
Ramesh is the tallest boy in the group.
(c) When the comparative degree is used, the latter term of comparison should exclude the
former.
For example :
Aditee is greater than any other novelist.
(d) When the superlative is used, the latter term should include the former.
For example :
He was the best person in the group.
(e) When the second term of a comparison is given, it must correspond in construction with
the first.
For example :
The progress of ‘A’ is greater than that of ‘B’.
(f) Double comparative or superlatives should not be used.
For example :
I am happier than he.
It was the unkindest cut of all.
Communication Skills - I 2.91 Application of Grammar

(g) The words, interior, junior, posterior, prior, senior, superior, take “to” instead of “than”.
For example :
He is junior to me.
(h) Preferable has the force of a comparative and is followed by “to”.
For example :
Health is preferable to wealth.
(i) The following adjectives do not admit of comparison : unique, perfect, universal,
extreme, entire, square, round, full, chief, complete, ideal.
For example :
This is a unique example.
(j) The Plural forms these and those are often wrongly used with kind and sort which are
nouns in the singular.
For example :
Incorrect : I never read those kind of a novel.
Correct : I never read that kind of novels.
Incorrect : Where can I buy these sort of paper ?
Correct : Where can I buy this sort of paper ?
(IV) Articles :
(a) The Indefinite Article ‘A’ is used.
(i) Before nouns beginning with a consonant.
For example :
a boy, a girl, a hero, a woman, a year.
(ii) Before “U” pronounced as “yoo”; as a University; a useful book, a European, a
Unit.
(iii) Before “O” pronounced as “WU”; as a one-eyed giant.
Such a one.
(b) ‘AN’ is used.
(i) Before words beginning with a vowel, as an owl.
For example :
an elephant
an umbrella
(ii) Before a silent “h”.
For example :
an hour
an heir
(iii) Before words beginning with “h” and not accented on the first syllable, an is used.
For example :
an hotel
an historical book
(c) The Definite Article “The” is used.
(i) To point out a particular person or thing.
For example :
This is the book of which I spoke.
Communication Skills - I 2.92 Application of Grammar

(ii) Before singular noun meant to represent a whole class.

For example :
The rose is the queen of flowers.
(iii) With names of seas, rivers, gulfs, oceans, groups of island, and mountain ranges.
For example :
The Ganges is the holiest river in India.
Pune is on the Mula and Mutha river.
(iv) Before well-known single objects.
For example :
The sun
The moon
The sky
(v) With superlatives.
For example :
The darkest cloud has a silver lining.
(vi) Before an adjective used as a noun.
For example :
The poor are happier than the rich.
(vii) As an adverb with comparative.
For example :
The more man has, the less happy he is.
(d) The article is omitted.
(i) Before a noun used in a general sense.
For example :
Man is mortal.
(ii) Before proper nouns.
For example :
Mumbai is a city of tall buildings.
(iii) Before material nouns.
For example :
Gold is a precious metal.
(iv) Before abstract nouns.
For example :
Beauty needs no ornament.
(v) Before the noun following ‘kind of’.
For example :
What kind of flower is it ?
(V) Verbs :
(a) A verb should be made to agree with the subject and not with the complement.
For example :
A special character of the exhibition was the workshops.
(b) In a compound sentence, a single verb cannot be made to do duty for two subjects if they
are not in same number.
For example :
Incorrect : The leader was hanged and his followers arrested.
Correct : The leader was hanged and his followers were arrested.
Communication Skills - I 2.93 Application of Grammar

(c) The conjugation of the verb lay and lie should be carefully noted. The verb lay is
transitive and is always followed by an object; the verb lie is intransitive and cannot have
an object.
lay, laid, laid.
Lay the note book on the table.
She laid it on the table.
She has laid it on the table.
Lie, lay, lain.
He lay on the sofa.
Let him lie there.
He has lain there for hours.
(d) The Split Infinitive : In English the infinitive is often preceded by to. The “split” of an
infinitive is to place an adverb between this to and the rest of the verb.
Incorrect : It is essential to thoroughly examine the question.
Correct : It is essential to examine the question thoroughly.
(e) The Unrelated Participle : As the participle is an adjective, there must be some noun
that it limits. If this noun is omitted we have the error of the unrelated participle.
Incorrect : Arriving at the house, the door was shut.
Correct : When he arrived at the house, the door was shut.
(f) The pronoun governing a Gerund should be in the possessive case.
For example :
What is the use of my going there ?
(g) The noun governing a Gerund should also be put in the possessive case with ‘S, if it is of
such a kind to take that infection.
For example :
I am glad that Sachin’s coming here.
(VI) Uses of Shall and Will :
(a) Shall is used in the first person to express simple future time.
For example :
I shall be highly obliged.
(b) When shall is used in the second or third person, it usually expresses :
(i) A command, as
You shall not take.
(ii) A promise, as
You shall have a gift tomorrow.
(iii) A threat, as
You shall be punished for this act.
(iv) Determination, as
The time will come when you shall hear me.
Communication Skills - I 2.94 Application of Grammar

(c) Will is used in the second and third persons, to express simple future time.
For example :
You will meet her on the road.
(d) Will is used in the first person to express
(i) Willingness
We will do that work.
(ii) A promise
I will give you my note book.
(iii) A threat
I will punish you if you do not work.
(iv) Determination
I will succeed or die in the attempt.
(e) (i) Shall is used in asking question in the person.
Shall I ring the bell ? (The action is dependent on the will of the person addressed).
(ii) Either shall or will is used, according to the answer expected, in asking questions
in the second and third persons, as,
Shall you sign the agreement (I shall sign the agreement).
Will you give me the vehicle ? (I will give you the vehicle).
(VII) Adverbs, Prepositions and Conjunctions :
(a) An adverb should be so placed that there can be no doubt as to its relation to the rest of
the sentence.
For example :
I was greatly surprised at the result.
(b) Two negatives should not be used in the same sentence, unless we wish to make an
affirmation. For example,
I can do nothing.
(c) The use of never for not is incorrect.
For example :
Incorrect : He was never born in India.
Correct : He was not born in India.
(d) At is used before the name of a city or a town; in is used before the names of countries.
For example :
He was born at Shivaji Nagar in Pune.
(e) By refers to the agent; with to the instrument as.
For example :
This book was written by me with a ball pen.
(f) In is used in speaking of things at rest; into is used in speaking of things in motion.
For example :
She was sitting in the room.
She walked into my room.
Communication Skills - I 2.95 Application of Grammar

(g) The adverb like is often wrongly used as a conjunction instead of as,
He speaks as his father does.
(h) Scarcely should be followed by when; as,
Scarcely had she gone out, when her friend arrived.
(i) No sooner must be followed by than;
For example :
No sooner had the bus arrived than she stepped out.
(j) In contracted sentences conjunctions are often wrongly omitted after Adjectives.
Incorrect : This is as good if not better than that.
Correct : This is a good as, if not better than that.

Common Errors Corrected

1. Incorrect : Neither he nor I are in the wrong position.

Correct : Neither he nor I am in the wrong position.
2. Incorrect : The fleet were under orders to move.
Correct : The fleet was under orders to move.
3. Incorrect : He, with his brother, was among the first to come.
Correct : He, with his brother, were among the first to come.
4. Incorrect : Nothing but grave and serious studies delight her.
Correct : Nothing but grave and serious studies delights her.
5. Incorrect : He is taller than me.
Correct : He is taller than I.
6. Incorrect : I thought it was him.
Correct : I thought it was he.
7. Incorrect : Suraj is a man whom I think deserves praise.
Correct : Suraj is a man who I think deserves praise.
8. Incorrect : Nobody in their senses would have done such act.
Correct : Nobody in his senses would have done such an act.
9. Incorrect : Of the two I think her to be the best.
Correct : Of the two I think her to be better.
10. Incorrect : I do not like those kind of books.
Correct : I do not like those kinds of books.
11. Incorrect : He is stronger than any person living.
Correct : He is stronger than any other person living.
12. Incorrect : Anirudha was the wisest of all other men.
Correct : Anirudha was the wisest of all men.
Communication Skills - I 2.96 Application of Grammar

13. Incorrect : This is more preferable than that.

Correct : This is preferable to that.
14. Incorrect : The Secretary and the treasurer is absent.
Correct : The Secretary and the treasurer are absent.
15. Incorrect : Yashwant was the orator and the statesman of his period.
Correct : Yashwant was the orator and statesman of his period.
16. Incorrect : Draw map of India.
Correct : Draw a map of India.
17. Incorrect : Time makes worst enemies friends.
Correct : Time makes the worst enemies friends.
18. Incorrect : They never fail who die in great cause.
Correct : They never fail who die in a great cause.
19. Incorrect : It is a week since the holidays commenced.
Correct : It was a week since the holidays commenced.
20. Incorrect : My father has been ill since three days.
Correct : My father has been ill for the last three days.
21. Incorrect : You will bear it as you have so many things.
Correct : You will bear it as you have borne so many things.
22. Incorrect : He not only lost his card, but also his mobile.
Correct : He lost not only his card, but also his mobile.
23. Incorrect : Please except my best wishes.
Correct : Please accept my best wishes.
24. Incorrect : What is the use of him coming here ?
Correct : What is the use of his coming here ?
25. Incorrect : Walking in the field, the gate suddenly opened.
Correct : While we were walking in the field, the gate suddenly opened.
26. Incorrect : I will be drowned and nobody shall save me.
Correct : I shall be drowned and nobody will save me.
27. Incorrect : Do it like I do.
Correct : Do it as I do.
28. Incorrect : Scarcely had he gone, than a gentleman knocked at the door.
Correct : Scarcely had he gone, when a gentleman knocked at the door.
29. Incorrect : This is as good if not better than that.
Correct : This is as good as that, if not better.
30. Incorrect : They only work when they have no money.
Correct : They work only when they have no money.
31. Incorrect : He saw countless numbers of the dead riding across the field of battle.
Correct : Riding across the field of battle, he saw countless number of dead.
Communication Skills - I 2.97 Application of Grammar

32. Incorrect : For sale, piano, the property of a musician with carved parts.
Correct : For sale, a piano with carved parts, the property of a musician.
33. Incorrect : The hall is full, there is no place for any more.
Correct : The hall is full, there is no room for any more.
34. Incorrect : Good night, Sir, I am glad that you have come.
Correct : Good evening, Sir, I am glad that you have some.
35. Incorrect : She came by the 8.30 o’ clock train.
Correct : She came by the 8.30 train.
36. Incorrect : Her fault is such as cannot be pardoned.
Correct : Her fault is such which cannot be pardoned.
37. Incorrect : She was prevented to go out.
Correct : She was prevented from going out.
38. Incorrect : No sooner she had returned then she went out.
Correct : No sooner had she returned than she went out.
39. Incorrect : It is much too hot today.
Correct : It is very hot today.
40. Incorrect : Every boys have their notebooks.
Correct : Every boy has his notebooks.
41. Incorrect : One must obey to his parents.
Correct : One must obey one’s parents.
42. Incorrect : When trying to swim, the mouth must be kept above water.
Correct : When one is trying to swim, one must keep one’s mouth above water.
43. Incorrect : He failed due to his weakness in Marathi language.
Correct : He failed owing to his weakness in Marathi language.
44. Incorrect : Ambition is one of those acts that is never satisfied.
Correct : Ambition is one of those acts that are never satisfied.
45. Incorrect : All his income is spent and all his hopes ruined.
Correct : All his income is spent and all his hopes are ruined.
46. Incorrect : He is one of the richest, if not the richest man in India.
Correct : He is one of the richest men, if not the richest in India.
47. Incorrect : This rule may and ought to be disregarded.
Correct : This rule may be and ought to be disregarded.
48. Incorrect : He sold many paper and pens.
Correct : He sold much paper and many pens.
49. Incorrect : A refugee is a person who keeps order at a football match.
Correct : A referee is a person who keeps order at a football match.
50. Incorrect : I cannot help but think that you are correct.
Correct : I cannot help thinking that you are correct.
51. Incorrect : My house is not larger than many others have built for themselves.
Correct : My house is not larger than those that many others have built for themselves.
Communication Skills - I 2.98 Application of Grammar

52. Incorrect : He sent them his compliments.

Correct : He sent them his complements.
53. Incorrect : The rice on this land is finer than last year.
Correct : The rice on this land is finer than it was last year.
54. Incorrect : He gave the table to the poor man that had a broken leg.
Correct : He gave the table that had a broken leg to the poor man.
55. Incorrect : They builds a theatre to accommodate four hundred people ninety feet long.
Correct : They built a theatre ninety feet long to accommodate four hundred people.
56. Incorrect : I showed him the cold shoulder.
Correct : I gave him the cold shoulder.
57. Incorrect : She is more educated than me.
Correct : She is more educated than I.
58. Incorrect : When looking through a mist, things appear unnaturally large.
Correct : When seen through a mist, things appear unnaturally large.
59. Incorrect : I saw through the window some girls going to school.
Correct : I saw some girls going to school through the window.
60. Incorrect : He was not only the maker of a nation but of a language.
Correct : He was the maker not only of a nation, but also of a language.
61. Incorrect : She never remember to have met her equal.
Correct : She does not remember to have ever met her equal.
62. Incorrect : The account of the murder made his flesh creep.
Correct : The account of the murder made his blood creep.
63. Incorrect : Being interested in fishes, an aquarium is always to be found in their house.
Correct : They are so interested in fishes, that an aquarium is always found in their
house.
64. Incorrect : Running up against my friend in the park, she told me the latest news.
Correct : Running up against my friend in the park, I heard from her the latest news.
65. Incorrect : While digging the foundations for a building, a piece of Maurya wall was
discovered.
Correct : While the workmen were digging the foundations for a building, a piece of the
Maury wall was discovered.
66. Incorrect : Trying to escape, the dog met her at the gate.
Correct : As he was trying to escape, the dog met her at the gate.
67. Incorrect : Having finished the chapter, the volume was shut.
Correct : Having finished the chapter, she shut the volume.
68. Incorrect : One should not boast of her success.
Correct : One should not boast of one’s success.
69. Incorrect : They promised to promptly pay the sum.
Correct : They promised to pay the sum promptly.
Communication Skills - I 2.99 Application of Grammar

70. Incorrect : They are more stupid and inferior to their friends.
Correct : They are more stupid and inferior than their friends.
71. Incorrect : Each of the boys went to their separate rooms to rest and calm themselves.
Correct : Each of the boys went to his separate room to rest and calm himself.
72. Incorrect : She told me and you that she will come.
Correct : She told you and me that she would come.
73. Incorrect : This was her who they knew.
Correct : This was she whom they knew.
74. Incorrect : She is a practicable person.
Correct : She is a practical person.
75. Incorrect : That building is not advertised for sale but for hire.
Correct : That building is advertised not for sale but for hire.
76. Incorrect : A nurse maid is wanted for a baby about twenty five years old.
Correct : A nurse maid about twenty five years old is wanted for a baby.
77. Incorrect : She has taken a leap into the dark.
Correct : She has taken a leap in the dark.
78. Incorrect : Whom did they say was the oldest of the two ?
Correct : Who did they say was the older of the two ?
79. Incorrect : I am confident to win the prize.
Correct : I am confident of winning the prize.
80. Incorrect : The three rivers are connected to one another by a canal.
Correct : The three rivers are connected with each other by a canal.
81. Incorrect : Since several days she was been ill from fever.
Correct : For several days she has been ill of fever.
82. Incorrect : He left the hotel where he had been staying in a motor car.
Correct : He left in a motor car the hotel where he had been staying.
83. Incorrect : Between you and I, neither of us were right.
Correct : Between you and me, neither of us was right.
84. Incorrect : She was laying stretched on the ground.
Correct : She was lying stretched on the ground.
85. Incorrect : My mother and myself are going into the city.
Correct : My mother and I are going into the city.
86. Incorrect : She was a clever, or even cleverer than her sister.
Correct : She was a clever as, or even cleverer than her sister.
87. Incorrect : We are very annoyed to hear it.
Correct : We are much annoyed to hear it.
88. Incorrect : These flowers smell sweetly.
Correct : These flowers smell sweet.
89. Incorrect : She is fare, but week in health.
Correct : She is fair, but weak in health.
Communication Skills - I 2.100 Application of Grammar

EXERCISE
(A) Fill in the blanks with a verb in agreement with its subject.
1. Curry and rice ……….. my favourite food.
2. No news ……….. good news.
3. A large number of men ……….. present.
4. Each of the suspected men ……….. present.
5. Every town and village ……….. burnt.
6. Neither your friend nor you ……….. present.
(B) Fill in the blanks with “who” or “whom” :
1. I am he ……….. you seek.
2. We do not know ……….. will go.
3. ……….. does he wish to see ?
4. ……….. is it that you wish to see ?
5. It was the President ……….. we asked to speak.
6. Do you know ……….. I am ?
7. ……….. do you take me to be ?
8. Where is the man about ……….. he was speaking ?
(C) Rewrite the following sentences, inserting the preferred form :
1. He is the (wiser, wisest) of the two.
2. This book is the (better, best) of the three.
3. The crocodile is larger than (any, any other) reptile.
4. The elephant is the largest of (all, all other) animals.
5. This tree has a wider spread than (any, any other) tree.
6. The “Times of India” has the (larger, largest) circulation of all newspapers.
7. Sunil plays better cricket than (any, any other) boy.
(D) Fill up the blanks with ‘a’ or ‘an’ or ‘the’ :
1. She admires ……….. beautiful.
2. Be ……….. hero in the strife.
3. Such ……….. one is seldom found.
4. Hindi is ……….. language of ……….. people of India.
5. ……….. University will shortly be established here.
(E) Insert “shall” or “Will” in the blanks :
1. I ……….. punish you if you do that again.
2. He ……….. control his temper.
3. I promise that you ……….. have the money.
4. You ……….. do your duty, if you ……….. shine in life.
,,,
 Part – III

PARAGRAPH WRITING
(1) Types of Paragraphs (Narrative, Descriptive, Technical)
(2) Unseen Passage for Comprehension
[Marks 08]

(1) PARAGRAPH WRITING

Introduction
The basic object of paragraph writing is to communicate. It is the first step in developing an
ability to write a piece of composition. Practice of writing paragraph gives an opportunity to the
students to develop and improve the power of expression. People engaged in the technical field
are no exception to this rule. They are constantly required to communicate to others in the form
of technical notes, technical reports, explaining certain technical processes, functions of tools and
machines, preparation of work projects etc.
1 Unity of thought : Although there is no precise definition of paragraph writing, it is
generally considered as a group of sentences which deal with one unit of thought forming a
definite state in the development of the subject or the theme. Paragraph writing, technical or
general as the case may be, involves two important points viz.
(a) The paragraph deals with only one topic; and
(b) The topic is a significant and important part of the subject or theme as a whole.
We should be aware that in writing we are concerned with different units of thoughts which
vary in the degree of their importance. In fact, the theme or subject is itself a unit of thought.
However, it consists of different paragraphs bringing out the important features of different
aspects of the theme. Similarly, each paragraph is also a group of sentences, each one dealing
with a still smaller division of thought. The paragraph therefore, differs from the sentences in that
it covers a larger topic that carries discussion forward through a definite stage.
2 The Topic Sentence : While starting to write a paragraph, the topic of the paragraph is
often started in a brief sentence, called the 'topic sentence' which sums up the entire contents of
the paragraph. The topic sentence is generally taken in the beginning. However, there is no hard
and fast rule about its place. Sometimes, it can also come at the end or may find place in the
middle of paragraph. For the benefit of the students it is suggested that the topic sentence is
taken in the beginning so that there is no possibility of wandering away from the main subject.
The topic sentence should give exact statement of the material it covers. The technical paragraph
must contain discussion of the subject stated in the topic sentence.
3 Logical order : As we have seen that a paragraph is a group of sentence, it follows that
every sentence in a paragraph must bear relevance to the topic and must contribute something
worthwhile to its development. Thus, the thought is presented as a unit which can be readily
(3.1)
Communication Skills - I 3.2 Paragraph Writing

understood by the reader. This is possible only if development of a paragraph is done in a logical
order, where one thought leads to another so that the flow of the thought is kept unbroken. For
achieving coherence or continuity of thought, certain conjunctions such as hence, but, and, then,
therefore, so, are very useful. They establish relationship between the two words or sentences
brought together. This does not, however, mean that there should be no variations in the sentence
patterns. For bringing variety, liveliness and making paragraph interesting, the sentence pattern
must vary. Technical students must try to write simple structural patterns and achieve as much
variety as possible.
4 Length of paragraph : As a general principle, students should avoid frequent use of
short paragraphs, each consisting of only a few lines. This leads to the possibility of dividing a
significant topic into two or more groups each one dealing with comparatively unimportant
details. As a result, the pieces appear to be a series of jottings or notes rather than a well-
organised discussion on significant topic. Such small paragraphs make it difficult for the readers
to properly understand the development in the topic. This may also lead to another flaw in the
paragraph. The topics of sufficient importance may be neglected and not given proper justice in
its development. Hence the technical students should try to combine and bring together into one
paragraph all those groups of sentences which logically belong together and appropriately
amplify them. This will also help to maintain a logical sequence of the development of theme or
subject.
5 Ending the Paragraph : The end of the paragraph, like the end of the whole article,
should give the impression of completeness. It is sometimes secured by restatement or
paraphrasing of the topic. Such an ending makes a good impression of the subject of the
paragraph and keeps its impact on the minds of the readers for a longer period. Hence, the
concluding sentences of a paragraph is as important as the opening sentence. The first sentence
should arouse the reader's interest and the last sentence should satisfy it. The last sentence should
sum up the contents of the paragraph or contain some brief comment on what has gone before. It
must make the reader feel that the paragraph is closed.
Types of Paragraphs

(a) Narrative (b) Descriptive (c) Technical

The following are the different types of paragraphs which are as below :
(a) Narrative : Narrative paragraph is one which describes an incident, a happening or an
anecdote. The account should be clear and interesting. Such a paragraph should as far
as possible be dramatic and full of suspense. The following devices are employed in
constructing a paragraph depending upon the nature of the subject or theme one has to
deal with.
(i) Similarities, (ii) Definitions,
(iii) Comparison and Contrast, (iv) Differences,
(v) Reasoning and (vi) Facts and Figures.
(b) Descriptive : Descriptive paragraph is one where the reader may be able to get a clear
visual picture of the matter in his mind. In such paragraphs, only significant or
important details about the thought should be described, so that the picture would not
be hazy and confused.
Communication Skills - I 3.3 Paragraph Writing

(c) Technical : The perfect knowledge of technical paragraph writing is essential for an
engineer. He is expected to write several paragraphs and technical matter during his
career. The purpose of every writing is to give information to some person or a body of
persons not in possession of the full knowledge of the facts of the subjects with which it
deals.
Technical writing is a new and an emerging field. Since the inception of (I.T.)
Information Technology Industry in our country, various Industrial establishment have
emerged. These fields include graphic designing, networking, security management,
technical writing and many more. Technical writing came into existence because of I.T.
field. However, application of technical writing is not limited to I.T. field, but also
includes writing skills which is used in other industrial activities.
Technical writing means conveying technical information to various groups of
people who are interested and aspiring technical information in an appropriate manner
and in a way to understand and may include printed documents as well.
(d) Technical Paragraphs : Different changes of technical writing.
(i) A person who is having required technical knowledge and an appropriate
understanding can become technical writer.
(ii) It is not necessary to have a degree in Arts or engineering to be a technical writer.
However, one should have the ability to grasp the subject.
(iii) Education in technical field will be helpful to understand highly technical subjects
in complete manner.
(iv) Technical writing skill will help a person to get an appropriate skilled job in
industry and financial institutions.
Essentials of Technical Paragraph Writing :
(1) A Writer of the technical report must possess sufficient knowledge of the matter to be
reported.
(2) An Engineer is expected to write technical report whenever it is required.
(3) Technical person has to prepare reports on multifarious activities of the organisation
after detailed investigation.
(4) Every Engineer is an executive position should be able to set out in proper form his
opinion about the course to be adopted in any matter connected with the sphere of his
responsibility.
(5) The subjects or which technical paragraphs are required to be written are innumerable.
(6) It is not possible to formulate exact rules about writing the technical paragraphs.
(7) No hard and fast rules can be given.
Following are the General Guiding Principles that can be used for Technical Paragraph
Writing.
(1) Technical paragraph writing must be brief, clear and convincing.
(2) It must be informative.
(3) It must contain relevant information required by the reader.
(4) Good technical graph must be objective. There is no place for expression of feelings of
the writer.
(5) It must be based on observations and inferences.
(6) Technical paragraph must be factual. It must be limited to general observation and it
must aim at clarity, directness and conciseness.
(7) Technical paragraph must help the reader to get quickly what he requires, graphs,
tables and charts. It should save the time in understanding.
(8) The language must be simple and lengthy sentences are to be avoided.
Communication Skills - I 3.4 Paragraph Writing

(9) Specific and correct technical words are to be used.

(l0) Standard abbreviations are used in writing technical paragraph.
Example No. 1 : On Technical Paragraph on newly purchased lathe machine.
A newly purchased Lathe machine has been installed in the Production Department
section of this Company just fifteen days back. I have, however, to report that the Lathe is not
operating well since last week or so. The Lathe in question was purchased by our Company
Representative one month back after making due inspection at Mumbai showroom and was
transported from there to our factory site. During this transit, it seems that some defects have
occurred due to faulty transport handling system. The defect was noticed only at the time of its
installation. Such a major defect in a newly purchased machine was never expected.
I personally contacted the transport company and enquired about the transportation of Lathe.
The Company has point blank accepted that there were some defects in the crane used for
lifting the lathe. As a result, the complete consignment was dropped on to the ground. While
lifting and placing it on the vehicle of transport. In my opinion, we must claim compensation
for the damage either from the transport company or the manufacturer as per the details of the
contract. I do not know whether the consignment was insured before despatch.

GENERAL HINTS FOR PARAGRAPH WRITING

1. Select the topic.
2. Think about the topic from all angles.
3. Ask yourself the questions – what, why, where, when, which, whom and get certain
answers.
4. Jot down answers to these questions.
5. Arrange them in a sequence or order.
6. Connect them with proper conjunctions.
7. Think about starting and ending sentences.
8. Start writing a paragraph keeping in mind the following principles :
(a) Unity of thought; (b) Statement of topic;
(c) Logical Order of thoughts; (d) Coherence;
(e) Arrangement; (f) Length of Paragraph;
(g) Ending of Paragraph.
Some examples of paragraphs are given below :
Example 1 : Parents are most competent to select their children's career.
It was a generally accepted principle until recently that the teacher is the most competent
person to select a career of a child. This was, for the reason that he knew the student's social
qualities and capabilities because of his daily contact with the student for many hours. This
was possible when the student-teacher relationship was closer. The number of students in a
class being limited, the teacher could give personal attention to each student. He could take
interest in every student. This is no longer possible because the strength of students in a class
has gone very high and in some cases, over 75 to 80. Parents, therefore, are the most competent
to choose their children's career. They know the temperament, ambitions, inclinations, ability
of their children. They can also take into consideration their own financial positions.
Communication Skills - I 3.5 Paragraph Writing

Example 2 : A Hungry Man is an Angry Man

Now-a-days it is a familiar picture of a mob of workmen on strike gathering outside a
factory or an office shouting different slogans and abusing a strike. If a strike continues for a
long period, it leads to hunger in the families of the workers. A hungry man becomes
desperate and violent leading to disturbances. The peace of mind of himself, his family
members and of the society in which he lives, is disturbed. There is no cure for hunger. For
procuring food the man may resort to any means like beg, borrow or steal. The more pitiable
sight is that of the rural people who are affected by famine. They are bodily, mentally and
spiritually broken. At times ultimately lose even the strength to protest.

Example 3 : A paragraph on the various activities of a mine (Technical)

A mine usually works in three shifts. A miner comes to the mine in his normal clothes, puts
them in the locker and changes into working clothes. He then collects a lamp and comes to the
pit head. He is then checked to see that he does not carry with him any explosive or
inflammable material. The miner enters the cage which is raised or lowered in the shaft. The
shaft is controlled from the winding room. It is lined with hard material like brick, stone or
concrete so that it may not crumble or crack.
When the cage reaches the bottom of the mine, the miner comes out. Here on all the sides
there are tunnels and their roofs are supported by girders or propellors. Whenever possible,
electric light is provided.

Example 4 : Television does more good than harm (Technical)

To consider negative results, we can say that there are certain advantages of having a
television set in the house. Children and students in the house lose their concentration on
studies and neglect the activities outside home i.e. sports, exercise etc. Elderly people become
less social because they neglect their friends and relatives. They find it more comfortable to
stay at home to watch television rather than visiting their acquaintances. Sometimes,
undesirable films are shown which corrupt and pollute young minds.
Advantages of having a T.V. Set, outweights the disadvantages. General knowledge
through visual effect becomes realistic. Inventions of science can be more clearly understood.
The international events can be viewed with a special interest. People are acquainted with
customs and traditions of countrymen helping to create international understanding.
Television is welcomed all over the world.

Example 5 : Sunbathing
Sunbathing is recommended by physicians as an excellent way to improve one's physical
conditions. When wisely engaged in, it builds up resistance to infections and tones up the
whole system. Too much exposure may be injurious to health. Calcium in the bone structure
may be depleted. A painful overdose of sunburn may develop into something really serious.
Other dangers lurk in the blazing rays of the mid summer sun. Caution should be exercised
when one is taking a sun bath, specially if he is not accustomed to it.
Communication Skills - I 3.6 Paragraph Writing

(2) COMPREHENSION :
UNSEEN PASSAGE FOR COMPREHENSION
COMPREHENSION
The main object of setting an unseen popular, science or technical passage is to assess the
students' ability to grasp the meaning of the given passage and answer certain questions based on
it. It, therefore, involves careful reading of the passage in order to answer the questions in exact
and precise sentences. A single reading of the passage is not enough to understand the clear
intention of the writer, theme or subject of the passage, attitude or approach of the author to the
theme and finally the details and style of the passage. It has to be read again and again. If the
passage is read several times (at least three times) it ensures better understanding of minute
technical and scientific details of the passage with every additional reading.
In the first reading, the reader will be able to understand the broad view about the theme of
the passage. The subsequent readings will help the reader to grasp significant points and minute
technical and scientific details. This will facilitate the reader to answer any question set on the
given passage. In short, good answers to the questions on the comprehension passage can be
given only when :
(1) The reader fully understands the meaning of the passage;
(2) He should be able to express the meaning of the passage in his own simple and clear
words; and
(3) He should properly understand the questions asked.
1. How to proceed for the preparation for Comprehension Test ?
The following points should be followed in order to do well in the comprehension test :
(a) Reading of the passage carefully for at least three times;
(b) The first reading should be rapid for understanding broad ideas;
(c) The second reading should be little slow keeping in mind two definite ends viz.
(i) To confirm whether the impression after the first reading was correct and exact;
and
(ii) To underline the key ideas.
(d) The third reading should aim at understanding :
(i) The subject of the passage; and
(ii) What is said about the subject.
(e) The reader then should ask himself the following questions :
(i) What is the main theme of the passage ?
(ii) What does the author say about the subject ?
(iii) Can I put in my own words what the author has to say ?
(f) Read the given questions carefully in order to classify them into :
(i) Broad questions, and
(ii) Particular and short questions.
(g) Link up each of the questions with the relevant portion in the passage.
(h) Prepare answers to the questions in your own simple and clear words. Do not attempt to
copy out the words in the passage.
(i) Give attention to the grammar, punctuation and correctness of the language used in the
answer.
Communication Skills - I 3.7 Paragraph Writing

(j) The answer should be brief, to the point and free from irrelevant details.
(k) Read the answers again to ensure
(i) That they are clear, complete and to the point;
(ii) If they need revision;
(iii) If they need expansion or reduction;
(iv) That there are no grammatical or spelling mistakes;
(v) That the language is simple and direct.
(l) If there is a question on explaining the meaning of a word or phrase, the answer should
be given in the same grammatical form.
(m) Give title or heading to the passage if it is asked. While doing so, the following hints
may be kept in view :
(i) Main character or object explained in the passage.
(ii) Some saying or proverb illustrated in the passage.
(iii) Heading reflecting the idea of the whole passage.
(n) Finally, ensure that all the questions given under the passage are answered and the
answers are properly numbered.
A few model comprehension passages are given below. It would be useful if students
attempt to answer the questions themselves and then compare them with the model answers
given under these passages.
Example 1
Read the following passage and answer the questions given below :
We want to make you see bridges as we see them, not as mere prosaic objects of utility and
economy, but as something far more significant and inspiring for a bridge is more than a thing
of steel and stone. It is the embodiment of the efforts of human heads, hearts and hands. A
bridge is more than a sum of stresses and strains; it is an expression of man's creative urge, a
challenge and an opportunity to create beautiful structures. A bridge is the fulfilment of
human dreams and hopes and aspirations. A bridge is the symbol of humanity's heroic
struggle towards mastery of the forces of nature. A bridge is a monument of mankind's
indomitable will to achieve.
Bridges symbolise the ideals and aspirations of humanity. They span the barriers that
divide and they bring people, communities and nations into closer unity. They shorten the
distances, speed up transportation and facilitate commerce. They carry their burdens so that
the task of men may be lightened. They serve the needs of the lowest as of the highest. They
are cooperative efforts of planners and workers, of science and skill. They embody the
initiative and vision of communities in useful monuments dedicated to the welfare of future
generations. They are vital links in the highway leading to the universal brother-hood of
mankind.
Q.1 What do bridges symbolize ?
Ans. Bridges are the symbols of the efforts of human heads, hearts and hands. They
express man's creative urge. They fulfil human dreams, hopes and aspirations. Bridges are also
the symbols of humanity's heroic struggle towards controlling the forces of nature and
mankind's will which cannot be surpassed.
Q.2 How do bridges lighten the task of men ?
Ans. Bridges take on the burdens which men would have been required to carry. Thus,
they lighten the task of man.
Communication Skills - I 3.8 Paragraph Writing

Q.3 What is a bridge an outcome of ?

Ans. It is an outcome of the co-operative efforts of a planner and workers, of science and
skill.
Q.4 Give the meaning of the following words :
Ans. Embodiment – symbol in concrete form.
Indomitable – which cannot be suppressed.
Q.5 Use the following in sentences of our own :
Ans. (a) To serve the need: Roads serve the need of mankind.
(b) Creative urge : Tall buildings are the symbols of man's creative urge.
Example 2 :
(a) Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given below in
short and in your own words :
An alloy steel is one in which other metals have been added to plain carbon steel to give it
certain qualities for special uses. The addition of alloy metals increases the toughness and
durability of steel and often makes possible a reduction of the weight of the steel product.
There are three principal purposes for making steel alloy. They are, to correct or prevent
defects in the final product, to impart some distinctive property to the steel and to form alloys
for experiment and investigation. Some of the alloying metals are manganese, nickel,
chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten and various combinations of these elements.
The alloys give the steel properties such as hardness and resistance to heat required in tools
and machinery.
Complex alloy steel contains more than two alloying metals, in addition carbon. A well-
known variety is stainless steel, which contains chromium and nickel. Stainless steels do not
rust, they withstand higher temperatures and resist most of the acids. They are used in the
manufacture of cutlery and surgical instruments, and also for the kettles and piping used in
the food industries.
Q.1 What are the properties of stainless steel ? Where is it used ?
Ans. The most important property of stainless steel is that it does not rust and it can
withstand high temperatures. In addition to these qualities, it can resist most of the
acids. It is used for manufacturing pipes, kettles and is also used in food processing
units.
Q.2 What is alloy steel ?
Ans. An alloy is a substance obtained after the combination of one or more metals with
another. In the case of alloy steel, other metals are added to plain carbon steel.
Q.3 Name the different alloying metals. What properties do they give to steel ?
Ans. Important alloying metals are manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum,
vanadium, tungsten and various combinations of these elements. They give steel the
desired properties like hardness and resistance against heat.
Q.4 Why is steel alloyed ?
Ans. Steel is alloyed with other metals for three principal purposes viz. to correct or
prevent defects in the final products to impart some distinctive property and to form
alloys for investigations and experiments.
Q.5 Form sentences of your own using the following :
Ans. (a) To Impart : He is happy to impart training to his assistants.
(b) In addition to : In addition to his normal duties, he also co-ordinates the
activities of the various departments.
Communication Skills - I 3.9 Paragraph Writing

Example 3 :
Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given below :
The invention of the wheel marked an epoch of revolution in the fields of transport,
industry, trade and commerce. All the means of transport in the present age such as railways,
buses, motor-cars, tractors and bicycle are gifts of the invention of the wheel. The power
generation machines, textile mills machines, printing press machines, flour rice and saw mills
elevators and a large number of other machines that produced many essential commodities of
daily use are fundamentally based on wheel power. Without this invention, our civilization
would have remained just a primitive one. Imagine what our life would have been without
these gifts of the wheel ! Our movements would have been almost totally restricted. The
known world would have grown too large in the context of distance. Communities living in
the various parts of the world would have remained isolated from each other. The exchange of
goods and services all over the world would have been an impossibility.
If the inventions based on the wheels are biliterated, our life would relapse to that of a frog
in the well. It would bring back the primitive agricultural age. The problems of time and
distance would stare us in the face. The modern industries alongwith their large scale
production of the beautiful fabrics, books and magazines and a large number of other things
would have remained only a dream.
Q.1 What are the gifts of the invention of the wheel ?
Ans. All sorts of means of transport for example buses, railways etc. are the gifts of the
invention of the wheel.
Q.2 What are the various things based on the wheel power ?
Ans. Many essential things of daily use like flour, rice and saw mills, elevators are mainly
based on wheel power.
Q.3 How would communities and exchange of goods etc. be affected without the
wheel ?
Ans. Without the wheel, our movement as well as exchange of goods would be limited
and there would be no progress.
Q.4 What would not have come in reality in the absence of the inventions based on
wheel ?
Ans. In the absence of wheel, our life would have remained just like that of uncivilized
man. All the astonishing inventions are due to wheel; for example : large scale
production of beautiful fabrics, books, magazines and a large number of other
things.
Example 4 :
Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions :
Machines were made to be man's servants, yet he has grown so dependent on them that
they are in a fair way to become his masters. And machines are very stern masters. They must
be fed with coal and given petrol to drink and oil to wash with, and they must be kept at the
right temperature. If they do not get their meals when they expect, they grow sulky and refuse
to work or burst with rage and blow up and spread ruin and destruction all around them. So
we have to wait upon them attentively, and do all that we can to keep them in good temper.
Already we find it difficult either to work or play without machines, and a time may come
when they will rule us altogether, just as we rule the animals. Machines save time and energy
for us but we use them for making more and better machines. We must remember that
machines themselves or the power that machines have given us are not civilization, but aids to
civilization. Real civilization will come only when we learn to use these machines as
instruments in the service of humanity at large and prevent them from being a means of
luxury and power for a few.
Communication Skills - I 3.10 Paragraph Writing

Q.1 How are we required to look after machines ?

Ans. We are required to look after the machines by feeding them with coal, giving oil to
wash and petrol to drink. They must also be kept at the right temperature.
Q.2 What happens when machines are neglected ?
Ans. Machines grow sulky and refuse to work when they are neglected.
Q.3. When do machines become a curse to mankind ?
Ans. When we find it difficult to work with machines they become a curse to mankind
and ultimately they rule us.
Q.4 When can we have real a civilisation ?
Ans. We can have real a civilisation when we can use these machines as instruments in the
service of humanity.
Example 5 :
Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions :
The definition of progress shall always continue to be a debatable point. Certain evils do
follow every technological advance. According to some, they overweight the good brought
about by technological advance. Conservatives never appreciate the modern inventions and
changes in our day-to-day life. They consider them as changes for the worse; others ignore the
latent dangers and praise the advances. In the beginning, people were thrilled with the
invention of the motor car. They enjoyed the facility of fast movement, visiting places, better
roads etc. But as cars became more and more in number, common people faced the problems
of traffic jam and parking, exhaust gas pollution, road accidents etc. For every life saved by a
speeding ambulance, another is taken by a skidding car.
The television, though a very popular means of entertainment and information, it has
killed the conservation and normal two-way contact between individuals.
Lately, development of pesticides and weed killers have led to larger production of food
but they have tampered with the balance of nature. They have caused death and the sterility of
innumerable birds and insects. D.D.T. is capable of causing irreparable damage to the tissues
of human body.
The truth is that in regard to all advances we have failed to give sufficient thought to their
long term results and consequences. We have failed to make proper analysis of immediate
gains and long term harms affecting even the very existence of life in the world. In most cases,
we are so excited by a new invention that we do not care to assess, even roughly, the difference
between happiness and misery it will cause.
Q.1 What is the difference between the views of conservatives and other people,
regarding technological advances ?
Ans. Conservatives do not like the modern inventions and any change in daily routine
due to technological advancement; whereas other people appreciate them.
Q.2 How can cars save life and also take life ?
Ans. In case of an ambulance, it can take a serious patient to a hospital very speedily. But
the same car takes human life in road accidents.
Q.3 What is the disadvantage of television ?
Ans. The demerit of television is that it has reduced the conversation and social contacts
among people.
Q.4 What do we forget in our excitement about a new invention ?
Ans. In our excitement about a new invention is that we do not care to find out the
difference between happiness and the misery it may cause.
Communication Skills - I 3.11 Paragraph Writing

Q.5 Give the meaning of :

Ans. (a) Debatable point : The point about which people carry different views.
(b) Irreparable damage : A damage which cannot be made good by any means.
Exercise 1 :
As you know, majority of the people in India cannot read or write. They are illiterate. This is
not their fault. They have never had the chance to learn and read. But we know, too, that our
country cannot progress as it should, if the majority of the people are ignorant and uneducated. If
we are to be the best kind of citizens we must be educated. We must atleast be able to read books
and newspapers and magazines. Now those of us, who have had the chance to go to school and
to be educated, have been given something which many of our neighbours have been deprived.
They, therefore, need our help. In this matter we are in position to help them, if we are willing to
do so. We should show our neighbourliness if we found our next door neighbour lying at the side
of the road unable to move because he had broken his leg. Similarly, we should show our
neighbourliness when we find him unable to make progress because he cannot read.
Read the above passage carefully, and answer the following questions :
1. Why is our country not making progress as it should ?
2. How can we remove illiteracy from our country ?
3. What is your duty to your illiterate neighbour ?
4. What should you do if you found a person lying injured on the road ?
Exercise 2 :
Of man's earliest inventions, we know very little. The first may have been the use of stone to
crack a nut. The next was possibly the use of stock to strike an enemy. Once man found that stock
and stone were useful, it was only a step further to the making of a rude weapon by fastening a
stone to the end of a stock.
Man used sticks and stones long before he dared to meddle with fire; for the early men, like
all wild creatures, dreaded fire. Fire, of course, existed for lightning must sometimes have set the
forests ablaze just as it does today; and in those days volcanoes were much more active than they
are now. The forgotten hero who first dared to tame fire to his own use was the greatest of early
inventors; for once man had fire he was master of all lower creatures.
Questions :
1. What would have been man's earliest inventions ?
2. Why did man not tame fire as early as he came to know the use of sticks and stones ?
3. What is there to show that fire existed long, long ago ?
4. Why does the author of this passage call the first tamer of fire the greatest of early
inventors ?
Exercise 3 :
The basic theory according to which the hydro-electric plant operates is simple. The higher
the elevation from which a weight is allowed to fall the faster it will be moving when it reaches
the bottom. If a column of water, falling free through the air, is allowed to drop on the vanes of a
waterwheel it will, of course turn the wheel round. The old waterwheels are operated as simply
as this. The higher the fall on the wheel, the more power it was able to deliver. The pressure
would vary as the head varied.
After having been almost abandoned as obsolete and supplemented by steam engines, the
old water-wheel has reappeared in a new and superior form under the name of water turbine.
Connected with the wheel is a generator of electricity, popularly called dynamo. The turbine is a
wheel which combines the use of impact of a falling mass of water with the pressure caused by
Communication Skills - I 3.12 Paragraph Writing

the height of main body of water. It makes use of the pressure by means of its curved vanes upon
all of which the water acts simultaneously.
The difference of elevation of the surface of the main body and that of the water which
leaves the turbine at the tailrace, is the total head. As some of the pressure is lost because of
friction in pipes and other passages (friction head) what is left to do the actual work is called
effective head.
Read the above passage carefully, and answer the following questions :
1. What is water turbine ?
2. On what principle does the water-turbine work ?
3. What is the use of water turbine ?
4. What is meant by 'effective head' ?
5. What is the basic theory on which the hydro-electric plant operates ?
6. What is the new and superior form of water wheel ?
Exercise 4 :
Metallurgy is the most important science dealing with the separation of metals from their
ores. It is not of recent origin for it was well-known to the ancients; modern men have only
improved upon ancient formulas and methods.
Metals are found in three classes of ores; those in which the pure metal occurs either in
grains or loose nuggets; those in which the metals occur as oxides; and those in which the metals
occur as sulphides. Ores of the first class need little treatment. This consists in crushing the rock
and separating the loose metal from it. The metal is then united into larger masses by smelting.
The oxides constitute by far the largest class of ores and it is from these that the supply of iron,
lead, tin, copper and zinc is mostly obtained. Most of these ores can be reduced by smelting with
a flux, as in the case of the manufacture of pig iron. The sulphides are more difficult to treat, and
some of them require several processes before the metal is obtained.
In general, the treatment of this class of ores is as follows : The ore is crushed, and the metal
bearing portion is separated by running the crushed ore over vibrating tables, over which water is
running. The particles containing the metal, being heavier than the others, settle at the bottom
and form what is known as the concentrate. This concentrate is dried and roasted to drive off the
sulphur. The ore is then smelted; it yields an impure metal, which is purified by repeated
meltings. Copper ores containing sulphur are reduced in this manner.
Read the above passage carefully and answer the following questions :
1. What is metallurgy ?
2. What are the three classes of ore ?
3. Which is the largest class of ores ?
4. How are the sulphides treated ?
5. What is concentrate ?
6. How do we get purified metal ?
Exercise 5 :
Dry cells are a costly way of producing current, and when powerful currents are needed for
long periods, a different kind of cell is used. This can be 'recharged' with electricity when its
supply is exhausted, by being joined for a few hours to the electric supply from a power station.
The cells are called storage cells, but what they store is not electrical energy, but chemical energy.
An ordinary storage cell is a glass or plastic box containing a mixture of sulphuric acid and water,
with one 'positive' and two 'negative' plates dipping into the acid. The plates are hollow lead
boxes pierced with holes to allow the acid to enter freely inside. The positive plate is filled with a
Communication Skills - I 3.13 Paragraph Writing

brown paste of lead peroxide and sulphuric acid. The negative plate is filled with spongy lead.
When the cell supplies electrical energy, the lead peroxide in the positive plates reacts with the
acid to form lead sulphate, and so does the lead of the negative plate, the reverse changes take
place when the cell is charged. Small batteries each having six storage cells are used in cars to
work the headlights, the starter motor, the traffic signals and so on.
Electrical energy is also converted into chemical energy in many factory processes when an
electric current is passed through liquids to produce the chemical action called electrolysis.
Electrolysis is used, for example, to electroplate spoons with silver or car radiators with
chromium and to purify copper, gold, silver, zinc and other metals. Electrolysis is also used to
extract the metals like aluminium, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium from their ores.
Read the above passage carefully, and answer the following questions :
1. What is meant by recharging ?
2. What does an ordinary storage cell contain ?
3. Where is the small battery cell used ?
4. How is the electric energy converted into chemical energy ?
5. What is electroplating ?
6. What are the uses of electrolysis ?
Exercise 6 :
Under an old apple tree in my garden, a strange thing, has happened. A tiny red mite,
dropping through the air from the leaves above, has landed on the open page of a note book. It
runs over the paper in curves. Each time it comes to the wet ink of a freshly written lines it pauses
for a long time as though on the bank of an impassable river. Then, I notice its body is turning
darker, is losing its brilliant red. The mite is drinking the carbon ink ! Eight times it stops and
eight times it drinks from the black stream of the ink. Only its legs retain their original colour. Its
round body is now swollen with carbon ink. Yet the black mite is as lively as the red mite had
been. The ink in its system had neither slowed it down nor upset its digestion.
Mites imbibing ink, cockroaches consuming glue, termites eating wood – are only a few of
many instances of small creatures that live on what would prove a deadly diet for larger animals.
The strength of these insects lies in the bewildering variety of their diet. Because their feeding
habits are so varied, because the amounts of food they require are so small, such creatures are
able to endure privations that woull kill far stronger animals.
We can crush a butterfly or a beetle between a thumb. We are giants in comparison. But the
smaller creatures of the earth possess other special kinds of strength. They survive extreme and
sudden changes in temperature. They retain life inspite of great injuries. They reproduce with a
fertility unequalled among larger animals. They are uninjured by long falls; and they possess the
strength of senses that are abnormally keen. Honeybee can see ultraviolet light. The bedbug has
such an amazing sense of temperature that it can detect a difference as slight as one degree
centigrade.
Questions :
1. What did the mite do when it came to the wet ink on a freshly written line ?
2. What change took place in the mite after it had drunk the ink ?
3. Write four arguments that the writer gives to prove that though we are giants in
comparison, the smaller insects have special kinds of strengths.
4. Give a suitable title to the text.
5. Find single words in the passage which have the following meanings :
(a) entail, (b) devour.
Exercise 7 :
Communication Skills - I 3.14 Paragraph Writing

Our country gave birth to a mighty soul and he shone like a beacon not only for India but
also for the whole world. And yet he was done to death by one of our own brothers and
compatriots. How did this happen ? You might think that it was an act of madness, but that does
not explain this tragedy. It could only occur because the seed for it was sown in the poison of
hatred and enmity that spread throughout the country and affected so many of our people. Out of
that seed grew this poisonous plant. It is the duty of all of us to fight this poison of hatred and ill-
will. If we have learnt anything from Gandhiji, we must bear no ill-will or enmity towards any
person. The individual is not our enemy; it is the poison within him that we should fight and
which we must put an end to.
Questions :
1. Who is 'the mighty soul' referred to in this passage ?
2. Why was he done to death ?
3. What do we learn from Gandhiji ?
4. What should we fight against in the individual ?
5. What is the poison referred to in this passage ?
6. Write a suitable title for the passage.
7. Write the words from the passage which mean the following (any two) :
(a) Unhappy event or end
(b) Powerful
(c) Signal fire or torch on a hill.
Exercise 8 :
Here is a scientific experiment on the homing of birds, the facts of which are quite certain.
A few years ago seven swallows were caught near their nests at Bremen in Germany. They were
marked with a red dye on some of their white feathers, so that they could be easily identified.
Then they were taken to Croydon by plane – a distance of about 700 miles and set free. Five of
them flew back to their nest at Bremen. How did the birds find their way on that long journey,
which they had never made before ? That is a great puzzle. It is no good saying that the swallows
(or dogs) have a sense of direction or an instinct to go home. These are just assumptions and
explain nothing. We want to know exactly what senses the animals use to find their way, how
they know in which direction to go until they see familiar landmarks. Unfortuantely, practically
no scientific experiments have been made on this question.
Perhaps migrating birds are the greatest mystery of all. Swallows leave England in August
and September, and they fly to Africa, where they stay during the English winter. The swallows
return to England in the spring to nest. A lot has been found out about the journeys of migrating
birds by marking the birds with aluminium rings put on one leg with an address and a number
put on the ring.
It has been suggested that birds can sense the magnetic lines of force stretching from the
north to the south poles of the earth, and so direct themselves. But all experiments hitherto made
to see whether magnetism has any effect whatsoever on animals, have given negative results.
Still, where there is such a biological mystery as migration, even improbable experiments are
worth trying.
Questions :
Communication Skills - I 3.15 Paragraph Writing

(a) Why is the migration of birds such a mystery ?

(b) How are the birds marked for experimentation purposes ?
(c) What has been suggested about the homing birds ?
(d) Make sentences with the following phrases so as to bring out their meanings.
(i) sense of direction (ii) scientific experiments
(iii) magnetic lines (iv) biological mystery
Exercise 9 :
Despite its extraordinary name Ergonomics is not just something which has been dreamed
up by experts to confuse any business. It is a practical science which can make and is making a
valuable contribution to industry. Research being carried out in this field can increase efficiency,
improve product design, and make employees more contented.
Broadly, Ergonomics is the study of the relationship between man and his working
environment. It involves designing or redesigning machines and equipments so that due regard is
given to the capabilities and limitations - physical and psychological of the human beings who
have to use or operate them. In contrast to the more common, traditional policy of 'fitting the man
to the machine' by selecting and training the best man for each particular job, the ergonomist
endeavours to fit the machine to man - any man. His object is to enable a person of ordinary
abilities to carry out his tasks safely and efficiently with a minimum of instructions.
The ergonomist himself needs knowledge of a number of sciences and techniques in order to
carry out his work. These include Psychology, Physiology and Anatomy. In addition, of course,
he must know something about engineering and work study techniques.
Although the word ‘ergonomics’ was born as recently as in 1949, and the concentrated study
of this new science dates back to scarcely two decades, its origin can really be attributed to early
nineteenth century astronomers. They started the ball rolling when they discovered, that,
contrary to general belief, human reactions were not instantaneous. Observers engaged in
measuring the speed of star movement across the lenses of their telescopes did not agree in the
times they reported. So a new factor had to be taken into consideration, the time taken by human
mind to react to the message from the eyes.
Questions :
(1) What is ergonomics ?
(2) How does it help business and industry ?
(3) What exactly does ergonomics involve ?
(4) What was the traditional policy before ergonomics came on the scene ?
(5) What is the job of an ergonomist ?
(6) What are the other sciences which the ergonomist should know?
(7) Trace the origin of ergonomics.
(8) Give a suitable title.
Communication Skills - I 3.16 Paragraph Writing

QUESTIONS

Write paragraphs on the following subjects.

(a) Game
(b) Football
(c) Railway Station
(d) My Institute
(e) A Holiday
(f) Examination
(g) Theatre
(h) Zoological Park
(i) Library
(j) Workshop
(k) Tool box
(l) Bus Stop
(m) Work-shop
(n) I.C. Engine.
,,,
 Part – IV

VOCABULARY BUILDING
(1) Word Formation
(2) Technical Jargon
(3) Use of –
(A) Synonyms
(B) Antonyms
(C) Homophones / Homonyms
(D) Same Words used as Different Parts of Speech
(4) Use of Contextual Words in a given paragraph.
[Marks 12]

VOCABULARY
The word vocabulary is broadly defined as a person's knowledge about words. For acquiring
mastery of any language it is quite essential to increase one's word-power. In other words, more
the number of words known to a person, more rich is his vocabulary. For enriching one's
vocabulary there are numerous ways one can adopt. The first and foremost is to remember as
many words as possible and make their frequent use in speaking and writing which helps one to
remember those words with little or no effort. Once a person gets accustomed to this practice, he
can shift the emphasis to other aspects of increasing word power.
The further step in this direction is to get acquainted with different derivatives. By definition,
derivatives are the words which are not original but obtained from other words by addition of
affixes which are the meaningful elements but cannot be used independently. Affixes are either in
the form of prefixes like pre -, equi -, in - or suffixes like ment, - ish, - ly etc. For example –
pre + planned = preplanned
in + sufficient = insufficient
equi + lateral = equilateral
establish + - ment = establishment
blue + - ish = bluish
Friend + - ly = friendly
Sometimes, a word is moved from one grammatical class to another without additing a prefix
or suffix. Such derivatives are called 'zero derivatives'. Derivatives are formed not only from
simple words but also from derivatives. English language is so typical that there are words which
carry different meanings or have different pronunciations eventhough their spelling is the same.
Such words are called as 'homographs. There are also words which are spelt or pronounced in the
(4.1)
Communication Skills - I 4.2 Vocabulary Building

same way but carry different meaning. For example, the word 'see' is spelt and pronounced in the
same way. But when used as a verb it means 'to perceive or become aware of something by using
the eyes and if used as a noun it means office or jurisdiction of a bishop or archbishop.
Vocabulary can also be enriched by studying different words carrying the same meaning
i.e. synonyms, words with opposite meaning i.e. antonym compound words, words that can
replace a group of words, phrases, idioms, proverbs etc. A deliberate attempt towards the above
aspects of words would certainly contribute to increase one's treasure of word-power. We will
study some of the above features one by one.

(1) WORD FORMATION

In English language, word formation is concerned with derivatives, formed from simple
words (roots) by adding either prefix or suffix or both. Simple words which are also called as
Primary Words belong to the original words in the language. They are not derived or
compounded or developed from other words. Derivatives are either Primary Derivatives or
Secondary Derivatives. Primary derivatives are formed by making change in the body of the
simple words. It should be noted that, the Past Tenses of primary verbs formed by internal
change do not fall in the category of primary derivatives. Some of the primary derivatives are
listed below.
(I) PRIMARY DERIVATIVES
(a) Nouns from verbs and Adjectives
Verb Noun Verb Noun
Advise Advice Gape Gap
Bind Bound Grieve Grief
Bless Bliss Live Life
Break Breach Lose Loss
Choose Choice Prove Proof
Deem Doom Sing Song
Float Fleet Speak Speech
Wake Watch Strike Stroke

Adjectives Nouns
Dull Dullness
Hot Heat
Proud Pride
(b) Adjectives from Verbs and Nouns
Verb Adjectives Verb Adjectives
Float Fleet Milk Milch
Lie Low Wit Wise
Communication Skills - I 4.3 Vocabulary Building

(c) Verbs from Nouns and Adjectives

Nouns Verbs Nouns Verbs
Bath Bathe Glass Glaze
Blood Bleed Grass Graze
Brood Breed Knot Knit
Cloth Clothe Price Prize
Drop Drip Tale Tell
(ii) Secondary Derivatives
As stated earlier, the secondary derivatives are obtained by using affixes. Affixes may be
prefixes or suffixes. An addition to a word in the beginning is a prefix while to the end it is a
suffix. Some of the prefixes and suffixes used for getting secondary derivatives indicating their
purport and words obtained by adding them are given below -
(a) Prefixes (Inclusive of Latin and Greek Prefixes) in common use
Prefix Purport (to mean) Words obtained by adding the Prefixes
A on, in aboard, ashore, asleep
A Out, from arise, awake, alight
A (an) Without, not athiest, apathy, anarchy
Ab (a, abs) From away avert, abstract
Ac (ad, af, ag, al, an, to accord, adapt, affect,
ap, ar, as, at, a) aggrieve, allege, announce,
appoint, arrest, attach, avail
Ambi (amb, am) on both sides ambiguous, ambivalent, ampute
Amphi around, on both sides amphibious, amphitheater
Ana up, back anachronism, analysis
Ante (anti, an) before antedate, anticipate
Anti (ant) against antipathy, antagonist
Arch (archi) chief archduke, archbishop, architect
Auto self automobile, autonomy, autograph
Be by beside, betimes
Bene well benefactor, benefit, benevolent
Bis (bi, bin) twice, two bisector, binocular, bigamy
Circum (circu) around, round circumference, circumlocutory, circular
Con (cog com, cor) together, with Consent, colleague, combine, correlate
Contra (counter) against contraception, counterfeit, counteract
De down devaluation, degenerate, deplete
Demi half demigod
Di two, double dioxide, dilemma
Dia through diameter, diagonal
Dis (diff, di) apart, reverse, dishonest, disfigure, differ,
opposite, negative divide
Communication Skills - I 4.4 Vocabulary Building

En (em) in enclosure, emblem, encyclopedia

Epi upon epitaph, epilogue
Eu well eulogy, euphony, eugenics
Ex (ec, ef, e) out of extract, exodus, eccentric, effect, educe,
extract
For thoroughly forgive, forget, forbear
Fore before foregone, forefather, forecast
Hemi half hemisphere
Homo (hom) like homogeneous, homosexual, homophone
Hyper over, beyond hyperbole, hypertension, hypercritical
Hypo under hypocrite, hypothesis
In (im, il. ir, en, em) in into income, inland, illustrate, immerse, irrigate,
enact, embrace
In (il, im, ir) not indecent, illegitimate, immature, irreligious
Male (mal) ill, badly malpractices, malnutrition, malevolent
Meta of change metaphysics, metabolism, metamorphosis
Mis wrong, wrongly misguide, misuse, misfortune, misdeed
Mono single, one monologue, monogamy, monorail
Non not nonentity, non-fiction, nonsense
Over above, beyond overact, overdose, overcharge
Para by the side, beside parasite, paramilitary, parameter
Peri around periphery, perimeter, periscope
Philo (phil) love, liking, fond of philology, philosophy, philanthropy
Pre before prefix, pre-historic, prenatal
Pro for, in favour of, prophesy, pro-German,
supporting programme, pro-chancellor
Quasi to a certain extent, not quasi-permanent, quasi-rent
really
Re back, again regain, rewind, reclaim, refund, rewrite,
regenerate
Retro backward retrospective, retrograde
Semi half semi-skilled, semi-precious
Sub (suc, suf, sug sum, under subsidy, succeed, suffer, suggest, summon,
sup, sur, sus) support, surmount, sustain
Super above supernatural, superfluous, superintendent,
superfast
Syn (sym, syl, sy) with, together synonym, sympathy, syllable
Trans (tra, tres) across transworld, traverse, trespass
Un not unkind, unbelievable, unruly
Un to reverse an action unfold, undo, unveil, untie
Under beneath, below underground, undergo
Vice in place of viceroy, vice captain, vice-president
Communication Skills - I 4.5 Vocabulary Building

(b) Suffixes (inclusive of Latin and Greek) in common use

Suffix Purport Words with these suffixes
Of Nouns Denoting agent or
doer of a thing

- ain (-an, -en, on) Chieftain, artisan, citizen, surgeon

- ar (-er, -eer, ier, - ary) scholar, preacher, engineer, financier,

missionary

- ate (-ee, -ey, -y) advocate, trustee, attorney, deputy

- er (-ar, -or, -yer) painter, driver, baker, sailor, lawyer

- or (-our, -eur, -er) emperor, saviour, amateur, interpreter

-ster spinster, songster, punster

- ter (- ther) daughter, father

- age bondage, marriage, leakage

- ance ence) assistance, brilliance, excellence, intelligence

- cy intimacy, leniency, fancy

-dom stardom, kingdom, wisdom

- hood(- head) brotherhood, manhood, godhead

- ice - ise) service, cowardice, exercise

- ion opinion, selection, union

- lock (- ledge) knowledge, wedlock

- ment treatment, judgement, punishment

- mony testimony, matrimony, parsimony

- ness fitness, business, brightness

- red kindred, hatred

- ship kinship, guardianship, lordship

- th health, wealth, growth

- tude multitude, magnitude, fortitude

- ty frailty, cruelty, credulity

- ure pleasure, forfeiture, verdure

-y treasury, victory, misery

Communication Skills - I 4.6 Vocabulary Building

Forming
diminutives
- cule (-ule, - sel, - cel, - molecule, globule, damsel, parcel, chapel,
el, - le.) circle
- el (- le) kernel, satchel, girdle, handle
- en chicken, maiden, kitten
- et lancet, trumpet, owlet
- ette cigarette, coquette
- ie dearie, birdie, lassie
- kin lambkin, napkin, bumpkin
- let booklet, bracelet, leaflet
- ling darling, duckling, weakling
- ock hillock, bullock
- ary (-ery, -ry) library, treasury, nunnery, dairy, dispensary
- ter (-tre) theatre, cloister
Of Adjectives
- al belonging to formal, legal, international, global
- an (- ane) human, mundane, humane
- ar similar, regular, familiar
- ary honorary, contrary, temporary, necessary,
customary

- ate temperate, fortunate, obstinate

- ble having the quality capable, culpable, sensible, laughable

- ed having gifted, talented, learned
- en made of wooden, golden, wollen, earthen
- esque inthe style of, way of picturesque, grotesque
- id containing humid, arid, lucid
- ile like, belonging to fragile, servile, juvenile
- ine of, concerning masculine, divine, canine
- ish somewhat, like reddish, childish, girlish, boorish
- ive with the quality of active, attentive, constructive
- lent with the quality of indolent, turbulent, virulent
Communication Skills - I 4.7 Vocabulary Building

- less free from without fearless, senseless, hopeless

- ly like, having quality godly, humanly, manly
- ose(ous) of virtuous, dangerous, copious, verbose
- some full of, possessing gladsome, troublesome, wholesome,
with the quality of quarrelsome

- ward inclining to forward, backward, wayward

-y healthy, wealthy, greedy, thirsty, dirty

with the quality of,
possessing
Of Verbs
- ate assassinate, captivate, terminate
- en causative, forming weaken, sweeten, strengthen
transitive verbs

- er intensive or glitter, chatter, flutter

frequentative

- fy to make simplify, purify, qualify, terrify

- ish to make publish, furnish, punish, banish
Of Adverbs
- ly like wisely, shrewdly, boldly
- long headlong, sidelong
- ward (– wards) turning homeward, upward, downward
- way (- ways) to towards straightway, anyway, sideways
- wise manner, mode likewise, otherwise
Greek Suffixes
- ic (- ique) possessing the unique, angelic, cynic
- ist quality of concerned artist, chemist
with, related with,
dealing with
- isk
of
- ism (- asm) asterisk, obelisk patriotism, despotism,
possessing the
- ize quality of to make, to enthusiasm civilize, criticize, sympathize
- sis (- sy) show crisis, analysis, poesy, heresy
- e (- y) catastrophe, monarchy, philosophy
belonging to
Communication Skills - I 4.8 Vocabulary Building

(iii) Compound Words

Compound words are those words which are formed by combining the different parts of
speach viz. nouns, adjectives, adverbs, gerunds, prepositions. The compound words we get by
these different combinations are mostly nouns, adjectives and verbs and are recognized as
Compound Nouns, Compound Adjectives and Compound Verbs.
(a) Compound Nouns
Compound nouns are obtained by the combinations like
(i) Noun + Noun
Ex. armband, artwork, batsman, chairman, cowboy, doorbell, dockyard, dashboard,
filmstar, godfather, gold-mine, hammerman, headgear, ink-pot, juke-box, keyboard,
landlord, milkmaid, newspaper, nightdress, postcard, quartermaster, road roller, railway,
screwdriver, silkworm, sound-box-, sunglasses, teapot, tablespoon.
(ii) Adjective + Noun
Ex. big-bank, broadsheet, black-board, deadlock, nobleman, sweetheart, fineart, halftruth,
stronghold, highclass, lowland, quickstep, slowcoach, tenderfoot.
(iii) Verb + Noun
Ex. breakfast, cut-throat, cutpiece, daredevil, pickpocket, hangman, spendthrift, telltale.
(iv) Gerund + Noun
Ex. dancing-club, bathing-beauty, hiding-place, singing-chair, burning-train, looking-
glass, walking-stick, booking-office, cooking-class, writing-table, scribbling-pad, dining-
hall, stepping-stone, working-class, swimming-pool, smiling-face.
(v) Adverb (or Preposition) + Noun
Ex. afterthought, outswinger, inswinger, foresight, outlaw, bypass, off-beat, outside,
overdose, underestimation, onlooker, inside.
(vi) Adverb + verb
Ex. backcomb, backwash, outcry, income, outcome, forebear, forecast, outfit, outflow,
outlay, upkeep.
(vii) Verb + Adverb
Ex. spin-off, die-hard, drawback, lock-up, send-off, go-between.
(b) Compound Adjectives
Compound adjectives are obtained by the combination of –
(i) Noun + Adjective (or participle)
Ex. heart-warming, note-worthy, headstrong, homesick, lifelong, worldwide, snow-white,
blood-red, pitch-dark, skin-deep, purse-proud.
Communication Skills - I 4.9 Vocabulary Building

(ii) Adjective + Adjective

Ex. red-hot, blue-black, dull-grey, white-hot.
(iii) Adverb + Participle
Ex. everlasting, never-ending, well-dressed, down-hearted, long-suffering, inborn,
outspoken.
(c) Compound Verbs
Compound verbs can be obtained by the combination of -
(i) Noun + Verb
Ex. backbite, earmark, browbeat, waylay, typewrite.
(ii) Adjective + Verb
Ex. Safeguard, fulfill, whitewash.
(iii) Adverb + Verb
Ex. outcry, outwit, undertake, overthrow, upset, ill-use, ill-breed, in-breed, overtake,
over-joy, over-act.
In most of the compound words, the first word tends to modify the second word. The accent
is given upon the modifying word when the combination is complete. It may be noted that, when
the two elements of the compound word are partially blended, a hyphen is put between them and
the stress falls equally on both the words or elements.

(2) TECHNICAL JARGON

In the modern field of education, there are a number of technical branches which use their
particular terminologies. Many words in these fields are such that they are not being understood
by people at large. Real meaning and purport of these particular words in a particular
terminology would be properly understood only if one acquires specialized knowledge of that
particular science or art. The terminology used by different specialized fields can be termed as
technical jargon. Although, people at large may not understand meanings of all the terms used in
different fields of science or art, it becomes essential for the students of those particular fields to
become acquainted with these technical jargons, without which their expressions in their subjects
would not carry proper weightage. The language used without technical jargons in the fields of
science or art may lead to verbosity.
USE OF POSITIVE TONE
Languages greatly differ from one another. Hence, it is often difficult for foreigners to use
another language perfectly well. The mistakes are generally committed due to several
peculiarities of that language. Mistakes may occur because of wrong choice of an article, wrong
position of a word, wrong sequence of clauses, wrong sequence of tenses, wrong use of attitude
etc. In the modern days of consumer's sovereignty, utmost care is required to be taken to please
the customers by using polite and convincing language. Every firm or business organization has
its clientale which it has to maintain by proper, polite and prompt service. No firm can afford to
be rude or indifferent to its customers. It therefore, becomes obvious to use proper language
while addressing individual customers or business firms. Proper etiquettes and manners are
required to be followed in this respect. Particularly, the use of 'you attitude' becomes a must.
Communication Skills - I 4.10 Vocabulary Building

The important means of communication is language. It must therefore, be used properly.

Words with different shades of meaning should be used very carefully. For example, the word
'record' can be used as a verb as well as a noun. Similar is the case with many words which are
given in this chapter earlier. There are also words with difference in stress or pronounciation.
Such words need to be used very carefully. The words like sight, site, or cite can cause
misunderstanding while speaking. This has to be carefully avoided while using technical terms
because such terms are not properly understood by people at large. Thus, every word, every
term, every construction of sentences, choice of attitude occupies significant importance in
business communication in particular. Some of the examples would make students understand
the underlying principle using correct tone and language.
It is essential that business letters in particular should be written in the right tone. Imperative
and harsh language should invariably be avoided to make correspondence pleasing, convincing
and motivating. Business letter must be in warm and friendly style, positive in approach, concise
in content and polite in language. Although the business letters hitherto were a little pedantic or
indifferent in tone, the style these days is considerably changing. They are becoming more and
more informal in order to attract and please customers. Business letters are now becoming worth
reading from the point of view of propaganda and attractiveness. They are no more tedious and
boring to read.
I. Following the principle of 'You attitude'
Read the following sentences :
(i) Unless the payment is received you cannot get the goods.
(ii) You should take the delivery of your consignment immediately, otherwise you will
forfeit your right.
(iii) We have reminded you several times. But you do not reply.
(iv) You should be alert when you receive our warning.
(v) You should speak less and work more.
The above sentences sound little harsh and do not follow the general principle of politeness
in writing business letters. These sentences can better be written as follows to sound more
appropriate.
(i) The goods will be delivered on receipt of payment please.
(ii) Delay in taking delivery of the consignment would lead to forfeiture of your right over
it.
(iii) No reply has been received even after many reminders. Please attend to it.
(iv) Be alert on receiving our warning.
(v) Speak less, work more is the better policy.
II. Following the principles of Correspondence
The computer you have supplied has been a headache for me. The screen does not display
good quality. The key-board is useless giving wrong signals. Your after sale service is not proper.
You require several reminders. Your representative utterly fails to carry out prompt repairs. I am
repenting for purchasing this unit from you.
Communication Skills - I 4.11 Vocabulary Building

Solution :
The above complaint letter from a customer does not follow the principles of correspondence.
This letter can be better written as follows :
'The computer you have supplied needs better service and attendance. It does not function
properly and affects my work. It is better if you instruct your customer service department to be
more prompt, active and well-versed in their task. Your trouble-shooting staff perhaps may have
to attend refresher courses'.
Following are some more examples of this type :
1. We cannot entertain your complaint unless you personally come to our workshop.
2. No money will be refunded once the goods are sold. We may consider to replace them.
3. We always try to satisfy our customers. It is our main objective in carrying out our
business.
4. We only accept cash. If you want to pay by cheque you will have to pay additional
amount of Rs. 5 for each cheque towards commission charges.
5. We assure the delivery of goods at your doorstep at any locality without charging
anything extra.
The tone of the above sentences can be made more positive and pleasing if written as follows
:
1. It would be appreciated if you make a convenient visit to our workshop to sort out your
grievance.
2. Goods will be replaced if defective. No cash refund please.
3. Customers' satisfaction is our sole motto.
4. Cash payments preferred. If payment is by cheque please add Rs. 5/- extra for each
cheque, towards commission charges.
5. We assure free delivery of goods in any corner of the city.
III. Eliminating jargon and verbosity
Take the example of the following application for leave from an employee :
There are many private affairs, I am required to look into at the place of my birth where my
parents are living. It will be very kind and obliging of you, if I am granted leave. I shall certainly
and surely attend to the duties immediately after the work is done.
The application would sound better and appropriate if written like this –
A I am required to attend certain domestic work at my native place kindly grant me three
days leave. I shall promptly resume duties after the stipulated period of three days.
Read the following examples also :
1. After the chief guest arrived he was given a warm welcome. Then he delivered his
enlightening and scholarly speech to the students. The chief guest delivered his address
after a warm welcome.
2. There were very hot discussions. Everyone tried to emphasise his own view point and
dominate the meeting. Ultimately after a long time they finally decided to come to a
conclusion and make a unanimous resolution. Thus they passed a resolution to end the
prolonged meeting.
A unanimous resolution was passed after hot discussions over the issue.
3. The team included such players who were good bowlers, good batsmen and good
fielders. They were also physically quite good and capable. As a result the captain was
very enthusiastic and expected to win the match. As the team consisted of physically fit
all rounders, the captain was sure to win the match.
Communication Skills - I 4.12 Vocabulary Building

4. The sculptor began to admire the statute more and more and to imagine that it was
indeed like one alive. He began to hang trinklets and jewels on the lovely statue and slip
rings on her fingers and talk to her as if she were alive. Silks too he bought to clothe her
limbs and flowers of many hues he laid at her feet.
The sculptor adored the statue as if it was as living being and decorated it in all possible
ways.
5. Look at the situation of women in our country. Almost 45 years after independence, we
still have illiteracy, malnutrition, exploitation, discrimination, offences of rape, dowry
deaths, violence in the home and outside. Repeated child births, overwork and neglect of
their health care requirements put them among the highest mortality rates in the world.
Even after 45 years of independence the conditions of Indian women is very precarious.

(3) USE OF
(A) SYNONYMS AND (B) ANTONYMS
As per the 'Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary', synonyms is ' a word (or phrase) with the
same meaning as another in the same language, though perhaps with a different style, grammar
or technical use '; and antonyms is a word that is opposite in meaning in the same language. Some
of the commonly used words with their synonyms and antonyms are given below - Students are
advised to carefully go through them and make self-practice to use them frequently in their own
sentences. This will help them positively to increase their word power.
Word Synonym Antonym
Abnormal Uncommon, Rare Common, Normal
Absurd Ridiculous, Foolish Rational, Sensible
Abundant Ample, Bountiful Inadequate, scarce
Accept Receive, Approve Refuse, Reject
Accuse Blame, Censure Admire, Appreciate
Admire Respect, Appreciate Despise, Condemn
Advantage Benefit, Boon Disadvantage, harm
Agree Accept, Consent Disagree, Decline, Deny
Appreciate Admire, Esteem Despise, Depreciate
Attack Assault, Charge, Encounter Defend, Guard, Fortify
Backward Retarded, Sluggish Forward, Progressive
Bad Evil, Corrupt, Wicked Good, Chaste, Decent
Beautiful Charming, Attractive Ugly, Repulsive, Graceless
Benefit Advantage, Boon Loss, Damage
Best Excellent, Highest Worst, Meanest
Blunt Dull, Flat, Rude Sharp, Pointed, Polite
Borrow Obtain, Receive, Take Lend, Give, Deliver
Brave Courageous, Gallant Weak, Coward
Bright Shining, Intelligent Dull, Ignorant
Buy Purchase, Procure Sell, Dispose
Communication Skills - I 4.13 Vocabulary Building

Cheap Worthless, Inferior, Low Worthy, Superior, Costly

Cheerful Delightful, Gay, Happy Gloomy, Dull, Unhappy
Clever Sharp, Talented, Skilful Dull, Stupid, Fool
Competent Able, Efficient, Skilful Incapable, Incompetent
Condemn Accuse, Blame, Censure Appreciate, Praise
Constant Firm, Perpetual, Stable Flexible, Unsteady, Variable
Correct Right, Accurate, True Wrong, Incorrect, False
Courage Boldness, Valour, Bravery Cowardice, Fear, Timidity
Cruel Brute, Callous, Unkind Merciful, Kind, Humane
Curse Bane, Malediction Boon, Benediction
Damn Condemn, Denounce, Curse Admire, Praise, Bless
Dark Black, Gloomy, Ebony White, Bright, Clear
Decrease Reduce, Lessen, Diminish Increase, Augment, Enhance
Defeat Failure, Retreat, Collapse Victory, Triumph, Success
Danger Peril, Risk, Hazard Safety, Security
Deny Decline, Disown, Refute Accept, Admit, Confirm
Dirty Filthy, Impure, Stained Clean, Pure, Spotless
Dismal Cheerless, Gloomy, Sad Cheerful, Jolly, Happy
Divine Heavenly, Holy, Godly Earthly, Unholy, Satanic
Dull Dim, Dry, Stupid, Sad Bright, Clever, Jovial
Easy Simple, Convenient Difficult, Tough
Effective Active, Operative, Powerful Ineffective, Futile, Incapable
Efficient Competent, Capable Deficient, Incapable, Incompetent
Eminent Famous, Distinguished Anonymous, Obscure
Encourage Inspire, Persuade, Urge Discourage, Depress, Dissuade
Enemy Foe, Opponent, Antagonist Friend, Fellow, Associate
Entire Full, Complete, Whole Incomplete, Partial
Essential Basic, Necessary, Primary Subsidiary, Secondary, Auxiliary
Eternal Everlasting, Infinite, Permanent Transitory, Perishable, Temporary
Evil Ball, Corrupt, Wicked Good, Honest, Noble, Moral
Fail Drop, Miss, Disappoint Pass, Gain, Attain, Succeed
Fair Bright, Clean, Proper Brunette, Dirty, Unfair
False Deceptive, Illusory, Incorrect Correct, Real, True
Familiar Intimate, Accustomed Strange, Unaccustomed
Famous Distinguished, Eminent Notorious, Anonymous
Fast Agile, Quick, Rapid, Speedy Dull, Inert, Slack, Slow
Fat Fleshy, Bulky, Plump Slim, Thin, Slender, Lean
Fierce Savage, Wild, Ferocious Docile, Gentle, Tame
Forward Progressive, Advanced Backward, Primitive
Friend Associate, Ally, Companion Foe, Enemy, Rival
Happy Blessed, Cheerful Unhappy, Sad, Disappointed
Hard Stiff, Rigid, Solid, Tough Soft, Flexible, Easy, Mellow
Harmful Injurious, Mischievous Harmless, Innocent
Hasten Accelerate, Quicken Delay, Retard, hinder
Hate Abhor, Despise, Dislike Adore, Love, Like
Heavy Massive, Weighty Light, Petty, Trivial
Communication Skills - I 4.14 Vocabulary Building

High Great, Lofty, Tall Low, Small, Short

Holy Divine, Godly, Pious Unholy, Impious, Satanic
Honest Truthful, Sincere, Frank Deceitful, Dishonest, Tricky
Honour Repute, Glory, Respect Disrespect, Despise, Infamy
Hope Desire, Expectation, Trust Despair, Disappointment
Ignorance Stupidity, Folly, Absurdity Wisdom, Knowledge, Cleverness
Illegal Unlawful, Illicit, Forbidden Legal, Lawful, Legitimate
Important Significant, Prominent Unimportant, Trivial
Inactive Idle, Indolent, Lazy Alert, Active, Industrious
Incomplete Unfinished, Deficient Imperfect Complete, Finished, Perfect
Indolent Idle, Lethargic, Lazy Active, Dynamic, Energetic
Inferior Lower, Subordinate, Mean Superior, Higher, Greater
Injustice Unfairness, partiality Justice, Fairness, Impartiality
Innocent Honest, Simple, Artless Cunning, Clever, Tricky
Insult Abuse, Humiliate, Offend Admire, Honour, Respect
Intelligent Bright, Brilliant, Clever Dull, Foolish, Unintelligent
Irregular Uneven, Eccentric, Inconsistent Regular, Systematic, Orderly
Jealousy Envy, Suspicion, Doubt Love, Appreciation, Belief
Joy Ecstasy, Exultation, Pleasure Grief, Pain, Sorrow, Anguish
Judicious Wise, Prudent, Careful Indiscreet, Irrational, Careless
Justice Fairness, Honesty Unfairness, Dishonesty
Keen Eager, Acute, Enthusiastic Dull, Flat, Lazy
Keep Detain, Hold, Retain Abandon, Reject, Discard
Kill Slay, Murder, Assassinate Protect, Produce, Restore
Kind Compassionate, Generous Cruel, Unkind, Inhuman
Knowledge Wisdom, Learning Ignorance, Illiteracy
Known Familiar, Famous, Popular Unknown, Ordinary, Simple
Lament Weep, Mourn, Grieve Rejoice, Enjoy, Celebrate
Last Final, Ultimate, Extreme First, Initial, Foremost
Lavish Prodigal, Profuse, Excessive Miserly, Economical, Thrifty
Lawful Legal, Legitimate, Regular Unlawful, Illegal, Irregular
Lazy Idle, Indolent, Slack Active, Alter, Agile, Quick
Long Lengthy, Prolonged, Extended Short, Brief, Compact
Lose Waste, Fail, Miss Gain, Obtain, Recover
Loss Damage, Detriment Profit, Gain, Earning
Loud Noisy, Resonant, Blaring Low, Quiet, Soft
Love Affection, Fondness, Liking Hatred, Dislike, Antipathy
Lovely Attractive, Beautiful, Cute Ugly, Repulsive, Hideous
Loyal Faithful, Obedient, Sincere Disloyal, Treacherous, Unfaithful
Lucky Fortunate, Successful Unlucky, Unfortunate
Luxury Abundance, Plentiful Scarcity, Paucity, Wanting
Mad Crazy, Insane, Lunatic Wise, Sane, Rational
Malice Hatred, Enmity, Resentment Love, Passion, Sympathy
Master Ruler, Chief, Leader Servant, Slave, Subordinate
Mature Ripe, Seasoned, Perfect Raw, Unripe, Immature
Communication Skills - I 4.15 Vocabulary Building

Meagre Inadequate, Scarce, Deficient Abounding, Ample, Plentiful

Melancholy Cheerless, Gloomy, Dismal Cheerful, Gay, Joyful
Merciful Kind, Gentle, Tender Cruel, Harsh, Tyrannical
Miserable Unhappy, Dismal, Poor Happy, Cheerful, Prosperous
Modern New, Recent, Progressive Old, Ancient, Primitive
Natural Normal, Usual, Regular Abnormal, Unnatural, Superficial
Necessary Binding, Essential, Compulsory Optional, Voluntary, Unnecessary
Neglect Carelessness, Failure, Omission Attention, Vigilance, Carefulness
Nice Fine, Lovely, Pleasing Repulsive, Ugly, Deformed
Noble Dignified, Honourable Ignoble, Mean, Uncultured
Notorious Scandalous, Ignoble Famous, Reputable, Virtuous
Numerous Many, Various, Manifold Few, Scarce, Scanty
Obnoxious Odious, Offensive, Perverse Pleasant, Enjoyable, Nice
Obscene Dirty, Lewd, Filthy Pure, Virtuous, Clean
Obstinate Stubborn, Adamant, Resolute Amenable, Yielding, Accommodative
Occasional Sporadic, Casual, Incidental Frequent, Regular, Repeated
Odd Abnormal, Anomalous, Singular Normal, Customary, Even
Offend Hurt, Displease, Provoke Defend, Please, Flatter
Often Usually, Repeatedly, Generally Rarely, Hardly, Seldom
Old Aged, Primitive, Elderly Young, Modern, Immature
Ominous Inauspicious, Menacing Auspicious, Propitious
Omit Delete Drop, Eliminate Include, Insert, Enroll
Optimistic Hopeful, Promising, Inspiring Hopeless, Disheartening, Pessimistic
Ordinary Normal, Regular, Usual Abnormal, Exceptional, Unusual
Outstanding Eminent, Important, Excellent Unimportant, Ordinary, Normal
Pain Agony, Anguish, Pang Joy, Pleasure, Happiness
Passionate Excited, Hasty, Impulsive Dispassionate, Cool, Balanced
Pathetic Pitiable, Sad, Touching Amusing, Comic, Farcical
Peace Tranquility, Amity, Silence War, Turmoil, Upheaval
Pious Religious, Devout, Godly Impious, Irreligious, Sinful
Pleasant Attractive, Nice, Amiable Repulsive, Unpleasant, Harsh
Poison Venom, Toxin, Virus Nectar, Honey, Antidote, Sweet
Polite Courteous, Mannerly, Cordial Impolite, Offensive, Rude
Positive Affirmative, Categorical, Sure Negative, Vague, Dubious
Powerful Energetic, Strong, Mighty Powerless, Weak, Dull, Frail
Precious Valuable, Expensive, Esteemed Worthless, Cheap, Contemptible
Profit Advantage, Privilege, Gain Loss, Damage, Deprivation
Prohibit Debar, Forbid, Stop, Hinder Permit, Authorise, Sanction
Protect Defend, Guard, Shield Expose, Disclose, Reveal
Quantity Bulk, Measure, Amount Quality, Deficit, Shortage
Quarrel Dispute, Fight, Feud Peace, Harmony, Amity
Question Inquiry, Interrogation, Query Answer, Reply, Solution
Questionable Doubtful, Debatable, Uncertain Assured, Certain, Unquestionable
Quick Alert, Swift, Fast, Rapid Slow, Slack, Lethargic, Sluggish
Communication Skills - I 4.16 Vocabulary Building

Rapid Fast, Quick, Speedy, Swift Slow, Sluggish, Indolent

Rare Unique, Sparse, Exclusive Common, Usual, Ordinary
Rational Judicious, Sensible, Normal Irrational, Erratic, Insane
Reasonable Fair, judicious, Sensible Illogical, Absurd, Ridiculous
Religious Holy, Devout, Pious, Saintly Unholy, Sinful, Impious, Irreligious
Remember Recollect, Recall, Retain Forget, Ignore, Overlook
Respectable Honourable, Reputable, Worthy Contemptible, Disreputable, Unworthy
Rich Wealthy, Abundant, Profuse Poor, Scarce, Inadequate
Right Correct, Exact, Proper, True Wrong, False, Unfair, Bad
Rough Hard, Coarse, Crude Soft, Smooth, Decent
Rude Impolite, Rough, Mannerless Courteous, Refined, Mannerly
Rural Rustic, Agrarian, Pastoral Urban, Civic, Metropolitan
Ruthless Merciless, Cruel, Pitiless Kind, Compassionate, Pitiful
Sacred Holy, Religious, Divine, Pious Blasphemous, Unholy, Sinful
Safe Protected, Secure Exposed, Unsafe
Scarcity Dearth, Paucity, Shortage Prosperity, Abundance, Enormity
Selfish Greedy, Mean Generous, Liberal, Charitable
Sensitive Tender, Delicate, Susceptible Insensitive, Blunt, Robust
Shallow Superficial, Simple, Trivial Deep, Profound, Wise
Sharp Edged, Alert, Keen Blunt, Dull, Flat
Strict Austere, Firm, Stern Mild, Flexible, Lenient
Superior Excellent, Higher, Finer Inferior, Unimportant, Mean
Tactful Diplomatic, Skilful, Prudent Simple, Negligent, Stupid
Temporary Interim, Ephemeral Permanent, Imperishable
Tender Delicate, Soft, Fragile Hard, Firm, Rigid
Tentative Provisional, Experimental Final, Definite, Firm
Thick Dense, Solid, Condence Thin, Slim, Slender
Thin Delicate, Slim, Slender Thick, Solid, Dense
Tough Sturdy, Tenacious, Firm Flexible, Soft, Tender, Weak
Transparent Clear, Distinct, Glassy Opaque, Hazy, Unclear
Treacherous Disloyal, Deceitful, Unfaithful Loyal, Faithful, Devoted
Ugly Repulsive, Hideous, Vicious Pretty, Beautiful, Charming
Unanimity Agreement, Harmony, Unison Conflict, Discord, Differences
Uncertain Indefinite, Doubtful, Dubious Definite, Certain, Sure
Uneasy Disturbed, Restless, Worried Steady, Quiet, Restful
Unfair Unjust, Wrongful, Biased Just, Fair, Impartial
Unfaithful Disloyal, Deceitful, Treacherous Faithful, Reliable, Loyal
Unfit Improper, Incompetent, Unsuitable Fit, Capable, Competent, Suitable
Unfortunate Unlucky, Ruined, Unfavoured Blessed, Fortunate, Lucky
Unholy Impious, Sinful, Irreligious Holy, Pious, Religious
Unique Uncommon, Matchless, Rare Normal, Ordinary, Common
Unity Oneness, Harmony, Union Diversity, Difference, Variance
Vacant Empty, Unfilled, Void Occupied, Packed, Inhabited
Valiant Brave, Gallant, Heroic Timid, Cowardly, Frightened
Vanity Pride, Arrogance, Egotism Modesty, Humbleness, Humility
Vast Huge, Enormous, Boundless Small, Limited, Scanty
Vertical Erect, Perpendicular, Upright Horizontal, Flat, Prone
Communication Skills - I 4.17 Vocabulary Building

Vice Sin, Immorality, Corruption Virtue, Morality, Honesty

Victory Conquest, Success, Triumph Defeat, Failure, Downfall
Vigilant Alert, Cautious, Watchful Careless, Negligent, Slack
Violent Fierce, Furious, Passionate Unexcited, Quite, Cool
Virtue Morality, Purity, Holiness Vice, Wickedness, Sin
War Battle, Combat, Conflict Peace, Harmony, Amity
Warmth Cordiality, Earnestness Apathy, Indifference, Coolness
Wary Alert, Cautions, Prudent Careless, Negligent, Rash
Watchful Attentive, Alert, Careful Careless, Negligent, Uncautious
Weak Feeble, Fragile, Poor Strong, Sturdy, Powerful
Whole Complete, Entire, Total Part, Fractional, Incomplete
Wicked Evil, Sinister, Villainous Noble, Virtuous, Chaste
Wisdom Intelligence, Cleverness Absurdity, Stupidity, Folly
Yearn Crave, Desire, Languish Contented, Satisfied, Cheerful
Young Youthful, Fresh, New Old, Mature, Ripe
Zeal Enthusiasm, Passion, Fervour Apathy, Reluctance, Idleness
Zenith Climax, Apex, Crown, Culmination base, Bottom, Foundation,
Minimum

(C) HOMOPHONES/HOMONYMS
In the English language, there are a number of words which are spelt and pronounced alike
but carry different meanings. Such words are called as homonyms. Similarly, there are words
pronounced like another words but with different meaning or spelling. Those words are called as
homophones. These peculiarities of English words having great resemblance in spelling or
pronunciation but differences in their meaning, create confusion in the minds of students lead to
committing mistakes in their usages. Some of the words belonging to these categories are given
below indicating their different meanings and using them in appropriate sentences bringing
home those different shades of meanings.
(i) Words with the same spelling and pronunciation but carrying different meaning.
(Homonyms).
1. Act
(a) Decree on law made by a legislative body.
Ex. Government have passed an act to prohibit the sale of drugs.
(b) Any of the main divisions of a play or an opera.
Ex. The tempo of the play culminates in the III Act.
2. Agent
(a) Person who acts for or manages the affairs of other people in business, politics etc.
Ex. He works as an insurance agent.
(b) Force or Substance that produces an effect or change.
Ex. Yeast is used these days in many recipies as the raising agent.
Communication Skills - I 4.18 Vocabulary Building

3. Bar
(a) A long shaped piece of hard stiff material.
Ex. A large number of metal bars were piled up in the godown.
(b) A counter at which drinks are served.
Ex. They were found in the bar in intoxicated condition
4. Bat
(a) Small mouse-like animal that flies at night and feeds on fruits and insects.
Ex. He found bats flying in the house that remained closed for years.
(b) A wooden implement of a specified size and shape and with a handle used for hitting the
ball in the games like cricket, baseball and table tennis.
Ex. He used a little heavier bat during the tournament.
5. Beat
(a) Stroke or regular sequence of strokes.
Ex. We heard the drum beat early in the morning.
(b) Emphasis repeated regularly marking rhythm in music or poetry.
Ex. That song has a very good and melodious beat.
6. Capital
(a) Wealth or property that may be used for producing more wealth.
Ex. He started his business with a meagre amount of capital.
(b) Town or City that is the centre of the Government of a country.
Ex. Mumbai is the capital of the Maharashtra State.
7. Card
(a) Thick stiff paper on thin pasteboard.
Ex. Identity card is compulsory for all college students.
(b) Wire brush or toothed instrument for cleaning or combing wool.
Ex. He used his card very carefully and efficiently in the whole department.
8. Date
(a) Specific numbered day of the month or specific year usually given to show when
something happened or is to happen.
Ex. The date of the conference collided with the date of his birth.
(b) Brown sweet edible fruit of a palm-tree common in N. Africa and S. W. Asia.
Ex. Date is a useful fruit for health.
9. Drill
(a) Training in military exercises.
Ex. N. C. C. cadets have three hours of drill everyday.
(b) Machine for making furrows, sowing seeds in them and covering the seeds by soil.
Ex. He purchased a new drill for his farming.
10. Even
(a) Level, smooth, flat.
Ex. Highways should be perfectly even for smooth traffic.
(b) Divisible by two with no remainder.
Ex. The teacher taught today the sum of even numbers.
11. Fan
(a) Device with rotating blades operated mechanically to create a current of cool air.
Ex. We installed a new ceiling fan in our drawing room.
Communication Skills - I 4.19 Vocabulary Building

(b) Enthusiastic admirer or supporter.

Ex. A lot of people are cinema fans.
12. Fence
(a) Structure of wire etc. put round a field, or a garden to make a boundary or keep animals
from straying.
Ex. It was necessary to put a fence round our garden.
(b) Person who knowingly buys and resells stolen goods.
Ex. He was arrested on the charge of being a fence.
13. Gin
(a) Trap or share for catching animals.
Ex. The hunter was aware where the gin was placed.
(b) Colourless alcoholic drink often used in cocktails.
Ex. He preferred gin with water as a tonic.
14. Gloss
(a) Brightness or shine on a smooth surface.
Ex. Heavy polishing was necessary to bring gloss on the old wooden furniture.
(b) Explanatory comment; explanation, interpretation.
Ex. The election candidate put a different gloss on the issue of corruption in the political
field.
15. Hip
(a) Part on either side of the body below the waist where the bone of a person's leg is jointed
to the trunk.
Ex. He was standing there with his hands on his hips.
(b) Berry-like fruit of the wild rose.
Ex. Did you see hips on the fence of our garden ?
16. Jade
(a) Hard, usually green, stone from which ornaments are carved.
Ex. He owned a beautiful jade vessel.
(b) Tired or worn-out horse.
Ex. He came across a jade on his way back home.
17. Labour
(a) Physical or mental work.
Ex. Workers naturally expect appropriate money wage for their labour.
(b) Workers as a group or class.
Ex. The factory engaged a large number of unskilled labour last month.
18. Law
(a) Rule established by authority.
Ex. The old law has already become obsolete.
(b) Subject of study.
Ex. He took up law after his first graduation in commerce.
19. Magazine
(a) Paper-covered periodical, usually weekly or monthly.
Ex. He purchased a magazine for reading during his long journey by train.
(b) Store of arms, ammunition, explosives etc.
Ex. He enquired about the prices of guns in the magazine on his way home.
Communication Skills - I 4.20 Vocabulary Building

20. Margin
(a) Blank space round the written or printed matter.
Ex. The teacher directed to leave a sufficient margin before beginning to write the paper.
(b) Difference between cost-price and selling-price.
Ex. He discarded the deal because there was hardly any profit margin.
21. Mess
(a) Dirty or untidy state.
Ex. Spectators made mess in the auditorium on a lot off failure of the electricity.
(b) Building in which people take meals together.
Ex. It is the best mess in our locality.
22. Nature
(a) The whole universe and every creation, not a man-made, thing.
Ex. The wonders of nature are beyond human imagination.
(b) Typical qualities and characteristics of a person or animal.
Ex. Corruption is not in his nature.
23. Negative
(a) Word or statement that expresses or means denial or refusal.
Ex. The words like no, not, neither are negatives.
(b) Developed photographic film from which photoprints are taken.
Ex. All the negatives of our tour to Simla are spoiled by the photographer.
24. Order
(a) Way in which people or things are arranged in relation to one another.
Ex. The names were arranged in the alphabetical order.
(b) Command or instructions given by somebody in authority.
Ex. The cadets obeyed the orders given by the commander.
25. Part
(a) Distinct portion of a human or animal body or of a plant.
Ex. Which part of your body is hurt ?
(b) Role played by an actor in a play, film etc.
Ex. His rolicking part in the film was appreciated by the public.
26. Play
(a) Activity done for amusement esp. by children.
Ex. The park was full of the happy sounds of children at play.
(b) Drama
Ex. The new play staged yesterday for the first time was quite excellent.
27. Pole
(a) Either of the two ends of a magnet or the terminal points of an electric battery; either of
the two points at the exact-top or bottom of the earth.
Ex. The arctic is the region around the North Pole.
(b) Long thin rounded piece of wood or metal used esp. as a support for something or for
pushing a boat etc. along.
Ex. He is expert at climbing the telegraph pole.
28. Raw
(a) Uncooked
Ex. Eat vegetables like carrot, radish etc. raw for good health.
Communication Skills - I 4.21 Vocabulary Building

(b) Inexperienced, unskilled.

Ex. Raw hands would not help to improve the conditions of the company.
29. Right
(a) Best in view of the circumstances, most suitable.
Ex. We are on the right track of action.
(b) Contrasted with left.
Ex. She was standing by my right-hand side.
30. Saw
(a) A long cutting tool with sharp toothed edge.
Ex. He installed a new saw in his factory.
(b) Saying, Proverb.
Ex. The old saw 'A stitch in time saves nine'.
31. Seal
(a) Animal with flippers that lives near and in the sea and eats fish.
Ex. A number of seals were seen on the beach.
(b) Soft material such as wax etc. stamped with a design and fixed to a document to show
that it is genuine and to prevent it to be opened by a wrong person.
Ex. The envelop was affixed with the seal of the king.
32. Second
(a) Person or thing that comes next after the first.
Ex. He stood second in the elocution competition.
(b) 60th part of a minute of time.
Ex. The state of the game was changed within five seconds.
33. Share
(a) Part or portion of a larger amount divided among many people or to which many people
contribute.
Ex. Everyone present will get a fair share of the food.
(b) Any of the equal parts into which the capital of a business company is divided.
Ex. He held 500 shares of that co-operative credit bank.
34. Sight
(a) Ability to see, vision.
Ex. He lost his sight in the recent accident.
(b) Range within which somebody can see or something can be seen.
Ex. In few seconds, his car was out of our sight.
35. Slip
(a) Act of Slipping; false step.
Ex. There is many a slip between the cup and the lip.
(b) A thing or small piece of paper.
Ex. I noted down the phone number on a slip of paper.
36. Spirit
(a) Soul thought of as separate from the body; soul without a body; ghost.
Ex. People say that the house on the other side of the road is haunted by an evil spirit.
(b) Strong, distilled alcoholic drink.
Ex. My friend is habituated to drink spirits like rum, whisky, brandy etc.
Communication Skills - I 4.22 Vocabulary Building

37. Tank
(a) A large container generally for liquid or gas.
Ex. His business is to give tanks on hire for transport of milk.
(b) Armoured fighting vehicle with guns which moves on caterpillar tracks.
Ex. A large number of tanks of the enemy were destroyed in the battle.
38. View
(a) What can be seen from a particular place; fine natural scenery.
Ex. You will get a better view of the valley when looking from a railway window.
(b) Personal opinion or attitude.
Ex. His views about today's political situation are very bitter.
39. Ward
(a) Separated part or room for a particular group of patients in a dispensary or hospital.
Ex. You can meet him in the surgical ward.
(b) Division of a city that elects and is represented by a councillor in the local government.
Ex. The councillor from our ward is chosen as a mayor of the city.
40. Wave
(a) Move regularly and loosely to and fro or up and down.
Ex. Our tricolour was waving proudly in the air.
(b) Move one's hand to and fro or up and down in order to attract attention, or to make a
signal or give a greeting.
Ex. All the family members waved their hands as the train moved from the station.
Paronyms :
Paronyms are words of the same grammatical class (nouns, adjectives, etc.) that have the
same root as another or a word containing the same root as another. A word which is borrowed
or descended from the same origin.
For example,
– wise and wisdom.
The word wisdom has the same root as wise. Hence, a word from the same root or having the
same sound as that in another can be taken as Paronymouns.
Example :
social – society
ornate – ornateness
orgon – organic
beauty – beautiful
Book – Bookish
style – stylish
(ii) Words with same pronunciation but different-spelling or meaning are called as
homophones. Some of the examples of such words are given below.
1. Advice - Advise.
(a) Advice - Opinion given about what to do, or how to behave.
Ex. His advice to his friend proved to be beneficial.
(b) Advise - Recommend, give advice to somebody.
Ex. The doctor advised him to take complete rest.
2. Aid-Aide.
(a) Aid - Help, food, money etc. sent to a country to help it.
Ex. How much foreign aid did we receive during the recent floods ?
Communication Skills - I 4.23 Vocabulary Building

(b) Aide - Assistant.

Ex. He is one of the chief aides to the President.
3. Beat - Beet
(a) Beat - Hit something repeatedly especially with a stick
Ex. Somebody was beating at the door.
(b) Beet - Type of plant with a fleshy root which is used as a vegetable or for making sugar.
Ex. Beet is a useful vegetable for health reasons.
4. Canvas - Canvass.
(a) Canvas - Strong coarse cloth used for making tents etc. and by artists for painting on.
Ex. He purchased a canvas for his painting work.
(b) Canvass - Go around an area for political support.
Ex. He participated in the canvassing campaign.
5. Cell - Sell
(a) Cell - A very small room; microscopic unit of living matter.
Ex. The prisoners were kept in a single cell in the basement.
(b) Sell - To give goods etc. to somebody who pays money.
Ex. He goes to market early in the morning to sell books.
6. Dear - Deer
(a) Dear - Greatly valued, loved; expensive.
Ex. His daughter was very dear to him.
(b) Deer - Any of the several types of graceful, quick-running animal.
Ex. There were many beautiful deers in the zoo.
7. Die - Dye
(a) Die - Stop living, come to the end of one's life.
Ex. His relative died of a heart attack.
(b) Dye - Substance used for colouring.
Ex. He constantly uses a hair dye to look young.
8. Desert - Dessert
(a) Desert - Barren land with very little water and vegetation, often covered by sand.
Ex. The Sahara Desert is the largest one in the world.
(b) Dessert - Any sweet dish eaten at the end of a meal (e.g. ice-cream, fruit-salad etc.).
Ex. We shall now move on to dessert, if the meals are over.
9. Fair - Fare
(a) Fair - Large scale exhibition of commercial and industrial goods.
Ex. A trade fair was recently held in the capital.
(b) Fare - Money charged for a journey by bus, taxi, ship etc.
Ex. The bus fare has exorbitantly increased.
10. Gait - Gate
(a) Gait - Manner of walking or running.
Ex. He was walking with an unsteady gait.
(b) Gate - Means of entrance or exit; movable barrier which closes on opening in a wall,
fence etc.
Ex. The garden gate is completely broken and needs repairs.
Communication Skills - I 4.24 Vocabulary Building

11. Hair - Hare

(a) Hair - Mass of the fine thread-like strands that grow from the skin of people and animals,
esp. on the human head.
Ex. She has beautiful long, black hair which attracts people.
(b) Hare - Fast running rabbit-like but larger mammal with long ears and divided upper lips,
that lives in fields.
Ex. Hares are very rarely seen even in the forests.
12. Hall - Haul
(a) Hall - Building or large room for meetings, meals etc.
Ex. The meeting was convened in the town hall.
(b) Haul - Pull or drag something with effort.
Ex. Sailors hauled the boat up the beach.
13. Idle - Idol
(a) Idle - Doing or having no work; not employed.
Ex. Idle people cause nuisance to the whole society.
(b) Idol - Person or thing that is greatly loved or admired.
Ex. Actors or actresses are always the matinee idols for people.
14. Knight - Night
(a) Knight - Man to whom the sovereign has given a rank of honour having the title of 'Sir'.
Ex. Rabindranath Tagore had refused the knightship honoured to him by the British
sovereign.
(b) Night - Time of darkness between sunset and sunrise.
Ex. People generally take rest during the night.
15. Main-Mane
(a) Main - Most important, chief; principal.
Ex. She was the main person of attraction in the party.
(b) Mane - Long hair on the neck of a horse, lion etc.
Ex. Lions look graceful because of the mane they possess.
16. Manner-Manor
(a) Manner - Way in which a thing is done or happens.
Ex. The manner in which he behaved was not graceful.
(b) Manor - Unit of land under the feudal system, part of which was used by the lord and the
rest being farmed by his tenants.
Ex. Tenants in the manor were not always treated well by their lords.
17. Not - Nought
(a) Not - Used with auxiliary verbs and modals to form the negative.
Ex. He did not see me during the whole of last month.
(b) Nought - The figure zero (0); nothing.
Ex. Put three noughts after the figure 5.
18. One - Won
(a) One - One less than two, single.
Ex. He was the only one present in the hall.
(b) Won - Past tense and past participle form of the verb win.
Ex. India won the Hero trophy match by a narrow margin.
Communication Skills - I 4.25 Vocabulary Building

19. Peer - Pier

(a) Peer - Person who is equal to another in rank, status or merit.
Ex. He likes to mix up only with his peers.
(b) Pier - Structure built out into the sea, lake etc. so that boats can stop and take on or put
down goods or passengers.
Ex. He was waiting at the pier for a boat to arrive.
20. Quote - Cote
(a) Quote - Repeat in speech or writing words previously said or written by another person.
Ex. He always quotes lines from Sanskrit verses.
(b) Cote - Shed, shelter or enclosure for domestic animals or birds.
Ex. All the chicken were enclosed in a cote during the night.
21. Right - Rite
(a) Right - Morally good conduct, action; required by law or duty.
Ex. His reaction on the issue was quite right.
(b) Rite - Religious or some other solemn ceremony.
Ex. He took leave for performing certain religious rites at home.
22. Sew - Sow
(a) Sew - Make stitches in cloth etc. with a needle and thread.
Ex. She is sewing her gown since morning.
(b) Sow - Put or scatter seeds in or on the ground.
Ex. The farmer sowed cabbage seeds in the farm.
23. Sight - Site
(a) Sight - Ability to see, vision.
Ex. Due to old age his sight has become a little weak.
(b) Site - Place where a building, town etc. was, is or will be situated;
24. Tail - Tale
(a) Tail - Movable part at the end of the body of a bird, an animal, a fish or reptile.
Ex. Dogs wag their tails when they are in a happy mood.
(b) Tale - Narrative or story.
Ex. Children really like fairy tales.
25. Urn - Earns
(a) Urn - A tall vase usually with a stem and a base; Large metal container with a tap for
making or serving tea, coffee etc. in hotels.
Ex. The urn contained a large quantity of coffee.
(b) Earn - Get money etc. by working.
Ex. He earned his wages once in a fortnight.
Communication Skills - I 4.26 Vocabulary Building

(D) SAME WORD USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH

Sometimes we get derivatives from a root word or headword without adding a prefix or
suffix. However, such derivatives carry different meaning and belong to the part of speech other
than the one to which the original word belongs. Examples of some such zero derivatives are
given below.
1. Advance (n) : Forward movement.
Ex. His advance in life was obstructed because of his financial position.
Advance (adj) : Going before others, done or provided in advance.
Ex. He was a given an advance notice about his dismissal.
2. Advocate (v) : Speak publicly in favour of something or recommend.
Ex. He always advocated the Presidential type of government.
Advocate (n) : Person who supports or speaks in favour of a cause or policy.
Ex. Nehru was lifelong advocate of the 'Panchsheel'.
3. Bale (n) : Large bundle of paper, straw, goods etc. pressed together and tied with rope or
wire for transport etc.
Ex. The bales of hay in the farm caught fire.
Bale (v) : Make something into or pack in bales.
Ex. The attendant was busy in baling cut-pieces of cloth.
4. Balloon (n) : Brightly coloured rubber bag that is filled with air used as a child's toy or a
decoration.
Ex. A number of different coloured balloons were brought home for celebrating child's
birthday.
Balloon (v) : Swell out like a balloon.
Ex. His loose attire ballooned in the heavy wind.
5. Cable (n) : Set of insulated wires for carrying messages by telegraph, or electricity
overhead, message sent abroad.
Ex. Company used copper cables on the new lines.
Cable (v) : Send a cable to somebody abroad.
Ex. His success was cabled to him without losing any time.
6. Camp (n) : Place where people live temporarily in tents or huts.
Ex. The party pitched its camp by the river bank.
Camp (v) : Put up a tent or tents.
Ex. Our plan was to camp in the village for a night.
7. Ditch (n) : Narrow channel dug at the edge of a field road etc. esp. to hold or carry water.
Ex. That ditch proved to be dangerous for the pedestrians.
Ditch (v) : Land an aircraft in the sea in an emergency.
Ex. The pilot was forced to ditch in the Arabian sea due to defect in the engine.
8. Documentary (adj) : Consisting of documents (documentary evidence, proof, sources).
Ex. The file had a documentary, important to the court.
Documentary (n) : A documentary film, or radio or T. V. programme.
Ex. His documentary received critics' award.
9. Drizzle (v) : To rain in many fine drops.
Ex. It has been drizzling all day.
Communication Skills - I 4.27 Vocabulary Building

Drizzle (n) : Fine misty rain.

Ex. There was a cold drizzle since morning.
10. Earth (n) : This planet, the planet on which we live; soil.
Ex. The earth rotates round the sun.
Earth (v) : Connect an electrical appliance etc. with the ground.
Ex. The connection of the electric iron was earthed.
11. Eccentric (adj) : Unusual, peculiar, not normal.
Ex. An eccentric person next door is a nuisance to all.
Eccentric (n) : Abnormal person.
Ex. That group is overflowing with eccentrics.
12. Flight (n) : Process or action of flying in the air.
Ex. The aeroplane was shot down in flight.
Flight (v) : Give a certain patch to a ball through the air while bowling so as to deceive
the batsman.
Ex. He made a well flighted delivery of his last ball of the over.
13. Flirt (v) : To behave in a romantic way but without serious intentions.
Ex. He always tries to flirt with girls in his office.
Flirt (n) : A person who flirts with many people.
Ex. He is known as a terrible flirt in the whole office.
14. General (adj) : Affecting all or most people, places or things.
Ex. The proposal received a general approval of the people.
General (n) : An army officer of a very high rank.
Ex. He retired as a general from the Indian Army.
15. Gesture (n) : Expressive movement particularly of a hand or head.
Ex. He tried to communicate his desire through gestures.
Gesture (v) : Make expressive movements; convey something by gestures.
Ex. She gestured her happiness on the proposal of her friend.
16. Handicap (n) : A thing that makes progress difficult; physical or mental disability.
Ex. Blindness is beyond doubt a serious handicap.
Handicap (v) : To give or be a disadvantage.
Ex. He was handicapped due to his scanty income.
17. Handle (n) : A part of a tool, cup, bucket, drawer etc. by which it can be held, carried or
controlled.
Ex. His car cannot start without using a handle.
Handle (v) : Deal with, manage or control (people, a situation, a machine etc.)
Ex. The foreman very well knew how to handle the workers under him.
18. Independent (adj) : Not dependent (on other people or things); not controlled (by other
people or things).
Ex. India was once a British colony but now it is independent.
Independent (n) : MP, candidate etc. who does not belong to any political party.
Ex. He filed his nomination as an independent to contest election.
19. Individual (adj) : Single, separate.
Ex. Each individual is responsible for his own deeds.
Individual (n) : A single human being.
Ex. The rights of an individual are controlled in the dictatorship.
Communication Skills - I 4.28 Vocabulary Building

20. Jumble (v) : Mix things in a confused way.

Ex. Everything in the hall was jumbled.
Jumbled (n) : Untidy group of things; muddle.
Ex. It was a jumble of books on the table.
21. Key (n) : Metal instrument for locking or unlocking.
Ex. He lost the key of his door-latch.
Key (adj) : Very important or essential.
Ex. He is the key person in his company.
22. Lament (v) : Feel or express great sorrow or regret.
Ex. They lamented upon the loss of their popular leader.
Lament (n) : Strong expression of grief.
Ex. People were greatly moved by her laments on the loss of her only child.
23. Large (adj) : Of considerable size, extent or capacity.
Ex. A large country needs large sources of production.
Large (n) : At full length, thoroughly and in great details.
Ex. The matter is discussed at large in the report.
24. Minor (adj) : Smaller, less serious, less important.
Ex. The house requires, minor repairs.
Minor (n) : A person under the age of full legal responsibility.
Ex. He is not eligible to vote as he is a minor.
25. Misuse (v) : Not used properly.
Ex. Use in the wrong way or for the wrong purpose.
Ex. Nobody should misuse the public funds.
Misuse (n) : You should always avoid misuse of power in public life.
26. Nail (n) : Layer of thorny substance over the outer tip of a finger or toe; a small thin piece
of metal.
Ex. She defended herself with her strong pointed nails when the stranger tried to molest
her.
Nail (v) : Catch or arrest.
Ex. The police nailed the culprit within 24 hours of the offence.
27. National (adj) : Of a nation; characteristic of a whole nation.
Ex. There is always difference in the local and national newspapers.
National (n) : A citizen of a particular nation.
Ex. Only Indian nationals are allowed to contest election.
28. Objective (adj) : Unbiased; fair; not influenced by personal feelings or opinions.
Ex. The magistrate's decision in the case was perfectly objective.
Objective (n) : Thing aimed at or wished for; purpose; aim.
Ex. To become a lawyer was his sole objective.
29. Patent (n) : Official document giving the holder the sole right to make, use or sell an
invention and preventing others from imitating it.
Ex. He has already applied to the government for a patent of the gadget he invented very
recently.
Patent (v) : Obtain a patent for an invention or process.
Ex. He was patented for his invention.
30. Poison (n) : Substance causing death or harm if absorbed by living thing (animal or
plant).
Ex. The actor committed suicide by taking poison.
Communication Skills - I 4.29 Vocabulary Building

Poison (v) : To give poison to living thing; kill or harm something/somebody with
poison.
Ex. She poisoned her husband for getting his wealth.
31. Quarter (n) : Each of four equal or corresponding parts of something.
Ex. Only one quarter of the theatre was empty.
Quarter (v) : Provide somebody with lodging.
Ex. We were quartered in the government rest houses on payment.
32. Refill (v) : To fill again.
Ex. He had to refill the petrol tank before starting the journey.
Refill (n) : New material used to refill a container.
Ex. Bring two refills for my ballpen while coming home.
33. Reform (v) : Become or make better by removing faults, errors etc.
Ex. Many social organizations desire to reform the structure of our constitution.
Reform (n) : Reforming or being reformed.
Ex. They plan to bring about social reforms quickly.
34. Screen (n) : Blank surface on which pictures or films are projected.
Ex. He writes for both the big and small screen.
Screen (v) : show a film, scene on a screen.
Ex. The film has been screened in the cinema and on T.V.
35. Sheer (adj) : Complete, thorough, utter.
Ex. His efforts were a sheer waste of time.
Sheer (adv) : Straight up or down.
Ex. The ground dropped, and it was her sheer luck that saved her.
36. Tape (n) : Magnetic tape on which recording is made.
Ex. The police could not finish the tape they needed.
Tape (v) : Record on magnetic tape.
Ex. The concert was taped from the T. V.
37. Thrust (v) : Push violently or suddenly.
Ex. He thrust the dagger through the body of the thief.
Thrust (n) : Act or movement of thrusting.
Ex. The soldier was killed by a bayonet thrust.
38. Unlike (adj) : Different, dissimilar.
Ex. They are quite unlike each other.
Unlike (prep) : Not like; different from.
Ex. His performance was quite unlike the earlier one.
39. Venture (n) : Project or undertaking involving a risk of failure.
Ex. His friend embarked on a doubtful venture.
Venture (v) : Dare to go to do something dangerous.
Ex. The mouse never ventured far from its hole.
40. Yelp (n) : A short, sharp cry of pain, anger, excitement etc.
Ex. The dog gave a yelp when the boy trodded on its paw.
Yelp (v) : To give a short, sharp cry of pain, anger etc.
Ex. She yelped with joy when she saw her friend standing in front of her.
Communication Skills - I 4.30 Vocabulary Building

(4) USE OF CONTEXTUAL WORDS IN A GIVEN PARAGRAPH

This topic is a double-edged weapon in the hands of the students since it helps both to
elaborate ideas, concepts, thoughts for writing as well as to bring precision when required to
write or express things in short. Although it is impossible to list out all one-words, efforts are
made to compile some important and commonly used groups of words and one-word substitutes
for them in this section. Students are advised to study them and try to remember them by using
them in practice whenever and wherever possible. This will also be one of the measures for
enriching one's vocabulary.
1. People inhabiting a land from a very early period before the colonies were established.
Aboriginals
2. Something that exists in thought or idea but not having a physical or practical existence.
Abstract
3. A person whose profession is to maintain or inspect financial accounts. Accountant
4. A word formed from the initial letters of a group of words. Acronym
5. Concerned with beauty and the appreciation of beauty. Aesthetic
6. Instance of unprovoked attacking or hostility by one country against another. Aggression
7. Medical conditions that produce an unfavourable reaction to certain food, pollens, insect
bites, etc. Allergy
8. A diplomat sent from one country to another either as a permanent representative or on a
special mission. Ambassador
9. Supply of bullets, bombs, grenades etc. fired from weapons or thrown. Ammunition
10. An animal able to live both on land and in water. Amphibian
11. Conditions of being lawlessness i.e. the complete absence of government law or control of
society. Anarchy
12. Scientific study of the structure of animal bodies. Anatomy
13. With a name that is not known or not made public. Anonymous
14. Study of mankind esp. of its origin, development, customs and beliefs. Anthropology
15. A word that is opposite in meaning to another. Antonym
16. An artificial pond or glass tank where live fish and other water creatures and plants are
kept. Aquarium
17. Study of ancient civilizations by scientific analysis of physical remains found in the
ground. Archaeology
18. Art and science of designing and constructing buildings. Architecture
19. Part of a country's military forces that is organized and equipped for fighting on land.
Army
20. Study of the positions of the stars and movements of planets in the belief that they
influence human affairs. Astrology
21. Person who travels in a space-craft. Astronaut
22. Scientific study of the sun, moon, stars, planets etc. Astronomy
23. Story of a person's life written by that person himself. Autobiography
24. Microscopic organisms existing in air, water, soil, living and dead creatures, plants
causing diseases. Bacteria
Communication Skills - I 4.31 Vocabulary Building

25. Style of dancing used to tell a story in a dramatic performance with music but without
speech or singing. Ballet
26. A strip of material used for binding round a wound or an injury. Bandage
27. An instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure especially used for forecasting
weather. Barometer
28. A lawyer who has acquired the degree of Bar-at-Law and has right to speak and argue as
an advocate in higher law courts. Barrister
29. Stretch of sand or pebbles along the edge of the sea or a lake; shore between high and low
water mark. Beach
30. Person who gives money or other help to a school, hospital, charitable institute etc.
Benefactor
31. Being or wishing to be kind, friendly and helpful to or towards somebody. Benevolent
32. List of books or articles about a particular subject or by a particular author. Bibliography
33. System or crime of marrying a person when still legally married to someone else. Bigamy
34. Having two sides; affecting or involving two parties, countries etc. Bilateral
35. Able to speak two languages equally well. Bilingual
36. Scientific study of plants and their structure. Botany
37. Structure of wood, iron, concrete etc. providing a way across a river road, railway etc.
Bridge
38. Meal at which guests serve themselves from a number of dishes. Buffet
39. Powerful tractor with a broad steel blade in front used for moving earth or clearing
ground. Bulldozer
40. System of government through departments managed by state officials not by elected
representatives. Bureaucracy
41. Piece of furniture with drawers or shelves for storing or displaying things; Cabinet
OR
Group of the most important government ministers responsible for government
administration and policies.
42. Person whose job is to receive and pay out money in bank, shop, hotel counter etc.
Cashier
43. Small sealed case containing a reel of film or magnetic tape. Cassette
44. Book or a booklet containing a complete list of items usually in a special order and with a
description of each item. Catalogue
45. Place serving food and drink in a factory, an office, a school, etc. Canteen
46. Economic system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private
owners and not by state for profit. Capitalism
47. Branch of medicine concerned with the heart and its diseases. Cardiology
48. Branch of mathematics that deals with the problems involving rates of variation.
Calculus
49. Strong smelling white substance used in medicines and mothballs and making plastics.
Camphor
50. Official counting of a country's population or of other classes of things for statistical
purposes. Census
Communication Skills - I 4.32 Vocabulary Building

51. Official printed or written statement that may be used as a proof or evidence of certain
facts. Certificate
52. Ornamental hanging light with branches for several bulbs or candles. Chandelier
53. Fatty substance found in animal fluids and tissue thought to-cause hardening of arteries.
Cholesterol
54. Regular pattern of weather conditions such as temperature, rainfall, winds etc. of a
particular region. Climate
55. Social and economic system in which there is no private ownership and the means of
production belong to all members of society. Communism
56. Fellow member of a trade union or of a socialist or communist political party etc.
Comrade
57. Person who has done something wrong. Culprit
58. Person who believes that people do not do things for good, sincere or noble reasons but
only for their own advantage. Cynic
59. Facts or information used in deciding or discussing something. Data
60. Academic title given by a university or college to one who has passed an examination,
written a thesis etc. Degree
61. System of government by the people through the representatives they elect. Democracy
62. Ruler with unlimited powers especially a cruel and oppressive one. Despot
63. Person in the diplomatic service e.g. ambassador etc.
OR
A person clever at dealing with people. Diplomat
64. Illness of the body, of the mind or of plants caused by infection or internal disorder.
Disease
65. Legal ending of a marriage, separation. Divorce
66. Weekly payment made by the state to unemployed people. Dole
67. Model of the human figure used for displaying or fitting clothes. Dummy
68. Device for converting steam-power, water-power etc. into electricity. Dynamo
69. Blocking of the light of the sun or moon due to specific position of the sun, the moon and
the earth. Eclipse
70. Scientific study of the relation of plants and living creatures to each other and to their
surroundings. Ecology
71. Science or principles of the production, distribution and consumption of goods especially
with reference to cost. Economics
72. Person showing or holding a belief in equal rights, benefits and opportunities for
everybody. Egalitarian
73. Minute particle of matter with negative electric charge found in all atoms. Electron
74. Poem or song expressing sorrow for the dead. Elegy
75. Art or style of speaking clearly and effectively especially in public. Elocution
76. Quickly spreading disease among many people in the same place for a time. Epidemic
77. Information that proves something or gives a reason for believing something. Evidence
Communication Skills - I 4.33 Vocabulary Building

78. Collection of things such as works of art, industrial or commercial goods etc. shown
publicly for advertisement. Exhibition
79. Departure of many people at one time. Exodus
80. Introduced from another country; not native. Exotic
81. Person with special knowledge, skill, or training in a particular field. Expert
82. Spoken or done without previous thought or preparation. Extempore
83. Person more interested in what is happening around him than in his own thoughts and
emotions. Extrovert
84. Department or group of departments in a university etc. Faculty
85. Extreme right-wing dictatorial political system or views (as originally seen in Italy
between 1922 and 1943) Fascism
86. Related to government money or public money. Fiscal
87. All the plants of a particular area or period of time. Flora
88. Remains of a pre-historic animal or plant preserved by being buried in earth and now
hardened like rock. Fossil
89. Border between two countries. Frontier
90. Type of sugar found in fruit-juice, honey etc. Fructose
91. Ceremony of burning or burying dead body. Funeral
92. Substance that kills fungus. Fungicide
93. Any of various types of plant without leaves, flowers or croon colouring matter. Fungus
94. Tube or pipe that is wide at the top and narrow at the bottom used for pouring liquids,
powders etc. into small opening. Funnel
95. Enclosed space or chamber for heating metal glass etc. to a very high temperature.
Furnace
96. Scientific study of the ways in which characteristics are passed from parents to their off
springs. Genetics
97. Person who has exceptionally great mental or creative ability. Genius
98. Substance used for killing germs. Germicide
99. Person who holds esp. the first or bachelor's degree from a university. Graduate
100. Soft black substance used in making lead pencils, in lubrication and for slowing down
neutrons in atomic reactors. Graphite
101. Any thick semi-solid oily substance used for lubrication. Grease
102. Room in a theatre, T. V. studio etc. where the performers can relax or do their make-up.
Green-room
103. Protective screen of metal bars or wires. Grill
104. Shopkeeper who sells food in packets, fins, or bottles and general small household goods.
Grocer
105. Person who shows others the way esp. a person employed to point-out interesting sights
on a journey or places of tourist. Guide
106. Exercises performed to develop the muscles or fitness or to demonstrate agility.
Gymnastics
107. Scientific study and treatment of diseases and disorders of the female reproductive
system. Gynecology
Communication Skills - I 4.34 Vocabulary Building

108. Member of a wandering group of people who live in caravans. Gypsy

109. Substance carrying oxygen in the red blood-cells of vertebrates. Haemoglobin
110. Person with the legal rights to receive property when the owner dies. Heir
111. Animal that feeds on plants. Herbivore
112. Person who has withdrawn from society and lives completely alone. Hermit
113. Geometric figure with six sides and angles. Hexagon
114. Large scale destruction of life and property especially due to fire. Holocaust
115. Things said or done to show great-respect to a person or his qualities. Homage
116. The line at which the earth and sky appear to meet. Horizon
117. The scientific study of art and science of growing flowers, fruit and vegetables.
Horticulture
118. Friendly and generous reception and entertainment of guests or strangers in one's own
home. Hospitality
119. Person/s held as captive and threatened to be killed or harm to be done unless certain
demands are met. Hostage
120. Animal or plant that has parents of different species or varieties. Hybrid
121. Study and practice of cleanliness as way of maintaining good health and preventing
disease. Hygiene
122. Huge mass of ice floating in the sea. Iceberg
123. Phrase or sentence whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its individual words
in isolation but must be learnt as a whole unit. Idiom
124. Small dome-shaped house built by Eskimos from blocks of hard snow as a temporary
shelter. Igloo
125. Not following accepted standards of morality. Immoral
126. That cannot be harmed by a disease or illness. Immune
127. List of names or topics referred to in a book etc. usually arranged at the end in
alphabetical order. Index
128. Type of small animal having six legs, no backbone and a body divided into three parts
viz. head, thorax and abdomen. Insect
129. Guarantee of compensation for loss, damage, sickness, death etc. in return of regular
payment of premium. Insurance
130. An organization through which national police forces can cooperate with each other.
Interpol
131. Meeting at which applicant is asked questions to find out if he is suitable for what he has
applied. Interview
132. Enter a country or territory with armed forces in order to attack damage or occupy it.
Invade
133. Supply water to land or crops by means of streams, reservoirs channels, pipes etc. Irrigate
134. Piece of land surrounded by water on all sides. Island
135. Creamy-white, bone-like substance forming the tusks of elephants, walruses etc. Ivory
136. Device for raising heavy weights off the ground esp. vehicles, motor cars etc. Jack
137. Hard, green stone from which ornaments are carved. Jade
138. Sweet substance made by boiling fruit with sugar until it is thick, preserved in jars. Jam
Communication Skills - I 4.35 Vocabulary Building

139. Technical or specialized words used by a particular group of people and difficult for
others to understand. Jargon
140. Short, close-fitting jacket without sleeves worn by men or women. Jerkin
141. Aircraft powered by a jet engine. Jet
142. Newspaper or periodical especially one that is serious and deals with specialized subject.
Journal
143. Celebration of a special anniversary of an event. Jubilee
144. Japanese system of unarmed combat in which arms, feet etc. are used as weapons. Karate
145. Metal instrument shaped to move the bolt of a lock. Key
146. Either of a pair of organs in the body that remove waste products from the blood and
produce urine. Kidney
147. Of or produced by movement. Kinetic
148. Clothing and personal equipments of a soldier or of a traveller. Kit
149. Room or building in which food/meals are cooked or prepared. Kitchen
150. Room or building used especially for scientific research, experiments, testing etc.
Laboratory
151. Existing but not active, developed or visible. Latent
152. Machine that shapes pieces of wood, metal etc. by holding and turning them against a
fixed cutting tool. Lathe
153. Person who is trained and qualified in legal matters esp. solicitor. Lawyer
154. Story handed down from the past especially one that may not be true. Legend
155. Type of plants like pea, bean etc. which has its seeds in pods. Legume
156. Communication and co-operation between units of an organization. Liaison
157. False, written or printed statement that damages somebody's reputation or status. Libel
158. Freedom from captivity, slavery or oppressive control. Liberty
159. Room or building where the books for reading or borrowing are kept. Library
160. Liquid medicine or cosmetic for use on skin. Lotion
161. Oily or greasy substance that is put on or in machinery so that it moves easily.
Lubricant
162. Meal taken in the middle of the day. Lunch
163. Person who writes the words of esp. popular songs. Lyricist
164. Apparatus with several moving parts for performing particular task and driven by
electricity, steam, gas etc. or human power. Machine
165. Paper or periodical published every week or month with articles, stories etc. by various
authors. Magazine
166. Done with or controlled by the hands. Manual
167. Animal dung or other material spread over or mixed with soil to make it fertile. Manure
168. Head of the council of a city or borough, usually elected yearly, who enjoys the status of
the ' first citizen ' of the town. Mayor
169. A monument, ceremony etc. that reminds people of an event or person. Memorial
170. A heavy silver-coloured metal (chemical element) found in liquid form used in scientific
instrument like thermometer, Barometer etc. Mercury
171. Science of the properties of metals, their uses, methods of obtaining them etc. Metallurgy
Communication Skills - I 4.36 Vocabulary Building

172. Scientific study of the earth's atmosphere and its changes used especially for forecasting
weather. Metrology
173. A scientific instrument useful for making very small object appear larger. Microscope
174. Person who moves from one place to another to live or work. Migrant
175. Person in trade union or politics using force or strong pressure or supporting their use to
achieve desired aims. Militant
176. Place where coins are made usually under state authority. Mint
177. Sole right to supply or trade in some commodity or service. Monopoly
178. Scientific study of the form and structure of animals and plants. Morphology
179. Person born in a place country etc. and associated with that place by birth. Native
180. Feeling of sickness or disgust for something. Naseua
181. Ornament of pearls, beads etc. worn round the neck. Necklace
182. Not supporting or helping either side in a dispute, contest, war etc. Neutral
183. Poisonous oily substance found in tobacco. Nicotine
184. Member of a tribe that wanders from place to place looking for pasture for its animals
and having no fixed home. Nomadic
185. Person with official authority to witness the signing of legal documents and perform
certain other legal functions. Notary
186. Book-length story in prose about either imaginary or historical characters. Novel
187. Central part of a living cell. Nucleus
188. Place where young plants and trees are grown for transplanting later and use for sale.
Nursery
189. Substance serving as or providing nourishment especially for plants or animals. Nutrient
190. Fertile place with water and trees in a desert. Oasis
191. Thing in the way that either stops progress or makes it difficult. Obstacle
192. A long poem expressing noble feelings and often written to a person or thing. Ode
193. Smooth greasy paste for rubbing on the skin to heal injuries or roughness or as a
cosmetic. Ointment
194. Suggesting that something bad is about to happen. Ominous
195. Path followed by a planet, star, moon etc. round another body. Orbit
196. A large group of people playing various musical instrument together. Orchestra
197. Of or from the countries of the East. Oriental
198. Scientific study of birds. Ornithology
199. Person whose parents are dead. Orphan
200. Branch of surgery that deals with correction of bone deformities and diseases.
Orthopaedics
201. Instrument used to draw an exact copy of a plan, map etc. on any scale. Pantograph
202. Loss of control of a part of the body caused due to a disease of or injury to the nerves.
Paralysis
203. Official document issued by the government of a country to its citizen to travel abroad
under its protection. Passport
204. Person who gives money or other support to a person, cause, activity etc. Patron
205. Chemical substance used to kill insects. Pesticide
206. Deadly infectious disease that spreads quickly through large numbers of people.
Pestilence
Communication Skills - I 4.37 Vocabulary Building

207. Implement with a curved blade used for digging furrows in the soil before sowing seeds.
Plough
208. Artificial fabric used for making clothes etc. Polyester
209. Custom of having more than one wife at a time. Polygamy
210. Place where ships load and unload cargo. Port
211. Liked, admired or enjoyed by many people. Popular
212. Hens, ducks, geese, turkeys etc. kept for eating or for their eggs. Poultry
213. Amount or instalment regularly paid for an insurance policy. Premium
214. Study of the mind and how it functions. Psychology
215. Place where stones, slate etc. is extracted from the ground. Quarry
216. Bitter liquid made from the bark of a tree and used in drinks or as a medicine against
malaria, fever etc. Quinine
217. Competition especially on T. V. or radio in which people try to answer questions to test
their knowledge. Quiz
218. Repeat in speech or writing words previously said or written by another person. Quote
219. Number obtained when one number is divided by another. Quotient
220. Contest of speed between runners, horses, cars, vehicles etc. to see which reaches the
specific place first. Race
221. Large gathering of people with a common purpose. Rally
222. Fixed quantity of food-grains etc. sold especially in times of shortage. Ration
223. Person who fights against or refuses to serve the established government. Rebel
224. Best performance or highest or lowest level ever reached especially in sports. Record
225. Exact copy made by an artist of one of his own pictures. Replica
226. Class of cold-blooded, egg, laying animals like lizards, crocodiles, snakes etc. Reptiles
227. Public place where snacks, meals, beverages etc. can be bought and eaten. Restaurant
228. Deliberate punishment or injury inflicted in return for what one has suffered. Revenge
229. Rise in rebellion against authority. Revolt
230. Overthrow of a system of government especially by force. Revolution
231. Wild or violent disturbance by a crowd of people. Riot
232. Person or thing competing with another. Rival
233. Part of a plant that keeps it firmly in the soil and absorbs water and food from it. Root
234. Information spread by being talked about but not certainly true. Rumour
235. Connected with or dedicated to God or religion. Sacred
236. Strong lockable box, cabinet etc. for storing valuables. Safe
237. Fixed, regular payment to employees doing other than manual or mechanical work.
Salary
238. Liquid produced in the mouth that helps one chew and digest food. Saliva
239. An instrument with a long, sharp-toothed edge operated manually or mechanically for
cutting wood, stone, metal etc. Saw
240. A frame of metal tubes or bamboo and wooden planks put up next to building so that
builders, painters etc. can work on it. Scaffold
241. Act, behaviour etc. that causes public feelings of outrage or indignation. Scandal
242. Either of the two divisions of the academic year in a college or a university. Semester
Communication Skills - I 4.38 Vocabulary Building

243. Caused by or causing infection with harmful bacteria. Septic

244. Outer covering of eggs, of nut-kernels of some seeds or fruits and of animals like oysters,
crabs, snails, tortoise etc. Shell
245. Method of writing rapidly using special quickly-written symbols. Shorthand
246. Short-handled tool with a curved blade used for cutting grass, corn etc. Sickle
247. Scientific study of the nature and development of society and social behaviour. Sociology
248. Tool for gripping and turning nuts on screws, bolts etc. Spanner
249. Figure of a person, an animal etc. in wood, stone, bronze, usually life-size or larger.
Statue
250. Work-room of a painter, sculptor, photographer or a place where cinema films are acted
and photographed. Studio
251. Doctor who performs surgical operations. Surgeon
252. Combining of separate parts elements etc. to form a complex whole. Synthesis
253. Armoured fighting vehicle with guns which moves on Caterpillar tracks. Tank
254. Sum of money to be paid by people, businessmen, workers etc. to a government for
public purposes. Tax
255. Optical instrument shaped like a tube, with lenses to make distant object appear larger
and nearer. Telescope
256. Formal offer to supply goods or carry out work at a stated price. Tender
257. Instrument for measuring temperature. Thermometer
258. Medicine that gives strength or energy, taken after illness or when tired. Tonic
259. Powerful motor vehicle used for pulling farm machinery or other heavy equipments.
Tractor
260. Passing of beliefs or customs from one generation to the next esp. without writing.
Tradition
261. Branch of mathematics dealing with the relationship between the sides and angles of
triangle. Trigonometry
262. Underground passage for a road, or railway through a hill or under a river or the sea.
Tunnel
263. Person appointed to see that the rules are observed during play etc. and settle dispute.
Umpire
264. All existing things including the earth and its creatures and all the stars, planets etc. in
the space. Universe
265. Institution that teaches and examines students, awards degrees, provides facilities for
academic research. University
266. Awkward to move or control because of its shape, size or weight etc. Unwieldy
267. White soluble crystalline compound contained especially in the urine of mammals. Urea
268. Imaginary place or state of things in which everything is perfect. Utopia
Communication Skills - I 4.39 Vocabulary Building

269. Substance that is injected into the blood-stream and protects the body from disease.
Vaccine
270. Space that is completely empty of all matter or gas/gases. Vacuum
271. Wanderer or vagrant, especially an idle or dishonest person. Vagabond
272. Conveyance such as car, lorry or cart etc. used for transporting goods or passengers on
land. Vehicle
273. Place where people agree to meet especially for a sports contest or match. Venue
274. At a right angle to another line or plane or to the earth's surface. Vertical
275. Metal tool with a pair of jaws that hold a thing securely tight while work is done on it.
Vice
276. One who is alert and watchful against any possible danger, trouble in the offing.
Vigilant
277. Person guilty or capable of great wickedness. Villain
278. Using, showing or caused by strong physical force. Violent
279. Mountain or hill with an opening or openings through which lava, cinders, gases come
up from below the surface of the earth, may come up after intervals or cease to come up.
Volcano
280. Document showing that money has been paid for goods, services etc. received. Voucher
281. Regular payment made or received for work or services. Wages
282. Four wheeled vehicle driven by horses or oxens, or open railway truck or trolly used for
carrying heavy loads. Wagon
283. Fighting between nations or groups within a nation using military force. War
284. A small instrument showing the time, worn on wrist. Watch
285. Thing designed or used for causing physical harm. Weapon
286. Condition of the atmosphere at a certain place and time with reference to temperature,
rain, sunshine, wind etc. Weather
287. Disc or circular frame that turns or an axle as on vehicles or as a part of machine. Wheel
288. Place in a river or the sea where there are whirling currents. Whirlpool
289. Woman whose husband has died and who has not married again. Widow
290. Mill worked by the action of wind on long projecting arms that turn on central shaft.
Windmill
291. Process of producing photocopies without the use of wet materials. Xerox
292. Type of short-wave electromagnetic radiation that can penetrate solids. X-ray

293. Time taken by the earth to make one orbit round the sun about 3654 days
1
Year
 
294. Fungous substance used in making of beer and wine or to make bread. Yeast
295. Round yellow part in the middle of the white of an egg. Yolk
Communication Skills - I 4.40 Vocabulary Building

296. Point in the heavens directly above an observer. Zenith

297. Turning right and left alternatively at sharp angles. Zigzag
298. Imaginary band of the sky containing the positions of the sun, the moon and the main
planets, divided into 12 equal parts. Zodiac
299. Area, band or stripe that is different from its surroundings or area or region with a
particular feature or use. Zone
300. Place like garden, park etc. where living, especially wild, animals are kept for exhibition,
study and breeding. Zoo
301. Scientific study of the structure, form and distribution of animals. Zoology
,,,
 Part – V

SOFT SKILL DEVELOPMENT

(1) Soft Skills
(2) Speaking Skills
(3) Introduction to Group Discussion
(4) Process of Group Discussion
(5) Leadership Skill
(6) Instant Public Speaking

(1) SOFT SKILLS

Introduction:
‘Soft skills’ is a sociological term which refers to the cluster of personality traits, social graces,
ability with language, personal habits etc. In other words, a set of skills that influence how we
interact with each other are known as ‘Soft Skills’. It includes abilities such as effective
communication, creativity, analytical thinking, diplomacy, flexibility, change-readiness and
problem solving, leadership, team building and speaking and listening skills. Personal
management skills such as attitudes and behaviours that drive ones potential for growth and
teamwork skills are also comprised in soft skills.
Meaning:
Soft skills include all facets of general skills that cover the intellectual aspect and non-
academic skills of an individual. These skills help an individual in developing better interaction,
performance and career prospects in an organisation.
Definitions:
1. “Soft skills are personal management skills such as attitudes and behaviour that drives ones
potential for growth and team work skills”.
2. “Soft skills are the kind of skills needed to perform jobs where job requirements are defined in
terms of expected outcomes.”
3. “Soft skill is a set of skill that influences how we interact with each other. It includes such abilities
as effective communication, creativity, analytical thinking, diplomacy, flexibility, change-
readiness and problem solving, leadership, team building and listening skills.”

(5.1)
Communication Skills - I 5.2 Soft Skill Development

Importance of Soft Skills:

1. Improves communication skills: Communication is a medium to express ones thoughts,
ideas, feelings, emotions, etc. The ability to communicate is highly essentially at every
work place. Communication skill can be made more effective with the aid of developing
soft skill in an individual. With the help of soft skills, an individual can deliver his idea
clearly and confidently either orally or in writing. It also enhances usage of technology
during presentations. Soft skills facilitate people from varied background to
communicate in an effective way.
2. Develops overall personality: Soft skill is an aid to develop an overall personality of an
individual in order to facilitate him for delivering his best performance at the work
place. It also inculcates positive approach towards work among employees. It boosts the
morale of the employees and makes them understand the need of the organisation
professionally in terms of economic crisis, environmental, social and cultural aspects.
3. Team Building: Every individual working in an organisation is unique. Some employees
may be comfortable working within a group, while others may prefer to work alone. Soft
skill helps an individual to overcome these differences and build a good rapport and
work effectively with others as a team. Moreover, it improves the ability of an individual
to recognise and respect other’s attitude, behaviour and beliefs.
4. Problem solving ability: Soft skill enhances an individual’s ability to identify and
analyse problems in critical situations and to come up with acceptable appraisal for the
given problem. In addition to these, Soft skill develops an aptitude among individuals to
find novel ideas and look for alternative feasible solution. It helps to assimilate and
accommodate oneself to the diverse working environment.
5. Customer service skills: Customer service skill is one of the most essential skills an
entrepreneur or business owner looks for while hiring important folks who will take care
of their customer. Today’s world is more customer centric which demands from an
organisation to deliver customised services as per their expectations. In turn, to meet
these expectations of their customers, the organisation concentrates on training their
employees to improve their customer service skills such as developing patience,
attentiveness, clear communication skills, knowledge of the product, time management
skills, persuasion skills, willingness to learn, etc.
6. Entrepreneurship skills: Soft skills play an important role in the development of the
employees as well as for the entrepreneur. Entrepreneur is the person who binds the
employees with the organisation for the achievement of organisational goals. The
entrepreneur should possess the soft skill of identifying, exploring, exploiting and
building business opportunities and remain competitive in the critical business
environment. Thus, soft skills are equally important for the entrepreneur to possess.
7. Leadership skills: The ability to lead effectively is based on a number of key skills.
These skills are highly sought after by the employers as they involve dealing with people
in such a way as to motivate, enthuse and build respect. Soft skill enables an individual
to understand and take turn as a leader and provides him with capability to lead and
supervise a team.
Communication Skills - I 5.3 Soft Skill Development

Elements of Soft Skill

Grooming Manners:
Grooming is the process of making yourself attractive and presentable. In simple words
grooming means the things which you do to make yourself and your appearance tidy and
pleasant. Personal Grooming is the term for how people take care of their body and appearance.
Habits that are considered in personal grooming include dressing, make up, taking care of one’s
teeth and skin, etc. Appearance, clothes and manners do not make the man; but, when he is
made, they greatly improve his appearance whether this is real or imaginary; the most important
fact is that your appearance influences the opinions of everyone around you. Your
professionalism, intelligence and the trust people form in you depends on your appearance.
Importance of Grooming
• In the business atmosphere it is extremely important to have knowledge of grooming
skills because you deal with people of different cultures on a regular basis and should
always aim to make the best first impressions, lasting impressions or you risk losing
potential opportunities for yourself.
• A person with bad personal grooming habits can be spotted from anywhere. Therefore,
personal grooming is highly essential.
• A clean and neat appearance inspires confidence. Grooming is important if you want to
feel confident and project a positive self-image of yourself. For a good impression,
grooming is must.
• Grooming is an external appearance, which is the window of your personality to the
world. External appearance is very important as it portray the first impression to others
about your personality.
What is Etiquette?
Business etiquette is a set of rules that govern the way people interact with one another
in business, with customers, suppliers, with inside or outside bodies. It is all about conveying the
right image and behaving in an appropriate way. Etiquette refers to behaving in a socially
responsible way.
Etiquette refers to guidelines which control the way a responsible individual should behave in
the society
Need for Etiquette

Etiquette makes you a cultured individual who leaves his mark wherever he goes.

Etiquette teaches you the way to talk, walk and most importantly behave in the society.

Etiquette is essential for an everlasting first impression. The way you interact with your
superiors, parents, fellow workers, friends speak a lot about your personality and up-
bringing.

Etiquette enables the individuals to earn respect and appreciation in the society. No one
would feel like talking to a person who does not know how to speak or behave in the society.
Etiquette inculcates a feeling of trust and loyalty in the individuals. One becomes more
responsible and mature. Etiquette helps individuals to value relationships.
Communication Skills - I 5.4 Soft Skill Development

Types of Etiquette
1. Social Etiquette: Social etiquette is important for an individual as it teaches him how to
behave in the society.
2. Corporate Etiquette: Corporate etiquette refers to how an employee should behave while
he is at work. Each one needs to maintain the dignity and the decorum of the
organisation.
3. Meeting Etiquette: Meeting etiquette refers to a manner one need to adopt when he is
attending any meeting, seminar, presentation and so on. Listen to what the other person
has to say. Never enter a meeting room without a notepad and pen. It is important to jot
down important points for future reference.
4. Telephone Etiquette: It is essential to learn how one should interact with the other
person over the phone. Telephone etiquette refers to the way an individual should speak
on the phone. Never put the other person on long holds. Make sure you greet the other
person. Take care of your pitch and tone.
5. Business Etiquette: Business etiquette includes ways to conduct a certain business. Don’t
ever cheat customers. It is simply unethical.
Some basic etiquettes to be followed in Business Dealings
1. Introduction: Always introduce your staff to others whenever the opportunity arises,
unless you know that they are already acquainted. It makes people feel appreciated,
regardless of their rank or position.
2. Being polite: Being polite is the basic form of courtesy highly essential in a casual
professional atmosphere. It is always nice to send a handwritten thank you note as it
gives an emotional touch rather than a formal email conveying thank you.
3. Not to be over aggressive: People by nature are always eager to offer their opinions or
often interrupt others when they speak. It is rude and shows disregard for the opinions
of others. Remember, be assertive, not aggressive.
4. Proper language: In business dealings, always one should be careful to choose words
wisely. Rude, offensive or slang language is undesirable.
5. Don’t chitchat: Gossiping at business place can lead to adverse problems for self and
others. Gossips are harmful for the organisation. One should try to avoid talking about
someone who is not present.
6. Don’t spy: Everyone is entitled to private conversations, in person or over the phone.
The same goes for e-mail; don’t stand over someone’s shoulder and read their e-mails.
7. Recognise others: At the workplace when an employee approaches you, acknowledge
him or her. If you are in the middle of some important work, it is all right to ask them to
wait a minute while you finish your work. Being busy is not an excuse to ignore others.
8. Punctual: Being punctual shows others that you value their time. One should always try
to avoid getting late for the work entrusted to them. Punctuality creates disciplines in the
organisation.
Communication Skills - I 5.5 Soft Skill Development

9. Avoid phone calls in Meetings: When you are in a meeting, do not attend a phone call,
which distracts your focus on the meeting. It also makes meetings last longer because the
partaker of the meeting keep losing focus.
10. Paying attention when others speak: Effort should be made to truly listen to what
others say. One should put an effort and patiently wait for the other person to finish their
talk and then one can move on to the next thing. Take the time to respond to others
queries and show an interest in the other person’s thoughts.

(2) SPEAKING SKILLS

Meaning of Effective Speaking:

The sound of a voice and the content of speech can provide clues to an individual's emotional
state and a dialect can indicate their geographic roots. The voice is unique to the person to whom
it belongs. For instance, if self-esteem is low, it may be reflected by hesitancy in the voice, a shy
person may have a quiet voice, but someone who is confident in themselves will be more likely to
have command of their voice and clarity of speech.
Effective speaking has nothing to do with the outdated concept of 'elocution' where everyone
was encouraged to speak in the same 'correct' manner. Rather, effective speaking concerns being
able to speak in a public context with confidence and clarity, whilst at the same time reflecting on
your own personality.
Elements of Good Speaking:
It is important to follow certain principles to make sure that one is able to get the message
across.
1. Clear Pronunciation: The first important prerequisite of effective oral communication is
that the words should be pronounced clearly and correctly. Oral messages are often
misunderstood because the speaker does not talk distinctly. Inability to use the jaws
freely, to speak with limber tongue and limber lips and speaking slowly often makes for
poor oral transmission. If a person tries to talk as fast as he thinks, his words will run to
gather and get rammed into one another. So, when he intends asking, 'What did one
have?’ he will succeed only in saying, `wajuhave'?
2. Brevity: People take pleasure in talking, so oral communication tends to suffer from over-
communication. But, if a speaker keeps on talking for long, his message will get lost in a
sea of verbosity and distraction. It is important to keep the message as brief as possible
without appearing abrupt and discourteous.
3. Precision: Precision can make oral communication very effective. Instead of saying, 'Total
these invoices as early as possible'; it is preferable to specify the time and say, 'Could you
kindly total these invoices and bring them back to me in half an hour.' 'Come to the office
early tomorrow', is not as good as, 'Could you reach the office tomorrow by 8 o'clock,
since all these letters have to be dispatched by the first mail.'
4. Conviction: A person communicating orally must have conviction in what he says. Lack
of conviction causes lack of confidence and so he is not able to impress the receiver with
the message. Conviction comes from sincerity of approach and careful thinking and
Communication Skills - I 5.6 Soft Skill Development

planning. Careful analysis and objective evaluation of the message while formulating it
also promotes the speaker's conviction in it.
5. Logical Sequence: If the speaker has given a proper thought to his message, he will be
able to arrange various ideas contained in it in their logical sequence. Jumbled ideas
create confusion, while logically arranged ideas make the message forceful.
6. Appropriate Word Choice: Words have different meanings for different people. So, it is
important to be careful in the choice of words. The speaker, while speaking something,
knows what he means and so presumes that his listener also does so, which may be a
wrong presumption. In oral communication, it is more important to use the terms
familiar to the listener rather than the terms that are familiar to the speaker.
7. Avoiding Hackneyed Phrases and Clichés: Speakers, when they are groping for words,
often make use of everyday phrases like 'what I mean', 'do you follow', `isn't it', 'I see' etc.
Such words and phrases interrupt the flow of their speech and impede the quick grasping
of meaning. They are used unconsciously, but the speaker should take deliberate pains to
exclude them from their speech.
8. Natural Voice: Some speakers deliberately cultivate an effected style under the
impression that it would make them look more sophisticated. Nothing is farther from the
truth and nothing impresses so much as the natural way of speech. One of the manuals
for office employees in firm says, “The most effective speech is that which is correct and
at the same time natural and unaffected. Try to tone down an unusual accent and discard
all affectations of speech. Try to cultivate a pleasing voice and speak clearly and
distinctly.”
Types of Speaking:
Employees have to speak in an organisation with top and lower level management along
with their peers, which helps them to get the work done from others. Better speakers upgrade
their career graph and good speaking is a short cut to success. There are different types of
speaking in an organisation which are as follows:
1. Conversation: A conversation is communication between multiple people. It is a social
skill that is not difficult for most individuals. Conversations are the ideal form of
communication in some respects, since they allow people with different views on a topic
to learn from each other. A speech, on the other hand, is an oral presentation by one
person directed at a group.
For successful conversation, the partners must achieve a workable balance of
contributions. A successful conversation includes mutually interesting connections
between the speakers or things that the speakers know. For this to happen, those
engaging in conversation must find a topic on which they both can relate to in some
sense. Those engaging in conversation naturally tend to relate the other speaker's
statements to themselves. They may insert aspects of their lives into their replies, to
relate to the other person's opinions or points of conversation.
Communication Skills - I 5.7 Soft Skill Development

The majority of conversations can be divided into four categories according to their
subject content:
• Conversations about subjective ideas, which often serve to extend understanding
and awareness.
• Conversations about objective facts, which may serve to consolidate a widely-held
view.
• Conversations about other people which may be critical, competitive, or supportive.
• Conversations about oneself, which sometimes indicate attention-seeking
behaviour.
2. Oral Presentation: A presentation is a speech on a serious topic; its purpose is to inform,
to explain, and to persuade the audience or to present a point of view. It may introduce a
product or explain a process or narrate an experience; it is delivered to a small,
knowledgeable audience at a conference, a seminar or a business meeting. It is followed
by questions from the audience.
3. Speeches: Speech is an act of speaking or act of expressing or describing thoughts,
feelings, or perceptions by the articulation of words. Speech is something spoken and an
utterance or vocal communication or conversation. It is also a talk or public address.
4. Dialogue: A dialogue is a conversation between two or more people. It is also a literary
form in which two or more parties engage in a discussion. Some employees are introvert
and are not interested in a dialogue with anybody. This will hamper the growth of an
organisation. A dialogue is based on a situation or a circumstance in an organisation. One
has to be a good listener in the process of a dialogue.
5. Group Discussion: Group Discussion as the term itself suggests, is a discussion by and
among a group of people. The group have between 8 and 12 members who express their
views, freely, frankly and in a friendly manner, on a topic of current and controversial
nature. The topic is given on the appointed date and hence, the conversation that follows
is a spontaneous chit-chat, not a pre-planned one. Here, within a time limit of 20 to 30
minutes, the abilities of the members of the group are measured in an unobtrusive
manner by the examiner who does not actively participate in the discussion.
Presenting the Speech:
A well prepared speech can go waste if it is not presented well. The success of all the efforts
put in by the speaker depends on how skillfully he presents it. At this time, he will need to decide
on his method of presentation. There are three methods or ways of presenting a speech,
presenting it extemporaneously, by reading it, or by memorizing it.
Ways of Delivering the Speech:
1. Presentation by reading: Usually, the inexperienced speakers use this method, as lack of
confidence does not allow them to memorize even a part of the speech. Unfortunately,
most of us do not read aloud well. We tend to read in a dull monotone voice, producing
a most uninteresting and larkluster effect. We fumble over words, miss punctuation
marks and make similar lapses. Many speakers overcome this problem with effort, and
eliminate it.
Communication Skills - I 5.8 Soft Skill Development

2. Extemporaneous presentation: It is the most popular and effective method of

presentation. Using this method, the speaker initially prepares his speech. Then he
prepares notes and presents the speech from them. This allows him to have good eye
contact, while he may feel confident, having the support of the notes with him.
3. Memorized presentation: It is the most difficult method of presentation. Probably, a few
speakers actually memorize an entire speech. Memorized speech does have poor display
of non-verbal cues. The fear of forgetting the speech in between, is a big hurdle and does
not allow the speaker to be at ease. Instead, memorizing key parts and using notes to
help through the presentation, is a better option.
Important Aspects related to Presentation of Speech
Other aspects relating to presentation of the speech, which the speaker should be aware of,
are:
1. Appearance and body actions: The listeners hear the speakers words, they are looking
at him. What they see, is part of the message, and it can have real effect on the success of
his speech. The audience sees, the speaker as also what surrounds him. Thus, in his
efforts to improve the effects of his oral presentations, the speaker should also pay
attention to his appearance and bodily actions.
2. The communication environment: Much of what his audience sees is, all that surrounds
him as he speaks. All of that tends to add to a general impression. This includes physical
things like the stage, lighting and, background and his own experience as a listener will
tell him, what is important.
3. Personal appearance: The personal appearance of the speaker is part of the message.
The audience receives most of the non verbal cues from their making is necessary that he
uses it appropriately. Specifically, he should dress appropriately for the audience and
occasion.
4. Posture: Posture or body position is likely to be the most important thing, which the
audience sees about him. Even if listeners cannot be close enough, to detect facial
expressions and eye movements, they can see in general the structure and state of the
body. The speaker probably thinks that one should tell him what good posture is? He
may know it when he sees himself. He should keep his body erect without appearing
stiff and uncomfortable. His deportment should be poised, alert, and communicative.
He should do all this naturally. The greatest danger with posture is appearing artificial.
People may become too artificial pretentions or unspontaneous by reading books on
communication.
5. Walking: The way the speaker walks before his audience also makes an impression on
his listeners. A strong and sure walk both gives an impression of confidence. Walking
during the presentation can be both good and bad, depending on how the speaker does
it through in public speech? We rarely find speakers walking.
6. Use of voice: Good and effective voice is an obvious requirement of good speaking. Like
bodily movements, the voice should not hinder the listener's concentration of the
message. Voices that cause such difficulties, generally fall into four areas of fault.
Communication Skills - I 5.9 Soft Skill Development

7. Avoid a few words or phrases:

1. Technical terms
2. Latin and French words
3. Cheap, hollow and slang terms
4. Socially unpleasant words
5. Repeating phrases like "you see", "you know", "I mean" and such like.
6. Difficult words
While actually delivering the speech, the speaker may make use of visual aids, notes or his
own manuscript.
Developing Confidence and Overcoming Fear
Public speaking will not give any results, if the speaker feels scared to face the audience. The
speaker observes some signs of discomfort like increase in heart rate, rise in blood pressure, rise
in body temperature, shivering of legs and hands, fumbling for words and sweating of palms.
These are signs of nervousness and a lack of self-confidence. The reviews should help him to
pinpoint problem areas and also give him practical suggestions to overcome them.
How to Overcome Stage Fear?
Fear is the manifestation of our own mind. A feeling that one knows the subject matter better
than anyone else and that he is in charge, infuses enough confidence in the speaker to overcome
fear.
Overcoming stage fear:
1. Pre-check the equipment: The projector, screen, display board, etc., required during the
speech, should be checked prior to the speech. If at the time of the speech, any of the
equipment does not work, it leads to humiliation of the speaker and loss of impact on
the audience.
2. Know your subject well: Prepare with the attitude that you should know the subject
better than anyone else.
3. Rehearse several times: At least a few complete rehearsals help to memorize the subject
matter and be confident. It also helps to improve the non verbal part of the speech.
4. Maintain poise and enthusiasm: The speaker should maintain his poise, body posture
and should emanate a good level of enthusiasm from his body language. This will help
him to be friendly towards the audience.
5. Breathe deeply and slowly before speaking: A controlled breath helps to control the
heartbeat and thus remove signs of nervousness. It also calms down the mind, thus
preparing the speaker to face the audience.
6. Move during the speech: Some movement during the speech holds the attention of the
audience and helps the speaker to release his stress.
7. Carry the notes: The speaker's notes, clearly written, should be carried by the speaker,
for reference, before and during the speech. This helps to overcome nervousness.
Communication Skills - I 5.10 Soft Skill Development

Qualities to be Possessed by a Speaker:

The speaker should posses the following qualities to be an efficient and eloquent speaker:
1. Confidence: Even the most confident speakers have the nervousness whenever they
occupy a stage for public speech. A primary characteristic of effective oral reporting is
confidence. This includes his confidence in himself and his audience, in him. Actually,
the two are complementary to each other. For example, he can prepare his presentation
diligently and practice it thoroughly. Such careful preliminary work will give him
confidence in himself. Unfair and logical as it may be, certain style of dress and hair
create strong images in people's minds. Thus, if he wants to communicate effectively, he
should analyze the audience to whom he seeks to reach.
2. Sincerity: The speaker must be sincere for listeners, always appreciate sincerity in the
speaker. The listeners will be quick to detect insincerity in the speaker. When they do so,
they are likely to give little weight to what he says.
3. Thoroughness: The speaker must be thorough regarding the subject matter of public
speech. Thoroughness in his presentation will ensure that his message is better received
than one, which is a hurried coverage. Thorough coverage gives the impression that he
has taken proper time and adequate care, and such an impression tends to make the
message believable.
4. Friendliness: A speaker who projects an image of friendliness ha a significant advantage
in communication. Like sincerity, friendliness is difficult to pretend. It must be honest if
it is to be effective. But with most people who friendliness is an honest effort for there
are people want to be friendly too.
Handling Questions
Following guidelines will help to answer questions effectively. The speaker must listen to the
question, raised carefully:
1. He should be sure about his understanding of the question. He should have clarity
before he attempts to answer it. If he is not sure what a question means, ask the
questioner to clarify it.
2. If a listener is asking several questions at a time, answer them one by one. If the answer
to his first question is very long, the speaker can ask the listener to repeat his or her
other questions.
3. He should make his answers direct and understandable. He should limit his answer to
the question, which has been asked. Proper, traditional language is to be used.
4. He should ensure that the listener understands his answer.
5. If the speaker doesn't know the answer to a question, he should clearly tell the audience
so, and should not bluff the listeners.
6. He should treat people who ask question with respect, even if they don't treat the
speaker that way.
Communication Skills - I 5.11 Soft Skill Development

(3) INTRODUCTION TO GROUP DISCUSSION

Meaning of Group Discussion:
Group discussion, as the term itself suggests, is a discussion by and among a group of people.
The group has between 8 and 12 members who express their views, freely, frankly and in a
friendly manner, on a topic of current and controversial nature. The topic is given on the
appointed date, and, hence, the conversation that follows is a spontaneous chit-chat, not a pre-
planned one. Here, within a time-limit of 20 to 30 minutes, the abilities of the members of the
group are measured in an unobtrusive manner by the examiner who does not actively participate
in the discussion.
Group discussion is mostly unstructured. That is, every single step is not planned in advance.
Each candidate is not given a time limit for speaking. Similarly, the order of speaking, that is, who
will speak first and who will speak last is not fixed in advance. The candidates have to decide
how to conduct the group discussion. The selectors see how the group takes shape, and who
contributes most to it. They also judge the knowledge of each candidate, time management,
leadership quality, behaviour, etc.
Do’s and Don’ts of Participating in Group Discussions:
Do’s
1. Keep to the point.
2. Make original points and back them by substantial reasoning and not an unfounded
opinion.
3. If some other member has already made the point you wanted to make, do not worry.
Even here, you can either support or oppose
4. Listen to the other participants patiently, attentively and carefully
5. Whatever you say must be with a logical flow.
6. Make only accurate statements.
7. Modulate the volume, pitch and tone of your voice
8. Show flexibility in your views.
9. Be considerate to the feelings of others.
10. If possible, make an attempt at initiating the discussion. Not only this, you must talk as
much as possible, effectively and sensibly, to impress others
11. If you have reasonable doubts, you can ask questions
12. Try to get your turn. Don't think someone else will offer you an opportunity to speak.
13. As soon as you find your argument has been refuted by someone else, you must try to
justify your point of view by bringing in fresh ideas or arguments.
14. If more than one candidate starts speaking simultaneously. You can request for order
and appeal for co-operation.
15. Be an active and interested participant.
16. Listen to the initial briefing examiner carefully.
17. While speaking, address to the whole group, looking each participant in the eye in turn.
18. Be attentive to the person who is speaking.
19. Talk with confidence and self-assurance as a mature person.
20. Sit straight and upfront. To emphasise your point, make use of hands and facial.
Communication Skills - I 5.12 Soft Skill Development

21. If the discussion is straying from the ejected course, take the initiative of bringing it back
on track by giving a new directional point.
22. What you say must be audible and clear to the group.
23. Your voice must be crisp, energetic and forceful.
24. If the discussion is stuck on one point for too long, the quality will definitely suffer, so
rectify it.
25. If you find that you have sufficient knowledge of the subject, try to speak first or then
speak later.
26. If you have not got chance, then request for a hearing.
27. In situations where the group has to make a choice of the subject for discussion, you take
the lead in determining the topic.
28. In case you find that you have no ideas or have little knowledge of the subject, just
concentrate on what is being said by others.
29. Even if you realise that what you are speaking does not cut much ice with other
candidates, do not give in.
30. Last, but not the least important, develop the habit of discussing different topics with
your friends and the members of your family.
Don’ts
• Initiate the discussion if you do not have sufficient knowledge about the given topic.
• Over speak, intervene and snatch other’s chance to speak.
• Argue and shout during the GD.
• Look at the evaluators or a particular group member.
• Talk irrelevant things and distract the discussion.
• Pose negative body gestures like touching the nose, leaning back on the chair, knocking
the table with a pen etc.
• Mention erratic statistics.
• Display low self confidence with shaky voice and trembling hands.
• Try to dominate the discussion.
• Put others in an embarrassing situation by asking them to speak even if they don’t want
to.
Guidelines for Group Discussions:
1. Never fail to do homework. Study the topic, collect information and gather points of view
for each item.
2. Keep an open mind. However well-prepared you may be, there is a possibility that you
may be wrong. Be prepared to learn and correct any mistake in thinking or information.
3. Do not disturb other participants or yourself by talking on the side or by shuffling
papers.
4. Have a sporting spirit. If your idea/suggestion is defeated in the discussion, be graceful
and thank others for helping you to clarify your ideas.
5. Show interest in what others say. When someone makes a good point, show appreciation
even if it demolishes your point.
Communication Skills - I 5.13 Soft Skill Development

6. Never personalise a difference of opinion. If it is necessary to disagree with something

that is said, first re-state or summarise it and then explain why you disagree.
7. Speak up if you have something to say, especially on a topic on which you have
knowledge. You must be willing to contribute and share. But keep your comments short
and precise.
8. Do not be carried away by emotions. Problems cannot be solved by anger.
9. Be willing to examine the ideas presented.
10. Be a good listener. You will learn a great deal about the topic and about human
behaviour if you listen.

(4) PROCESS OF GROUP DISCUSSION

‘Group Discussion’ is one type of formal meeting. It can be a very stimulating and useful
activity in an organisation. It helps in understanding a situation, in exploring possibilities and in
solving problems as it generates multiple viewpoints. It gives a sense of participation to all those
who participate in it. Such meetings can be based on a topic or on a case study.
Group discussions are widely used in many organisations for decision making and problem
solving. Organisational group discussions are: Brainstorming, Nominal Group Technique and
Delphi Technique.
It is used as a tool for selecting candidates by observing their behaviour and abilities in
taking part in it.
Characteristics of Group Discussion
• Evaluation Components
• Knowledge
• Communication skills
• Active Listening
• Clarity of Thought and Expression
• Apt Language
• Appropriateness of Body Language
• Group Behaviour
• Leadership Skills
Group Discussion for Selection Process
Normally a group consists of 8 to 10 students. The normal time duration for any GD is about
10 to 15 minutes. For a GD relating to any particular topic, 2-3 minutes thinking time may be
given. For GDs relating to case studies, 15 minutes time should be given for studying the case.
The valuation of the participants is normally done by experts (usually professors from business
schools). All these experts possess vast experience and expertise in their respective fields.
Essential Requirements for participating Effectively in GDs
1. Give proper respect to the views expressed by other speakers.
2. Maintain courtesy while speaking.
3. Do not use very insulting, harsh and aggressive language.
4. Speak clearly and pleasantly to all the members of the group.
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5. Stick to the main point of the GD. Do not speak irrelevant matter in the discussion.
7. Do not use loud and angry tone while speaking.
8. Do not interrupt other members of the group while they are speaking.
9. Learn to disagree politely.
10. Use positive body language while speaking.
Note on GD for Candidate Selection
There are no fixed rules for a GD held for candidate selection. The participants are generally
eager to be the first to speak. The first speaker should mention the topic and state the issues. He
should not give any opinion at this point. Later, the person may offer clarifications. This should
be in the form of a statement, and not a question. Care should be taken to address the entire
group. The candidates should maintain calm even if there are opposing arguments. The candidate
should acknowledge others’ viewpoints.
Situations may arise, when one’s point of view has already been expressed by someone else.
The best approach would be to acknowledge the contribution of the other person and add to it
and thus become the centre of attention.
If there is an interruption from someone else, the approach should be to request the person
to allow you to complete your statement and offer the field to that person.
The group should move towards a consensus but due to the all round anxiety to make one's
point, this may not happen at all. The idea is to exhibit some leadership qualities in steering the
group while making one's contribution. A person with leadership qualities will look at the clock
and when it is almost nearing closing time, may start summing up. If the group is too noisy, the
facilitator may allot one minute to each candidate to sum up the discussion. This is an
opportunity to put on one's best effort. Without criticising the group, one can sum up and give
one's own views. The candidates should not stray from the topic.
The candidates are evaluated on how they speak. Fluency, meaningful contribution, depth of
knowledge on various topical issues, and leadership qualities are what the selectors would be
looking for. Whatever personal views one may have, it is important to know both sides of the
argument. One must be able to defend one's viewpoints convincingly and therefore the need for
acquiring wide knowledge. Candidates should select topics, prepare and talk in front of the
mirror, family members and friends to understand where they need to strengthen their
arguments or presentation skills. They can also record their speech to know where they falter,
and this will indicate the areas for further improvement. The voice quality, body language etc.,
can also be assessed during this process. The practice sessions can be used for ensuring that the
thought process is well organised. One way to practice this is to write down the points and keep it
in front of you. By periodically looking at it, you can arrange your thoughts mentally.
Communication Skills - I 5.15 Soft Skill Development

(5) LEADERSHIP SKILL

What Are Leadership Skills?

When we talk about leadership skills, what exactly do we mean? Leadership skills are the
tools, behaviors, and capabilities that a person needs in order to be successful at motivating and
directing others. Yet true leadership skills involve something more; the ability to help people
grow in their own abilities. It can be said that the most successful leaders are those that drive
others to achieve their own success.
A Born Leader?
You've certainly heard the phrase. Who do you think of when you hear it? Martin Luther
King Jr., Mahatma Gandhi, other world-famous leaders in history? Or perhaps there are leaders
in your own life that have had a positive impact on you. What skills did all of these people have
that made them effective leaders? Here are a few, but there are certainly others:
• Is Committed to a Vision or Mission
• Understands His or Her Role
• Demonstrates Integrity
• Sets an Example
• Understands How to Motivate the Behavior of Others
• Communicates Effectively
• Is Willing to Take Risks
• Is Adept at Problem-Solving
You don't have to be born with leadership skills. They can be learned.
Whereas many leaders may be so committed to a vision that they naturally find ways to pull
others along with them, most of us cannot claim to have been born with that level of leadership
ability. We certainly may have grown over time and learned many effective skills by experience.
There is good news for anyone who doesn't consider themselves a born leader or who has
specific areas of leadership skills that need work; leadership skills can be learned. All that is
required is an open mind, patience with yourself as you learn these skills, and the commitment to
put what you learn into action.
2. Three Traits Every Successful Leader Must Have
Introduction:
Without exception, there are three traits that every leader must have in order to be successful.
You can attempt to lead without them, but at least one of four things will eventually happen if
you do:
• You will be so miserable that you will burnout.
• Your team will fail in completing their work.
• Your team members will leave.
• Your team will lose respect for you.
Communication Skills - I 5.16 Soft Skill Development

So what are these three required traits? First is the desire to lead. Without it, you will never
be comfortable in the leader role. You will struggle every day with the basics, and your team
members will sense it in everything you do. If you don't burn out first, you'll find that work
suffers and your team is frustrated because they can't do their work without you doing yours.
They may eventually leave — if you don't first.
The second trait of successful leaders is commitment to the mission and vision of the
organization where they work. Imagine trying to convince others to give their best in order to
accomplish something they don't believe in. That's difficult. But trying to convert them to
believing in the mission and vision of an organization when you don't believe it yourself? That's
simply impossible.
The final trait that every successful leader must have is integrity. Integrity in this sense has a
simple meaning; doing what you say you will do and behaving the way that you expect your
team to behave. At first glance, that may sound simple enough. But if you can truly master
integrity, you will find that it changes whole teams and even whole organizations for the better.
1. The Desire to Lead
As with any job, resisting the work of leading will make it difficult to be effective — and
impossible to find fulfillment or enjoyment in what you do. Without the desire to lead, you will
not be willing to do the work that it takes to become the leader of the team. You won't put in the
effort to acquire the skills you need to motivate others or to handle conflict. Instead, you'll stick
with the comfortable patterns of behavior you've already developed, regardless of whether or not
it helps you to lead.
Are you sure that you want to be a leader? If you are, then you are already a step ahead. But
if you aren't certain that you want to be someone who is followed rather than someone who
follows, you need to consider whether or not a leadership role is right for you.
There are a number of characteristics and feelings that can help you determine your level of
desire to lead. Given below is a series of statements which describe the characteristics which
generally indicate your motivation to be a leader. Don't worry if you don't meet all of these
criteria. Just use them to gauge where you are now in your leadership development.
• I enjoy it when others seek my ideas or opinions.
• I don't mind asking team members challenging questions when working on a project.
• I like supporting others on my team and can do so in both good and bad times.
• I am comfortable putting the team interest before my own interest.
• When I am working with a group, I facilitate a strong team spirit.
• I am comfortable letting others take my ideas and put them into action.
• I like playing the role of coach to help others improve their skills.
• I prefer to resolve personal conflicts on a team rather than let them continue.
• I look for opportunities to celebrate other people's success.
• I can have a productive discussion even when others don't agree with me.
• When the team has a problem, I consider it my problem too.
• I like to generate ideas and share them with the group.
Communication Skills - I 5.17 Soft Skill Development

It is possible to have these and similar statements apply to you in some companies and not
with others. If you don't like the work that you do, chances are that you are not going to be
inspired to lead others to do it either. In that case, you won't reach your potential as a leader until
you are working for an organization that you can believe in. This brings us to the second trait that
successful leaders all possess.
2. Commitment to the Mission and Vision of the Organization
The first leaders of any organization were those that first created it. They had a mission and a
vision about what the company would do, who it would serve, and what changes it would make
to the industry or sector they were entering. Those leaders had to take risks like borrowing
money or leaving the job they were in at the time in order to start the business. There were likely
personal sacrifices, long nights and weeks of work, and times of significant stress before the
company could be considered a success.
Those first leaders then had to hire others who could share the vision and believe in the
mission of the company. The leaders would coach these new hires, helping them learn how to
make decisions which would move the team or organization towards the company's goals. This
trend would hopefully continue as each layer of administration was added to the organization. In
an ideal world, every employee would perform as if fulfilling the mission and vision of the
organization were his or her personal goal.
Of course, we don't live in an ideal world. The more layers of administration or bureaucracy
there are between the visionaries at the head of an organization and the front-line employees who
deliver the actual services or product, the more difficult it is to see the mission and vision
translated to the employees.
At this point, there is one question you need to ask yourself. Do you know what the mission
and vision of your organization are? If you responded by naming what you do, that's not the
same thing. For example, a telecommunications company employee might answer, 'we sell
telecommunication products.' But is that the mission of the organization? The mission could be
something like 'we help people stay connected by providing the highest quality communication
products and the best customer service in the industry.' Can you see the difference? One is what
you do. The other is how you do it. If you know what you do, but not the way you are expected
to do it, you cannot effectively lead others to assist in accomplishing the company's goals.
3. Integrity
The third trait that every leader must have in order to be successful is integrity. Integrity can
be defined simply as being true to your word, being authentic in your actions and speech, and
demonstrating the kind of behavior that you would like to see your employees have. Integrity,
like leadership skills, is something that you have to practice. It takes effort to honor your word
every time and to be the example you want from your employees even when you are under stress
or simply have a personality conflict. But the benefits you can gain from developing integrity are
enormous when compared to the damage you can do in the workplace if you lack it.
Think for a moment about characteristics of bosses you have had that you didn't like. What,
specifically, were the attitudes, behaviors, or traits of that person that has you still thinking of
them in a negative light? Probably you would list things like favoring certain employees, not
coming through on promises he or she made, gossiping, taking credit for your work, or treating
you disrespectfully. All of these issues can be traced to a lack of integrity.
What was the workplace environment like when you worked for someone who lacked
integrity? Did you enjoy going to work? Did you feel inspired to take ownership of your projects
Communication Skills - I 5.18 Soft Skill Development

and put forth the best effort that you could? Did you feel loyal to the company or believe that
there were significant chances for your own personal growth and development? It's a safe bet that
your answer to these questions is no. And it's just as safe a bet that as a leader, you could be
creating the same kind of environment that you hated if you aren't practicing integrity in the
workplace.
So how do you practice integrity? There are three key areas that you can concentrate on
developing. As you read each description, ask yourself how you would feel if a leader you
worked for did not possess these key characteristics.
(i) Sincerity
Also called authenticity, leaders with this facet of integrity:
• Do not put up a false front.
• Accept responsibility for their commitments and strive to meet them.
• Are honest about their own limitations.
• Accept responsibility for their mistakes.
• Tell the truth.
(ii) Consistency
Leaders demonstrate this facet of integrity by:
• Treating employees equally as much as possible.
• Following through on promises.
• Working as hard or harder than their employees.
• Having the same expectations or rules for themselves as for their employees
(iii) Substance
Substance refers to integrity becoming a part of who you are being in all your work
relationships by:
• Keeping private employee information private.
• Not gossiping or complaining about team members to other team members.
• Doing what's best for the team and not just yourself.
• Giving credit where credit is due.
• Caring about the development of your employees.
• Making it a priority to maintain clear communication and resolve any conflicts.
If you have read this information and realized that you have not always acted with integrity
in the workplace, you are certainly not alone. But going forward, you can now recognize that
integrity can be built one action at a time. As you get more practiced at it, you will find that it
becomes a habit. And once you start seeing the results that come from practicing integrity, you
will want to keep going.
"The supreme quality for a leader is unquestionably integrity." − Dwight D. Eisenhower
1. Leadership Qualities:
(i) Taking initiative: Primary among the qualities looked for, is the leadership quality. In
GDs leadership qualities necessitates that the individuals have the capacity to take
initiative during the course of the interaction. This could entail adopting strategies such
as beginning the discussion, picking up the threads at a later stage, etc.
(ii) Ability to give direction: It is not necessary to take the initiative if one is not familiar
with the topic. The quality which comes subsequent to it, is the quality of possessing the
ability to give direction to the entire discussion. It follows naturally that the interactant
should have the power and ability to sum up all, that is being said in a manner which is
conducive to the growth of the discussion. The essential attributes of a leader are,
Communication Skills - I 5.19 Soft Skill Development

therefore, to give direction an individual would be viewed as a leader with the capacity
of chalking out a strategy, filtering and assimilating ideas while leading and controlling
the interactants.
(iii) Taking the group along: The ability to sum up discussion not only at the end but also in
between, is a major quality of the interactant. It helps in preventing the group from
straying away from the topic. In the course of the discussion it is not important to be the
first speaker, but it definitely is important to make even and regular contributions
throughout the discussion. This can be achieved when there is some one, who is willing
to take up the rather tedious task of conjoining all the ideas and presenting them in a
nutshell to the participants at regular interviews.
(iv) Listening: All this necessitates that the individual should possess capabilities of listening
to what the other interactants are saying. Here, we must emphasize the difference
between hearing and listening. Listening would only be evident when the listener shows
signs of absorbing, assimilating and presenting the spoken material to the rest of the
participants. On the contrary, if only hearing has taken place, it indicates that the
speaker has not been able to penetrate the screen of indifference.
(v) Goal to fulfillment: These leadership qualities observed in the group, indicate that
either the goal has been achieved or is in the process of being achieved. In other words,
we can say that the topic has been thoroughly discussed by all the participants with
appropriate input from the leader and all of them have been able to perform the
important feat or task of bringing into focus the main/ancillary points related to the
topic. Trying to conjoin the efforts of all the participants in a fruitful manner, would
reveal all of them to be part of a cohesive group. This is definitely a Herculean task
which only a leader could perform.
2. Knowledge of the subject matter:
Together with leadership qualities, the individual should also be well—read about the issues
under discussion. His knowledge of the subject matter necessitates that, two things are kept in
mind—the quantitative and the qualitative aspect of the topic. The quantitative aspect is
concerned, figures and numbers should not be reeled off merely to prove one's point or
knowledge about an issue, unless and until one is absolutely confident. There is bound to be
someone who would be aware of the details. Keeping quiet, because of a lack of information or
knowledge, is really not as bad as trying to impress the experts by spouting incorrect information.
The quality of presentation would be an appropriate assessment of the topic and the issues
discussed.
3. Analytical Ability:
The next is trying to present an acceptable picture of the self, is the capacity to use one's
analytical ability to the optimum. While it is relatively simple to present data on an issue, it gives
the appearance of a well thought out and analyzed presentation in the GD.
4. Clarity of thought:
Clarity of thought is extremely important and can be brought about by a distillation of the
essentials and abandonment of the peripherals. The move in the discussion could be either from
the core to the periphery or from the periphery to the heart of the issue. The participants should
not get hooked to peripheral issues. There has to be concentration in the moves which would
indicate awareness on the part of the participants regarding the subject matter and delineation of
the topic.
Communication Skills - I 5.20 Soft Skill Development

5. Conviction and flexibility:

Conviction: Whatever is being said should be stated with conviction. It often happens that
the participants communicate their ideas in a group without really believing in them. This is more
than evident at the face level and is easy for the experts to decipher and identify. It normally
happens when the interactants harbours under the misconception that to be heard in the group is
more important than positing of concrete ideas.
Often a participant makes an error in interpreting the topic which he realizes, much to his
dismay, somewhere in the middle of the interaction. The need then arises to rectify the mistake
and proceed along correct lines. The transition, which must be made, needs to be extremely
subtle. Without really admitting that a mistake has been made, the speaker has an accept the view
point of the other interactant and change sides to be one with those who have a more positive
understanding of the topic.

(6) INSTANT PUBLIC SPEAKING

Meaning of Public Speaking:
An public speaking is a short talk on a set topic given to a tutorial or seminar group. In an
public speaking one or more persons give a talk to a group and present views on a topic based on
their readings or research.
Public speaking means delivering an address to a public audience. It also refers to public
speaking and/or speechmaking. It is a brief discussion of a defined topic delivered to a public
audience in order to impart knowledge or to stimulate discussion. Remember that the skill in
public presentation is as important as effective writing. An effective public speaking should have
an introduction, main body and conclusion like a short paper. Though it is a formal speech in
nature or vocal performance to an audience, it may occasionally require adequate planning and
thorough preparation in using one's voice, body language and visual aids such as slideshows to
present and illustrate the points more effectively and to achieve the desired results.
Features of Public Speaking
A successful speaking
1. Has a clear purpose;
2. Addresses the intended audience at their level;
3. Is well-organised, including a clear introduction, which motivates and previews the talk,
and a summary;
4. Avoids unnecessary details;
5. Uses well-designed visual aids (and other) media;
6. Engages the audience;
7. Ends on time.
Format and Structure of Speaking
(A) Advance Preparation
Advance preparation and careful planning will prove helpful in making effective speeches. A
checklist of the following steps should be kept in mind:
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1. Selection of a Topic: The first and the most important task on the part of a speaker is the
selection of the topic. The topic should be specific.
2. State the Object: The object may be one or the combination of two or more; such as to
inform, to persuade, to influence and to entertain.
3. Prepare an Outline: The speaker should make a rough blue print like the introduction,
body copy, main theme and conclusion.
4. Narrow Down the Scope: In a speech related to communication skills speaking skills,
writing skills or listening skills should be specified. However, in some cases, narrowing
the focus may be difficult.
5. Locate Material and Data: Collect information in books, documents, speeches,
magazines, reports etc. and organise it in a proper from.
6. Prepare a Rough Draft: Prepare the rough draft and revise it. It should include an
introduction, quotation, anecdotes, body, examples, conclusions and references.
7. Use Audio-visual Aids: Consider and procure Visual, Audio-visual Aids like charts,
overhead projector, television sets etc.
8. Rehearse: It is necessary to recognise rehearsal and practice as important and
advantageous for improvement in the delivery of speeches. Rehearsal provides self-
confidence. It is desirable to rehearse in front of try-out groups. Inviting good points or
bad points related to speech indicating verbal and non-verbal behaviour of the speaker is
also important. This will help to inspire confidence.
A speaker steadily gains confidence, is able to anticipate questions from the listeners and
answers the queries raised by the audience. The use of transitional phrases can be made to
establish a relationship between ideas and concepts.
(B) Preparation
1. Take Care of the Six Questions: The speaker must ask himself the following questions.
Once the speaker is clear in his mind about the answers to these questions, he will be able
to have the desired effect. Given below are these questions that give rise to many other
implied questions.
Question Implied Questions
(a) What? What do I wish to communicate? Have I thought about the content of my
message? What facts and figures should I put forth?
(b) Why? Why should the audience listen to me? Why have I chosen to speak to them?
(c) When? Have I taken care of the timing of my speech? When are the listeners most
likely to be interested? At what point of time should I say what they really
would be interested in?
(d) How? How can I best convey my message? Have I taken care to couch my message
in the most persuasive language? Have I planned the beginning, middle and
end of my speech? Do I need any audio-visual aids to make my speech
effective?
(e) Where? Where have I to speak? Or, in other words, what is the physical context of my
communication? Will the audience be comfortable at the venue announced? Is
the hall well-lighted and filled with adequate sound systems?
(f) Who? Who am I going to speak to? Do I have to speak to an individual or several
persons or to a large audience? What are the interests and expectations of the
audience?
Communication Skills - I 5.22 Soft Skill Development

(C) During the Speaking:

1. Be Clear and Organised: Once the questions and their implications stated above have
been taken care of, the speech will automatically turn out to be clear and effective. After
all, clarity is the very life of all speech and writing. Moreover, it is also to be always kept
in mind that no listener/reader likes to be caught-up in a jumble of confused thinking. It
is basically a question of mental training and logical thinking that comes from all good
education. Especially, in the world of business, clarity of thought is the greatest asset. All
powerful speakers religiously stick to the principle 'Be Clear'.
2. Be Simple: From clarity of thought simplicity emerges. The simpler the language, the
greater the appeal. A really effective speaker is one who can explain the most difficult or
complex matter in the simplest language to a layman. Every educated person studies
some subject in detail; likewise every worker having sufficiently long hands-on
experience in a particular area becomes a kind of specialist. As a result, both the scholar
and the worker pick up a special variety of language known as ‘jargon’. No audience
likes to listen to jargon. They can be patient only with the simplest language. Otherwise,
they are likely to get bored and distracted.
3. Furnish Concrete Details: Many speakers spoil their speeches by talking in abstractions
or making unoriginal remarks. An effective speaker, on the other hand, makes his speech
vivid by furnishing details and actual experiences to capture the attention of the
audience. Such gaining of attention towards the speech makes it full of life, it is the literal
meaning of the word 'vivid'. It is therefore, very important for a speaker to make his
speech lively and brilliant with eye-catching details, humorous anecdotes, relevant
examples and enthusiastic eye-to-eye contact with the audience.
4. Cultivate Effortless Grace and Naturalness: Everybody knows that a cultured person
moves and speaks with grace and sounds natural. But, then, there are circumstances in
which it is really hard to act/ speak naturally. When one is face-to-face with a large,
selected audience and has to make an important speech, it is quite natural to become
conscious, perhaps over conscious and for the moment, to find it difficult to be natural.
One has to devise his/her own ways to look, move and speak with grace. Practicing to
speak in front of a mirror is a very common advice. Another is to find a popular
television anchor/personality and emulate his/her ways.
5. Enrich ones Mental Equipment: Every effective speaker is a learned/well informed
person. As the old Greek proverb says. “Out of nothing, nothing comes”. So, one must
remember that for every occasion and for every kind of speech, the best armament is a
well-stocked mind – a mind stocked with all kinds of information, facts, figures, general
awareness; readings in literature and philosophy; current affairs; economic and political
developments; new advancements in science and technology; emergence of new business
organisations and so on. Having the right kind of information for the right moment is an
essential condition for speaking effectively.
6. Be Brief: Having a lot of information does not mean that one can go on rambling or going
into unnecessary details, it means that one has to take care not only of the quantity of
information but also of the quality of speech. It is said, 'time is money'. All that is
superfluous must be cut out in order to make the speech concise. Every word one speaks
is valuable and there are no words to waste.
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7. Be Informal: The occasion may be formal but the speaker must strive to give his speech a
personal touch. That is the only way to establish rapport with the audience and to create
a lasting impression. Informality creates nearness.
8. Be Enthusiastic: Making an effective speech is not just a matter of doing a duty or
performing a ritual. One has to get into the spirit of the occasion with enthusiasm and
keen interest, only then will the speakers and the audience be able to empathise with each
other. No one likes to listen to a dull or monotonous speaker. But an enthusiastic speaker
gets an immediate response. Enthusiasm is contagious.
9. Mind the Non-verbal Language: Effective use of gestures is a necessary component of a
speech, whether prepared or natural. In the same way, good eye contact is indispensable.
10. Remember that Facts and Figures are not Enough: If facts and figures had been enough
there would have been no speeches. Anybody can have access to facts and figures. They
can just be circulated or blandly stated. But a speech puts life into the dry bones of these
facts and figures. They are just like a skeleton. It is the imaginative and effective use of
language in a speech/writing that breathes life into that skeleton and supplies it with
flesh and blood. Many great entrepreneurs, chairpersons, statesmen and scholars are
known for their oratory that stems from their command of the language.
11. Control your own Emotions while making an Emotional Appeal: What comes from the
heart goes to the heart. Every human being is full of emotions. But an effective speaker
cannot afford to be carried away by his own emotions. On the other hand, while
exercising poise and maintaining composure, a speaker can stir up his audience to action.
His job is not just to inform but also to convince, influence and motivate his audience.
That is how many speeches become memorable.
12. Share Significant Experiences and Expertise with the Listeners: It will not only give a
personal touch to the speech to share significant earlier experiences and expertise learnt
from them, but also give confidence to the speaker. It will also make the audience feel
important to the speaker.
13. Dressing Appropriately: It is important to be dressed formally and appropriately to the
occasion. A smart look could help boost ones confidence as well as the audience's
confidence in the speaker. Wearing smart clothes also has an effect on the audience
because it shows that the speaker respects them and one made the effort to dress
appropriately.
14. Introducing oneself: One should begin a formal presentation by introducing oneself,
even if most of the audience knows the speaker. It is important for everybody to know
who the speaker is and which organisation he is representing as it makes the audience
feel more comfortable when listening to the speaker.
15. Using the Right Language: Using formal but simple language, with some funny remarks
every now and then, is one of the best ways to keep the audience interested and happy.
Avoid too many details and many entertaining remarks, as this will make the audience
feel distracted from the main topic.
People are usually tempted to use complicated and very formal words when faced with a
formal situation. Try to resist this temptation as it will confuse both the speaker and the
listeners. This is particularly true in presentations where the contents can sometimes be
hard to follow even when simple language is used.
Communication Skills - I 5.24 Soft Skill Development

16. Talking with the Right Attitude: The way one talks is a major contribution to the style of
ones presentation. Although one should be oneself and talk as one normally does, one
may tend to talk in an artificial way when put under pressure.
In order to reach the required degree of confidence and relaxation, it is necessary to
train and prepare oneself before one faces the audience.
The style in which the matter is presented largely depends on the way one talks.
Some presenters talk as if they are reading a newspaper, i.e., without any emphasis,
pauses or body movements. This can grab the audience’s attention for a short period, but
as time goes by their interest in such presentations fades rapidly.
17. Narrating Anecdotes and Humorous Events: Presenting ones ideas in the same way as
one would tell an anecdote to a friend is very effective in gaining the audience’s
undivided attention and trust. Telling a story involves a great deal of enthusiasm and a
structured flow of events leading towards the conclusion. People enjoy listening to a
story being told, whether it is about new company letterheads or the corporate strategy of
an organisation.
18. Speaking in a Moderate Speed: If one talks too quickly, the audience may lose the link.
On the other hand, if one is telling ones story at a slow space, the audience will be bored
to death. Modernisation is the best opinion, as it keeps the audience interested and
looking forward to hearing what is coming next.
19. Using Pictures in the Slides: Use slides to tell some of the jokes. A formal slide is not
necessarily one which is full of words and complicated sentences. Funny sketches on the
slides may be very effective in driving a point home as well as in entertaining the
audience and winning their support.
20. Thanking the Audience: The speaker should also conclude by thanking everybody for
being there and if applicable, answering any questions that they might have.
(D) After the Speaking
1. Analyse and Introspect: Generally a speaker tends to forget a bad presentation and
remember good presentation. But a good speaker tries to analyse the reason behind the
presentation being bad even if he is a senior speaker, hence amateurs have no reason but
to analyse their presentation to find their mistakes and to overcome them.
2. Methods to Overcome Flaws: After analysing the flaws one has to find remedies to
overcome them.
Common Problems with Public Speaking
1. No proper Introduction: Other people will probably not be as informed as you on the
topic of your presentation, so be sure to provide a quick and simple introduction.
2. Rehearsing is not done: Proper rehearsing means half of the battle is won. To avoid
common mistakes during presentation the following check is necessary:
• Check that writing is legible from the back of the room.
• Smooth transition between topics and slides.
• Sequence of points is logical.
• Get feedback from a classmate.
Communication Skills - I 5.25 Soft Skill Development

• Become familiar with the audio-visual aids.

• You shouldn't use a number of media (i.e. overhead projector and slides and
blackboard) until you are quite confident and experienced. If you are going to use
mixed media, it is even more important that you rehearse, to get an indication of how
long it will take to turn off one projector, start the other etc.
• Timing of your presentation.
• Get used to public speaking and reduce your nervousness.
• Identify any mannerisms that may be inappropriate or annoying during public
speaking. For example, these may include a tendency to begin every sentence with an
' errm ', or ' ahhhm ' or ' So. . ', or maybe you begin every new slide by saying “Where
are we now?” or “Well, . . “. Once you have identified them, and with a little practice,
you will be able to better control your use of these mannerisms. Don’t worry too
much about having a few of them in your seminars- you are not a robot! In addition,
people generally have a very good ability to filter the occasional ‘errm’ or ‘ahhhm’
out of your main points. It is the overuse of such mannerisms that is problematic.
• Remember: It is far better to discover your mistakes and deficiencies in front of one
or two classmates, rather than in front of a room that is full of students and staff.
3. Being over-enthusiastic: Keep your enthusiasm professional and objective.
Convince your audience that your subject is interesting, has important applications or is
of great educational value.
If you are using overhead transparencies, use colour, clipart, pictures etc. to present
(wherever relevant) maps, pictures of an organism, and pictures of a location.
4. Conclusion is not proper: Many speakers get to the end of a seminar, and no-one is sure
whether they are finished or not. To avoid this, begin your last sentence by saying
something like “Finally, I wish to say. . . .” or “In conclusion. . .“, and then thank your
audience for their attention. Do not ask the audience for questions. It is the chairperson's
responsibility to thank you for your presentation. Then it is the chairperson who takes
control of the question time and asks the audience for a question (NOT the speaker!).
5. No command over Language.
6. Too much of non-verbal communication.
7. Lack of subject knowledge.
8. Lack of knowledge for using audio-visual means.
Remedies to Overcome Problems of Public Speaking
1. Stage Fear and Anxiety: Everyone experiences stage fright, speech anxiety, or talking
terror. The previous surveys by many researchers show that fear of speaking in front of
groups is one of the greatest fears people have. Some techniques people use for coping
with this fright is to try to motivate one-self that the audience understands our
nervousness and know what we are feeling inside because they might have experienced
this situation before hand and will honestly forgive mistakes.
Communication Skills - I 5.26 Soft Skill Development

2. Nervousness: The second fear and the most fears that people faced is nervousness. But be
confident that the audience (some) will not notice the small changes in our voice or
occasional mistakes but some will noticed even the small changes in our sound
such as our pronunciation, the eye contact and the sound vibration. To avoid this thing,
what we have to do is trying to practicing before the time. To make it looking perfect,
doing the rehearsal many times is inevitable.
3. Other Technique is being Ourselves: Let the real us come through, relax and practice
some deep breathing techniques. Other than that is beginning in our comfort zone.
Practice with friends and share your fears with friends, check out the room first, the
space, the equipment and the lights. Plus we should concentrate on the message, begin
with a slow, well-prepared introduction and have a confident and clear conclusion. The
most important thing is always be prepared and practice the script before present.
4. Communication: The problem of poor communication is complex and cannot be solved
by a single book, a course, and certainly not by this short guide. The necessary steps
include planning the presentation as with all academic undertakings. It is necessary to set
aside quality time for researching the topic. Academic public presentations require depth
and understanding of the material. It will not be considered of sufficient quality if
unplanned presentation is given.
Make sure that the message delivered is successful achieved by the audience.

Exercise

1. What are soft skills? State the importance and elements of soft skills?
2. State the different types of speaking.
3. State the meaning of group discussion. What are the guidelines of group discussion.
4. State the process of group discussion.
5. What are the Do's and Don'ts of group discussion?
6. What are the different leadership skills?
7. State the features and format of public speaking.
8. Write short notes on:
(a) Types of Etiquette
(b) Importance of soft skills
(c) Remedies to overcome public speaking
(d) Overcoming stage fear
(e) Public speaking
,,,
 Part – VI

ETIQUETTES AND BODY LANGUAGE

(1) Telephone Etiquettes Listening / Speaking
(2) Problems of Telephonic Conversation
(3) Verbal/Oral Etiquettes
(4) Physical Appearance / Eye Contact / Body Language
(5) Group Discussion

(1) TELEPHONE ETIQUETTES LISTENING / SPEAKING

Phone Etiquette
Good manners are good for business, while great manners can make the organisation look
great. This is true whether a manager is communicating face-to-face or on the telephone.
Communicating over the phone is an integral component of conducting business. Today's
sophisticated business requires that employees at all levels use the telephone for communication
within the organisation as well as with outside stakeholders. This is more so as businesses are
gradually moving out of brick and mortar facilities and people work from virtual offices, holding
virtual meetings. More and more employees opt to work from home or from long distances even
when they are on tours or vacations. They have to stay in touch with their peers and superiors.
Secondly, businesses are getting dispersed, and outsourcing has becoming the order of the day.
Suppliers and markets are spread across the globe. Decisions have to be taken fast. They can no
more depend on the postal services, which is termed as ‘snail mail’. Instant communication thus
becomes crucial for the success of an organisation. Hence to be effective, it is essential that
managers follow good phone etiquette and develop a pleasant phone culture. The simple
guideline is: Treat your callers in a way that you would want them to treat you on a business
telephone call.
Phone Strategy
• Treat the call as if it were a meeting - have a purpose, and an agenda.
• If the person you are trying to reach is not available, decide what you will do if someone
else answers. Would you prefer to leave a message, go to voice mail, or hang up and call
back later?
• If it is a scheduled call, be at your desk at the appointed time. If necessary, keep all the
information and documents you may need while talking.
(6.1)
Communication Skills - I 6.2 Etiquettes and Body Language

• Do not type or shuffle papers while you are on the phone - it suggests that you are
preoccupied and are not listening to the caller.
• If you have to put the phone down, do it gently.
• If you have to call a number frequently, learn the names of the people who answer the
phones.
Do's and Don'ts
• The telephone can catch the sounds that you make in your mouth. So, clear your mouth
of food, chewing gum, cough drops, or any food before talking on the phone.
• If you have to sneeze or cough, turn your head and cover your mouth, and the receiver.
Again, the receiver can amplify the sound and that may irritate the other person.
Apologise and continue. If the cough continues, apologise, take a sip of water and
continue.
• Cut down on the background noise when taking or making a call. Radios, televisions, and
even computer noise can be distracting over the phone.
• Speak directly into the receiver. It should not be stuck in the neck or shoulder.
• If you dial a wrong number, explain yourself and verify the phone number so you do not
repeat the call. Apologise and gently hang up.
Phone Etiquette
1. First impression is good impression:

Try to answer the phone on the second ring. Answering the phone too quickly can catch
the caller off guard. Letting the phone ring longer would irritate the caller. It may
indicate that the receiver has no concern for the caller’s time.

Answer with a friendly greeting appropriate for the time of the day. Introduce yourself if
the caller is known. If the caller is unknown, introduce your organisation and politely ask
how you can help the caller.

Ask the caller for his name, even if it is not necessary. It gives the impression that the
caller is important. It is a good practice to write down the name (ask for spelling if it is an
unfamiliar name). This can be used in later conversations or while referring to the
conversation in follow-up written communication.

While making a call, introduce yourself and politely ask for the person you intend to talk
to.

Though the person is out of sight, always have a smile on your face, it gets reflected in
the voice and tone.

Speak clearly and slowly. Never talk with anything in your mouth, including gum.

A telephone is a sensitive instrument. Hence lower your voice if you normally speak
loudly. The entire neighborhood need not know that you are on the phone. It will disturb
and distract others in the office.

Keep the phone two-finger widths away from your mouth.
2. Call Transfer:

If the caller asks for another person or department, do not transfer the call through the
operator as the caller would then have to answer more questions or make further
Communication Skills - I 6.3 Etiquettes and Body Language

requests. It saves phone time and reduces irritation if the call is transferred directly to the
desired person’s extension.

When transferring a caller, tell him who he is being transferred to. Inform that person
that the call from the caller (announce the name) is being transferred to him. A brief
statement of the caller’s purpose may also be helpful in completing the communication

Putting a call on hold: Ask other person’s permission before putting him on hold. For
example, if you need time to get a file and look for the relevant document, say, “Would
you mind holding while I get your file?" While resuming the conversation, thank the person
for holding.

Taking Phone Messages: Include the following information while taking the call for
someone else:
 Caller’s name and organisation name if applicable
 Date and time of call
 Purpose of the call
 If the caller wants a return phone call
 Phone number at which the caller can be reached
3. Ending a call:

Do not close the call abruptly. Do not bang the instrument, as that is rude. Before
hanging up, be sure that you have answered all the caller’s questions. End in a pleasant
by saying, "Have a nice day" or "It was nice speaking with you".

It is polite to let the caller hang up first. This shows that you are not in a hurry to get off
the phone with him.
Handling business calls requires awareness of our unconscious action, which often amounts
to bad manners, or lack of appropriate skills of effective invisible interpersonal communication.
In telephonic conversation, the way we receive, respond, speak or hang up is often as important
as what is communicated
Prepare Before Calling
Before initiating a call, be clear about the why (your purpose) and what (the exact content) of
your call. For business calls, you must know who exactly you are speaking to and choose the most
convenient time to speak to the person. You should also know whether you are calling as a
follow-up action of some other earlier communication, or it is the first step in your transaction (of
information and dealings).
• To be brief and concise, jot down the points you want to discuss. Always keep before you the
points in the order in which you want to discuss them.
• Keep a (writing) pad and pen ready to note down any information worth recording.
• Consider whether the call is important from your point of view or from the receiver's point of
view. In the latter case, you should structure your information from the receiver's point of
interest. Begin first with what is important for your receiver. Talk about your interests later.
• Keep the duration of the conversation as short as possible. The other person may not be free
to spare much time for your call.
Communication Skills - I 6.4 Etiquettes and Body Language

How to Begin or Receive a Call

The first few words spoken by you as a caller or receiver are important for establishing your
identity and purpose. They create the context for further conversation.
As a caller, you may not be personally known to the receiver. The receiver may be familiar
with your purpose and your company, but may not exactly know you, unless you both have
personally met and spoken to each other before. Therefore, begin with self introduction —your
name, company, and purpose.
In the organisation, your call will be generally routed through a receptionist. The usual
practice at the switch board is to attend to you within five rings. If you have been kept waiting
longer than that, the receptionist should greet you with an apology. If your call is not answered
even upto ten rings, it is advisable to cut off. Try some other number, if there is any.
Greet the receptionist with a "Good Morning." Tell your name and your organisation's name,
"This is Pallavi Mehta of Nirali Prakashan" and then mention whom you want to speak to "Could
I speak to Mr Ravi Chaturvedi, GM, HR, please?" Remember to be patient and pleasant while
dealing with the secretary who is an important link between you (as a caller) and her boss (the
person you would like to contact).
If the Call Is Cut Off
Many times, the telephone lines suddenly get disconnected. In such situations, courtesy
demands that the person who originally initiated the call should redial immediately and say,
"Sorry, the call got disconnected."
In case, the receiver has to suspend your call for attending to some other more important call,
it is the duty of the receiver to resume the call and use some pleasant explanation to see that you
do not feel slighted.
• Make your important calls polite by using words, such as 'please' and 'Thank you', when you
make a request or get something done or completed.
• Always use the interrogative form for making a request. "Could I ...." Or 'May I ....". Use of
direct categorical statement amounts to order.
• Even the statement, "I request you to connect me to so and so number/ or person" is not quite
appropriate for requesting an unknown person to do something for you even if it is his/her
duty. Instead, say "May I request you to ....".
Telephone Etiquette to be Observed:
In business, telephone calls are mostly received and passed on to the boss by the personal
secretary. You have to be courteous with her/him. In return, she/he has to not only courteous but
tactful too.
Sometimes, the secretary has to act very fast to find out whether the boss is free to talk to you
or not available, before attending to you. Meanwhile, she/he knows what the boss wants. If the
boss is present, but does not want to speak to you for some reason, the secretary will choose any
one of the following polite things to say to you —
• "Sorry, he is busy in a meeting. May I have your number and he will call you later?"
• "He is busy with a foreign delegation. May I ask him to call you back as soon as he is
free?"
These statements may not necessarily be true. However, they are intended to keep you
satisfied even when the call is not successful. The secretary should never try to overhear the
Communication Skills - I 6.5 Etiquettes and Body Language

conversation between the two —the caller and the receiver (the boss). After putting through the
call to the boss, she should go off the line.
Telephone Precaution
As a caller you do not know whether the person receiving your call is alone. Therefore, the
first rule of telephone conversation is that confidential matters should never be discussed over the
phone. They can be overheard/ tapped in transmission.
However, if you have to discuss something personal or something you won't like others to
know, you should check with the person you are calling in a polite manner. For example, you
may say, "Can we talk about the tender for the Golden Highway project?" or just ask, "Are you
free? Can we talk about the tender?"
Communication over the phone requires the use of non verbal skills, such as pleasant tone,
sweet voice, proper intonation, and clear articulation of words. We should be able to convey
larger part of the message through our way of speaking rather than the meaning of words alone.
Telephone etiquette involves good manners to create good business relations between two
persons.

(2) PROBLEMS OF TELEPHONIC CONVERSATION

Phone Conversation: Most Commonly Used English Phrases on the Phone
Communicative skills are very important. Communicating properly on the phone is
especially important, as the person you are speaking to cannot see your facial movement or your
body language. They rely completely on what you are saying, and how you are speaking, to
understand you fully.
As well as speaking clearly when talking on the phone, it is vital to use the right level of
formality. If you are too formal, people might find it difficult to feel comfortable when talking to
you. If you are too informal, they might think you are being rude!
Generally speaking, when you are calling in a business context (making calls related to
employment, finances, law, health or applications of any sort), you should show politeness by
using words like:
• could
• would
• can
• may
When making a request. When you ask for something, or receive help or information, you
should use:
• please
• thank you
• thank you very much.
It is also okay to use some of the informal features of the English language such as short
forms, phrasal verbs and words like okay and bye – in other words, everyday English! So phrases
like:
• ‘I’m off to a conference, okay, bye’,
• ‘Hang on a moment, I’ll put you through’
are perfectly acceptable, as long as the overall tone of your voice is polite and friendly.
Communication Skills - I 6.6 Etiquettes and Body Language

If it is more of an informal phone conversation (speaking to a friend, family member, close

work colleague or even a friend of a friend), then a high level of formality is usually not required,
but you should still speak with a polite manner, as it is seen as respectful.
It’s fine to use less formal phrases in these conversations, such as:
• ‘thanks’
• ‘cheers’
• ‘bye’
• ‘okay’
• ‘no problem’
Another useful thing to remember is, it’s better to ask for help or clarification when you’re
having a telephone conversation, than to pretend you understand something that you didn’t. It is
absolutely fine to use phrases like:
• ‘Could you repeat that please?’
• ‘Could you speak a little more slowly please?’
• ‘Would you mind spelling that for me please?’
Using phrases like these will help you to have a more successful phone call, and may save
you from any problems later on. You could always say:
• ‘I’m afraid the line is quite bad’,
• if you can’t hear very well.
It also a good idea to practise words, phrases and vocabulary that you might need to use,
before the call! So to help you out a little, here is a list of commonly used phrases:
Introduction / Making Contact
If answering a business call, start by introducing yourself or if the caller fails to identify
themselves, then you could ask them to state who they are by using the following phrases:
• Formal
• ‘Hello’
• ‘Good Morning’
• ‘Good Afternoon’
• ‘This is ___ speaking’
• ‘Could I speak to ___ please?’
• ‘I would like to speak to ___’
• ‘I’m trying to contact ___’
Informal
• ‘Hello’
• ‘Hi, it’s ___ here’
• ‘I am trying to get in touch with ___’
• ‘Is ___ there please?’
Giving more information
This would probably be used in a business context mainly, but could sometimes be helpful in
an informal conversation too. It is good to specify where you are calling from, if you feel it may
be helpful to the person you are calling.
Communication Skills - I 6.7 Etiquettes and Body Language

Formal
• ‘I am calling from ___
• I’m calling on behalf of ___’
Informal
‘I’m in the post office at the moment, and I just needed ___’
Taking / Receiving a Call
You may need to use these if you are answering someone else’s phone, because they are
unable to answer it themselves, or if you are answering an office phone.
Formal
• ‘Hello, this is ___ speaking’
• ‘___ speaking, how may I help you?’
Informal
• ‘Hello, John’s phone’
Asking for more information / Making a request
If you need to ask for a specific person, then phrase your request as a polite question, if you
only have an extension number and no name, you can say so. If you’re calling for a specific
reason, just explain briefly what it is.
Formal
• ‘May I ask who’s calling please?’
• ‘Can I ask whom I’m speaking to please?’
• ‘Where are you calling from?’
• ‘Is that definitely the right name/number?’
• ‘Could I speak to someone who ___?’
• ‘I would like to make a reservation please’
• ‘Could you put me through to extension number ___ please?’
Informal
• ‘Who’s calling please?’
• ‘Who’s speaking?’
• ‘Who is it?’
• Whom am I speaking to?
Asking the caller to wait / Transferring a call
If you are transferring a caller to someone else, you should let them know that you are doing
so, just so they know what is happening, as the silent tone could be mistaken for a disconnected
line! If you are the one being transferred, you will often hear the person use the following
phrases:
Formal
• ‘Could you hold on a moment please’
• ‘Just a moment please’
• ‘Hold the line please’
• ‘I’ll just put you through’
• ‘I’ll just transfer you now’
Communication Skills - I 6.8 Etiquettes and Body Language

Informal
• ‘Hold on a minute’
• ‘Just a minute’
• ‘Okay, wait a moment please’
Giving Negative Information
If you are the one answering a call, you might not be able to help the caller. You can use some
of the following phrases in these circumstances:
Formal
• ‘I’m afraid the line is busy at the moment’
• ‘That line is engaged at the moment, could you call back later please?’
• ‘I’m afraid ___’s busy at the moment, can I take a message?’
• ‘I’m sorry, he’s out of the office today’
• ‘You may have dialled the wrong number’
• ‘I’m afraid there’s no one here by that name’
Informal
• ‘Sorry, ___’s not here’
• ‘___ is out at the moment’
Telephone Problems
Telephone Conversations:
Having telephone conversations in a second language can be very stressful. If you don’t
know what to say, it is very common to feel nervous in any conversation. This is true even when
speaking in your native tongue. One of the main reasons people get nervous is because they
aren’t prepared and know they might make mistakes during the conversation.
To improve confidence on the phone you must learn what to say. The first thing you should
do to improve your telephone communication ability is to start out small by learning simple
vocabulary and phrases. Start by knowing different greetings. It is so easy when learning English
to try to do too much too soon and then get frustrated with not being able to speak as you had
imagined. You have to start small, gradually developing skills and slowly working up to
something more difficult.
Relax and enjoy yourself as well. Everyone knows learning a language can be frustrating!
Don’t worry if you make mistakes. Native speakers of English understand that you won’t say
everything the exact same way that they would. You shouldn’t feel that you can’t make any
mistakes, no one expects you to be perfect.
In the following examples on English telephone conversations, we will give many examples
of sentences and phrases you should know. From the start until the end of a telephone
conversation we will go over everything all the way from greetings to goodbyes.
Here are a few sets of Telephone Conversations. Read the conversations in each set so that
you will become familiar with the typical words frequently used in telephone conversations. Only
over the period of time and after more practice hours, you could master how to converse in
telephone. You might have had many such telephone conversations either in your social life or in
your business life.
This is one of The Typical Telephone Conversations.
Communication Skills - I 6.9 Etiquettes and Body Language

1. Characters: Meena and Mohan

Mohan: Hello.
Meena: Hello, Micro Computer centre.
Mohan: Can I get Miss Deepa, please?
Meena: Please hold on. Let me see whether she has come.
Mohan: Hello, Deepa hasn't arrived. May I know who's calling?
Meena: I'm Mohan, Deepa's brother.
Mohan: Any message for Deepa?
Meena: No thanks. I'll call again in the afternoon.
Mohan: I'll tell Deepa that you've called and will call again. May I hang up?
Meena: OK. Thanks.

2. Characters: Susee, Mani and Kumar

Susee: Hello! Is it Kumar's house?
Mani: Yes. May I know who's on the other end?
Susee: My name is Susee. I'm Kumar's friend. Can I speak to Kumar?
Mani: Yes. Please hold on.
Mani: Hello Kumar! What were you doing there?
Kumar: I was watching T.V. Why did you call me?
Mani: Your friend Susee is on the line.
Kumar: Right. Let her be online for some time. I will be there in a minute.
Mani: Hello Susee! Kumar is coming. Please be online for some time.
Susee: OK. That is fine. I will be her waiting for Kumar.
Kumar: Hai Susee! How are you? What is the matter?
Susee: I am sorry to disturb you on Sunday. Could you come over here to meet our boss?
Kumar: OK. I will be in our office in few minutes.
If you don’t understand everything the other person is saying, be honest. Tell the other
person immediately, otherwise you might miss some important information! Most people will
appreciate your honesty, and will be happy to oblige.
Formal
• ‘I’m afraid I can’t hear you very well’
• ‘Would you mind speaking up a bit please?’
• I’m afraid my English isn’t very good, could you speak slowly please?’
• ‘Could you repeat that please?’
Informal
• ‘Sorry, I didn’t catch that’
• ‘Say that again please?’
• ‘I can’t hear you very well’
• ‘Sorry, this line is quite bad’
Communication Skills - I 6.10 Etiquettes and Body Language

Leaving / Taking a Message

If the person you’re calling is not available, be prepared to leave a message. This could be
a voicemail, (which is a digital voice recording system), or an answering machine (this records
messages onto a tape). If you’re leaving a message with another person, they’ll either ask if you
want to leave a message, or you could request to leave a message with them. Be sure to leave
your number, if you want the other person to call you back!
Formal
• ‘Can I take your name and number please?’
• ‘Can I leave a message please?’
• ‘Could you please ask ___ to call me back?’
• ‘Could you spell that for me please?’
• ‘Can I just check the spelling of that please?’
Informal
• ‘I’ll ask him to ring you when ___ gets back’
• ‘Could you tell ___ that I called please?’
• ‘I’ll let ___ know that you rang’
Saying Goodbye
The easiest part of the conversation! Simply be polite, and speak with a friendly manner.
Formal
• ‘Thank you for calling’
• ‘Have a good day’
• ‘Goodbye’
Informal
• ‘Bye!’
• ‘Talk soon’
• ‘Speak to you again soon’
Remember your manners!
It’s very important to be polite on the telephone, use phrases like could you, would you like
to, and to make requests, use please. Always remember to finish a conversation with thank
you and good bye.
Write it down!
If you’re nervous about speaking on the phone in English, then it may be helpful to write a
brief script or a few bullet points on that you need to say.
If you will be speaking to someone you don’t know, it helps to have things written down in
front of you, to calm your nerves!
If you have a brief outline of what you need to say, it will help to organise your thoughts
beforehand, and to use it as a reference during the call, if you get confused.
Phrasal verbs
One thing you could do to improve your telephone skills is to learn some of the phrasal verbs
that are commonly used in English telephone conversations.
Common Phrasal Verbs
1. hold on
means wait
• ‘Could you hold on a moment please?’
Communication Skills - I 6.11 Etiquettes and Body Language

2. hang on
also means wait! (informal)
• ‘Could you hang on a moment please?’
3. put (a call) through
means to connect one caller to another
• ‘I’m just going to put you through now.’
4. get through
to be connected to someone on the phone
• ‘I can’t get through to his line at the moment, could you call back later please?’
5. hang up
means to put the receiver down
• ‘I think the operator hung up on me, the line just went dead!’
6. call up
is to make a telephone call (mainly used in American English or slang)
• ‘I’ll call up the theatre, and find out about tickets.’
7. call back
is to return someone’s call
• ‘I’ll ask him to call you back, when he gets home.’
8. pick up
means to answer a call / lift the receiver to take a call
• ‘No one is picking up, maybe they’re not at home.’
9. get off (the phone)
means to stop talking on the phone
• ‘When he gets off the other phone, I’ll pass on your message.’
10. get back to (someone)
means to return someone’s call
• ‘When do you think she’ll be able to get back to me?’
11. cut off
to be disconnected abruptly during a telephone conversation
• ‘I think we got cut off, I can’t hear her anymore.’
12. switch off/turn off
is to deactivate (a cell phone/mobile phone)
• ‘Sorry you couldn’t get through to me. My phone was switched off, because the battery had died.’
13. speak up
means to talk louder
• ‘I’m afraid I can’t hear you very well, could you speak up a little please?’
Communication Skills - I 6.12 Etiquettes and Body Language

Hold on means ‘wait’ – and hang on means ‘wait’ too. Be careful not to confuse hang
on with hang up! Hang up means ‘finish the call by breaking the connection’ – in other words:
‘put the phone down.’
Another phrasal verb with the same meaning as hang up is ring off, but this isn’t as
commonly used as some of the other phrasal verbs listed above.
The opposite of hang up / ring off is ring up – if you ring somebody up, you make a phone
call. And if you pick up the phone (or pick the phone up), you answer a call when the phone
rings.
“Hang on a second…”
If you are talking to a receptionist, secretary or switchboard operator, they may ask you
to hang on while they put you through – put through means to connect your call to another
telephone. With this verb, the object (you, me, him, her etc.) goes in the middle of the
verb: put you through.
But if you can’t get through to (contact on the phone) the person you want to talk to, you
might be able to leave a message asking them to call you back.
Call back means to return a phone call – and if you use an object (you, me, him, her, etc.), it
goes in the middle of the verb: call you back.
Now you can start making those calls!

(3) VERBAL/ORAL ETIQUETTES

Every workplace evolves its own set of norms of behaviour and attitude. For example, you
can survey banks or hospitals during lunch time. You may find that everyone resumes working
without even a minute's delay, after lunch time, while in some others, taking an extra 10 to 15
minutes for lunch may be a general practice. In such cases, the sense of punctuality is governed
by no rules written in the work manual.
Some business etiquette rules discussed here relate to the following:
• Giving introduction
• Telephone calls
• Business dining
• Interaction with foreign clients
• Inter-personal business etiquette
• Managing customer care
Here, an attempt is made to describe the behaviour and customs that would be considered
appropriate and acceptable in most business organizations/offices/workplaces across the
modern "educated" world. There may be some difference in the practices followed by different
organizations.
The approach to business etiquette assumes that each business setting has its own business
protocols, which an employee learns by working in that environment and by observing others. In
an organization, the basic concern is to create a smooth work environment where each person
helps others to carry out their jobs with ease. This is made possible by our ability to empathize
with other workers' job concerns and priorities. This identification with others is the best form of
business etiquette and culture.
Communication Skills - I 6.13 Etiquettes and Body Language

Learning the rules of business etiquette will help us, as professionals, to act with ease in any
business setting. Let us, therefore, consider some common situations in business and find out how
to act appropriately.
Giving Introduction
Introducing Yourself:
A confident self-introduction always makes a positive first impression. But many people fail
to do so. Either they think it to be a bold act, or they feel too shy to do it. But if you are going to
meet a person for the first time, the other person is bound to feel comfortable to know who you
are and why you are there)
Suppose two persons are waiting for an interview with the General Manager of a company.
They are sitting in the waiting lounge across the corridor leading to the General Manager's office
room. A well dressed middle aged looking person walks into the corridor and is standing near
the Office of the General Manager. The candidates are not sure whether he is the concerned
executive for whom they have been waiting. Now, suppose one of them stands up, moves up to
him and says "Good Morning, I am Kashmira Seth. I am here for my interview with Mr. V. K.
Grover." Hopefully the person would respond—"Good Morning! I am Grover. Pleased to meet
you. We shall shortly have the interview." Ms. Kashmira Seth's bold self —introduction to
Mr. Grover gives her an edge over the other candidate who remained silent. Most likely, Mr.
Grover will have a positive and favourable impression of Kashmira, and construe that she is a
confident, assertive, and enterprising young girl.
If there is an advantage in introducing yourself at the first opportunity, why do people shy
away from doing so?
Many people treat introductions as a protocol to be observed as a ritual, when two or more
persons meet formally.
Introducing yourself in a clear manner, pronouncing your first name and surname, when
required, is necessary to help the other person know who you are.
Names, especially foreign ones, generally remain partially received, unless spoken out
distinctly. Longer names have to be uttered slowly, in parts, so that the one person follows it
fully.
Some Rules For Making Introductions Correctly
As a norm of business etiquette and the first step towards cordial business transactions,
people greet each other by stating their full names and positions (in office) at the very outset.
1. Notice that first name and surnames are stated like "Dhiraj Rao, CEO, Sterling
Gold informatics." not just "Dhiraj" or "Rao". Americans prefer to introduce themselves
by their surnames only. Like "Lewis" or "Dickenson". But Britishers introduce by using
first names and surname or "Tony Blair".
2. Repeat your name when necessary: During a conversation, the other party may forget
your name or may have missed hearing it. At such moments you should help the host
other party immediately by politely repeating your name "I am Irfan Mohammad, I am
sorry, I should have told you.")
3. In the case of a prior fixed business meeting, if you are an expected visitor, first you
should introduce yourself by telling your name and purpose: "I am Rajesh Bose and I
have come here to meet Ms' Rakshanda Lahari in the Marketing Department. This is the
normal practice followed by business executives.
Communication Skills - I 6.14 Etiquettes and Body Language

4. Do not use honorific words, such as Sri, Smt, Mrs, Mr, Ms, or any other titles before your
name, while introducing or referring to yourself. The other person can call you as
Mr Kamat. If it is a degree earned by you, such as Ph.D., you may use 'Dr.' before your
name and refer to yourself as "Dr. N K Gupta, or Dr. Gupta." But if you are a doctor by
profession, people regard and know you as Dr. Naveen Gupta, or Dr. Hari Mehta or Dr.
Roopesh Bhatia. But surgeons and physicians usually do not add the salutation before
their names while referring to their names. This may be a universally appropriate self-
announcement at the reception counter for registration. The point to be understood is
that others may call us by adding titles or professional words or degrees, but we
ourselves should not use them with our names.
5. Speak your name slowly and clearly. As mentioned, personal names sound unfamiliar.
Therefore, they should be articulated as distinctly as possible. If required, help others by
spelling your name.
Handshake
As a winning form of non-verbal communication, handshakes must be accompanied by eye
contact and a gentle smile.
Today most business meetings begin and end with a handshake. A handshake is immediately
done after introduction by extending your right hand and firmly holding the other person's right
hand very briefly. In modern business a handshake is a non —verbal clue of friendly dealings.
As a visitor, you can first offer your hand for a handshake with your host. In fact, the
handshake is so spontaneous that both the parties almost simultaneously put forward their right
hands towards each other. Sometimes, while parting, people shake hands by holding both hands
together and putting and their left arm on the back or the shoulder of the other person to
communicate the warmth that has developed between them after meeting each other.
In some situations, you may express your feelings by saying —"Pleased to meet you". And
the other generally responds —"My pleasure" or "So, am I". But these words are just pleasantries.
They do not mean much as verbal communication.
On Failing to Recall Someone's Name
In business, we may have been visiting a person often. It may be possible that on meeting the
same person somewhere else, we do recognize him/her by face, but fail to recall their name.
Before the other person detects your failure, you should ask for his/her card. You can say "Could
I have your latest business card for your telephone number/and address?" or you can just say,
"Could I know your full name? I have your initials."
To be tactful in such situations is also good verbal etiquette. If you let the other person know
that you have forgotten his/her name, it may make the person feel that he/she is not important
enough to be remembered (by name). So, we should act as if we know the name, but we wish to
have more details about the person.
How to Introduce other Persons
One of the difficult things you have to do is perhaps to introduce other persons at a business
meeting. We should know each other in terms of their names and professional status before we
conduct the meeting or discuss the transaction. The status communicates the role the person plays
in the business transaction.
The Protocol (Rule) for Introducing Others
1. Normally, the senior most people among the visitors, or the host team, introduces the
other members of his/her group present there.
Communication Skills - I 6.15 Etiquettes and Body Language

2. The practice is that first visitors are introduced to the host. Then, members of the host
group are introduced.
3. The rule is that we do not introduce a senior to a junior. Instead, we always introduce
the lowest ranked person to the highest ranked person. Always say "Mr. Sharma.
(Chairman CMC), may I introduce Payal Swaroop to you? Payal is this year's university
topper and Gold Medalist, working in our placement department."
Notice two things here:
One, the polite form "May I introduce ..." is appropriate and formal, when you are
speaking to a superior. But to others you can just say, "This is Shikha Gulati. Shikha is a
senior lecturer in finance."
Two, we repeat the name so that it is duly received and remembered by the other
person. But to repeat the name naturally, we create a context by mentioning the most
significant detail about the person concerned.
4. Suppose there are just two persons to be introduced to each other. As a rule, you should
first introduce the junior to the senior, as stated above. After introducing the junior to
the senior, you introduce the senior person to the junior person.

(4) PHYSICAL APPEARANCE / EYE CONTACT / BODY LANGUAGE

(a) Proxemics (Perception of Physical Space):
There are several non-verbal signals which are understood by the sender and the receiver.
One such source is space. It communicates in its own way. The degree of perceived physical or
psychological closeness between people is called proxemics. The term proxemics was introduced by
anthropologist Edward T. Hall in 1959 to describe set measurable distances between people
as they interact. Communication experts call this dimension of communication, proxemics. It
can also be called as 'space language'. In this context, space means distance between the
sender of the message and the receiver of the message in oral communication. Space can be
classified into various categories according to distance.
1. Intimate (soft whispers, pat on back etc.)
2. Personal (close circle, shake hands etc.)
3. Social (used in official relationships)
4. Public (formal and objective)
5. Fixed and Semi-fixed (arrangement of furniture).
• Broadly, Intimate (0-2 ft.), Personal (2-4 ft), Social (4-12 ft.) and Public (more than 12 ft.).
When strangers enter the wrong zone, we feel uncomfortable. E.g. In an airplane / elevator,
this space gets compromised and we deal with it by "dehumanizing" (making no eye contact
and acting busy) those around us. Even a loud cell phone conversation trespasses this space!
Business Relationships:
• Generally, business relationships start in the Social Zone, but as the relationship develops and
trust is formed, they move to the Personal Zone.
Business Seating:
• In competitive situations, people sit across-the-table, monitoring each other. When working
independently, they sit across but never directly opposite, as this provides adequate isolation
and privacy. In a group, the leader always sits at head of the table, as this position brings
with it a sense of power.
Communication Skills - I 6.16 Etiquettes and Body Language

Cross-Cultural Variance:
• Personal zones vary across cultures, professions, personal preferences and affluence (more
affluent persons demand more personal space). Also, those living in densely populated
environments (India) tend to have smaller space requirements. Generally, low-context
cultures (North American, Northern Europeans) prefer interacting in the Social Zone for
business but high context cultures (Mediterranean, Arab, Latin) favour the Personal Zone.
• People value their personal space and business leaders use this space to "read" the non-verbal
messages. The trick lies in being sensitive to and respecting the space of others, leading to
working relationships filled with trust!
• The physical environment around us has its own non-verbal language. Surroundings can
include colour, design, layout and time. They play an important role in determining non-
verbal signals. On a more universal level, smiling is a good example used by all cultures,
which is viewed in the work place as a way of signaling friendliness and co-operation.

Fig. 6.1: Effects of Non-verbal Communication

In brief, it can be stated that the dynamics concerned with the distance between the speaker
and the listener is termed as proxemics. Distance affects interpersonal space. Personal space is
an invisible factor.
(b) Chronemics (Time Language):
• One of the most immediate features of chronemics is the attitude of different cultures to
punctuality. Different cultures give different weightage to punctuality. For example, consider
a multinational organisation where, managers from different countries are required to attend
a meeting at a specified time. There will be cross cultural communication in such a gathering.
Since each country has a different idea and/or concept of punctuality, all the participants
would arrive at different times, some would arrive before time and some even after the
specified time. None of them would pay much attention to either arriving early or late
probably because of the different cultural attitudes to the time factor or punctuality. As in the
case of punctuality, there is also a varied cultural attitude towards management of time and
orientation to time with respect to past, present or future. Therefore, there is a problem about
how cultures formulate their approach to time. A skilful management of activity, therefore,
depends on one's attitude towards synchronic and sequential time.
• Under time language, indications are given about how important time is. Nowadays, time
management has become an important part of business transactions. Organisations adopt
various means and methods to save time because after all 'Time is money'. All
communication should be appropriately adjusted to be effective.
Communication Skills - I 6.17 Etiquettes and Body Language

• Use of time is a very subtle factor in non-verbal communication. Time is non-verbal

communication. Having someone give you time to speak, or giving you their time and
listening to what you are saying, can greatly boost self-esteem. A person who wastes his own
time and that of others can certainly be considered inefficient. Chronemics includes a sense of
time used for presentations, conducting meetings, giving good or bad news etc. as it creates
good and bad impressions. In brief, it can be stated that chronemics is an important non-
verbal method of communication as time also conveys certain messages.
(c) Artifacts:
• Artifacts are concerned with the environment and objects around us. The physical
environment around us conveys its own non-verbal language. Surroundings consist of
different objects. There are two important parts of surroundings - colour, and layout. Colour
suggests different attitudes, behavioural patterns and cultural backgrounds. For example,
white colour stands for peace and surrender and red suggests danger. Decorative articles are
also useful in effective communication. Artifacts are also personal objects we use to announce
our identities and personalize our environments. Artifacts are thus material objects as an
extension of oneself. For example, clothing has the power to influence. Change left in a phone
booth was returned to well dressed people 77% of the time, poorly dressed people only 38%
of the time.
• Several studies show that fancy suits, uniforms and high-status clothing are related to higher
rates of compliance.
• Artifacts announce professional identity. Nurses and doctors wear white and often drape
stethoscopes around their necks; executives carry briefcases, whereas students more often
backpacks. White-collar professionals tend to wear tailored outfits and dress shoes, whereas
blue-collar workers often dress in jeans or uniforms and boots. The military requires uniforms
that define individuals as members of the group. In addition, stripes, medals, and insignia
signify rank and accomplishments.
• We also use artifacts to define settings and personal territories. When the president speaks,
the setting usually is decked with symbols of national identity and pride such as the flag. At
annual meetings of companies, the chair usually speaks from a podium that bears the
company logo. In much the same manner, we claim our private spaces by filling them with
objects that matter to us and that reflect our experiences and values. Lovers of art adorn their
homes and offices with paintings and sculptures that reflect their interests. Professionals may
decorate their offices with expensive furniture and framed awards to announce their status or
with pictures of family to remind them of people they cherish. Web sites, too, are defined by
artifacts such as photos, animations, and colours that express the creators’ personalities and
interests
• Although the human body transmits a number of messages, these messages do not carry any
sense until they are translated by someone. The process of translation is important where
artifacts are concerned.
• In order to communicate by means of embodiment media, both the sender and receiver of the
message must assign the same meaning to the common embodiment media. The assignment
emerges through interaction between humans and artifacts. The designer of an artifact
extracts essential characters of human communication by observation and it is to be
implemented in the artifact. All artifacts do not have the same character (embodiment) as
humans.
Communication Skills - I 6.18 Etiquettes and Body Language

• "No" is often represented with a shake of the head. In order to express a negative message,
the sender must have appropriate embodiment media. It means that the sender must have a
head, neck, body etc. and the ability to realise the action. Lifeless articles like a chair, table,
briefcase do not have such embodiment. Human beings can adopt various other methods to
understand embodiment media.
Aspects and Types of Body Language (Kinesics)
• There are various ways in which non-verbal communication can be classified. There are four
most common types:
Types of Non-Verbal Communication

Body Language Space Time Para language (How

Intimate (18") (Time orientation we say some things)
Personnel (18" − 4') becomes part of
Social (4 to 12 feet) message)
Public (12 feet to
seeing and hearing)
Fig. 6.2
• These four types are important in speaking and listening. The human body sends non-verbal
messages through arms, fingers, expressions, postures and so on. Face and eyes are most
important. Gestures are useful for sending non-word messages through body parts. Another
area of body language is physical appearance; for example clothing, hair style, jewelry,
cosmetics etc. can affect body movements. Yet another type of non-verbal communication
includes space and the way it communicates, meaning in speaking and listening.
Kinesics:
• The study of body motion and facial expressions as related to speech is called kinesics. It is an
important factor in non-verbal or oral communication.
• Kinesics is non-verbal behaviour related to the movements of a part of the body or the body
as a whole. Generally, all communicable body movements are classified as kinesics. Kinesic
communication is one of the most important non-verbal communication forms.
Communication by way of body movements is endless. For example, when the forefinger and
middle finger are indicated in the shape of the letter 'V' it becomes the sign for victory. In
certain cases two fingers are used to symbolise number two. Sometimes '0' may be indicated
as OK, in other cases it is taken as a zero.
• There are some non-verbal signs that regulate and maintain the flow of speech during
meetings or conversations. These can be both kinesic, such as nodding of the head, as well as
non-kinesic, such as eye-movements. The information which flows as a part of feedback to
indicate whether the receiver has understood the message can be highly confusing.
• Kinesics is an important part of non-verbal communication. The movement of the body
conveys a specific meaning and interpretation. There are movements which carry a
significant risk of being misinterpreted in certain cases of communication.
• Body language is a comprehensive term used for the method of communication through
different parts of the body other than the tongue. It includes, all sorts of body movements,
gestures, facial expressions, postures, miming, touch etc. depending upon the physical space
Communication Skills - I 6.19 Etiquettes and Body Language

between the communicators. Silence as a body communication also plays an important role in
certain exchanges. Body language, by and large, is unintentional and more truthful than
verbal messages. It is easy to deceive a person by expressions.

Fig. 6.3
Presentation Plan
• The art of public-speaking is the fruit of constant efforts. There is no definite formula to be
adopted to become an effective speaker. Enough planning and preparation is essential for a
successful presentation. Preparation is the key to overcome nervousness.
1. As far as possible the speaker should not read out a written speech word by word.
2. Written speech seldom sounds fresh.
3. It is not necessary to memorise the speech either. It never exhibits spontaneity.
4. Memorisation of speech would hamper flexibility. Consequently, communication will
suffer.
5. Face to face conversation or interaction involves thinking and speaking and not mere
repetition.
6. Even while reading the speech, one must lift the head occasionally and observe the
audience.
7. The speaker must make adequate notes and points and arrange them in a proper order
before actually starting the speech. It should bear proper headings and sub-headings.
8. Appropriate time should be devoted for introduction and to the main body of the talk.
9. Notes and points should be written neatly and in bold letters.
10. A positive attitude needs to be generated while speaking.
(a) Facial Expressions:
• Facial expressions exhibit attitudes. A smile expresses friendliness and affection. Raising of
eyebrows conveys surprise, while a furrowed forehead expresses worry and anxiety. Various
parts of the human body, particularly eyes, are used for communicating information. Eyes are
the most significant organs which communicate subtle messages. Really speaking, eyes by
themselves do not show emotion; but when they are associated with other parts of the face,
they are windows to the soul. Squinting, winking, staring and gazing express a world of
meaning. Looking at the eyes, face and other verbal signals during conversation perform
certain important functions:
1. Looking helps with the synchronising of utterances.
2. It provides definite feedback.
3. It provides additional non-verbal information which elaborates verbal messages.
Communication Skills - I 6.20 Etiquettes and Body Language

(b) Eye Contact:

• Eye contact is an instantaneous and effective means of establishing rapport with an audience.
A good speaker first looks at the audience and takes a pause before beginning his speech. It
helps him to make a good impression on the audiences. In case the speaker gives breaks and
puts his ideas into small units rather than in a lengthy narration, it allows listeners some
intervening time to grasp those ideas. Once this is done, the speaker can proceed to explain
the subsequent points or ideas. While speaking it is also necessary to maintain eye contact
with the audience. If the listeners feel that the speaker is ignoring them, they are also likely to
ignore the speaker and what he says. Through eye contact, the speaker gets signals whether
the channel of communication is open and operating on right lines. This sense itself works as
the feedback.
(c) Vocalics (Aspects of Speech or Para Language):
• The dictionary meaning of vocalics is 'concerned with a vowel/vowels’. Vocalics is the study
of non-verbal cues of the voice. Vocalics means such features as are related to voice, including
intonation and pitch. It is the area of language related to the way voice and intonation are
used. Voice has characteristics like tone, volume and pitch. Tone can be considered as the
quality of the voice. Volume is the loudness or softness of speech which can be suitably
modified according to space, distance, number of listeners, nature of audience and self-
confidence etc. A high pitch voice is not preferred because it gives an impression of
immaturity. Voice generally becomes high pitched when a person is encompassed by a sense
of fear. Rapid speech shows some kind of excitement. Stress on a particular syllable can alter
the meaning of a sentence.
(d) Gestures:
• In certain cases, gestures are used extensively when a person does not know the local
language. The deaf mainly depend upon gestures for their sign language. In certain
discussions, gestures of a person convey much more than what he speaks, for e.g.
enthusiasm, attitudes, emotions, etc. Gestures like shaking the hand display friendship and
warmth. Other such examples are holding of hands, patting on a shoulder etc.
(e) Postures:
• Each movement or posture of the body has expressive and defensive functions. The way in
which one sits or stands, walks in or walks out tells a lot about the person’s emotions and
attitudes. But no body movement itself has any exact meaning. Just as spoken words are
assisted by gestures, posture is also taken together with other verbal and non-verbal clues.
For example, lowering of the head indicates the end of the statement, or raising of the head
indicates the end of the question. A large number of postural changes indicate the end point
in interactions; for example, the end of a thought or the end of a statement. A shift in posture
shows that something is happening. This aspect of body language is known as "Proxemics."
(f) Dress and Appearance:
• The kind of dress that is worn by a person and his grooming shows his status and attitude.
Most people are influenced by how the speaker looks and the clothes he/she is wearing.
Physical attractiveness plays an important role in one’s assessment of people. Attractive
people are generally considered to be more successful, more intelligent and more competent
than those who do not look or appear attractive. A person's physical appearance and dress
conveys a great deal of information about him. One’s judgement or evaluation of others is
greatly influenced by physical appearances. It has a definite impact on the communication
process.
Communication Skills - I 6.21 Etiquettes and Body Language

(g) Haptics (Communication by Touch):

• Haptics is a scientific term that indicates the sense of touch. Haptics is the science concerning
human interaction by means of touch. The word haptics is derived from Greek, meaning "to
grasp, touch or perceive". Haptics is often accomplished through electrical motors. There are
other methods to create pressure sensations such as those with devices that are hydraulic or
pneumatic etc. In feedback, a user can feel forces applied directly to the skin, which are
detected by the user through sensors within the skin. Tactile feedback can also be applied by
the user through electrical currents applied directly to the skin or objects that can vary in
temperature touching the skin. Haptic devices have varying complexities and can work in
different ways. Pressure devices are often described by their degrees of freedom. Haptic
devices are available for commercial applications.
(h) Voice Modulation:
• The speaker must know how he should use his voice effectively. To want to become an
effective speaker, a good voice is a must. A good voice is no doubt a natural gift; but one can
make efforts to improve the quality of one's voice with skilful training and practice. Proper
attention to this aspect would lead to the acquisition of confidence and power.
1. Variations in the pitch and tempo of the voice are essential to transmit the message
effectively.
2. Fast delivery of speech indicates lack of confidence, and betrays the object of the speech
and the image of the speaker. The speed of delivery must be such that the audience can
keep pace and understand the matter properly. One should not go beyond the speed of
125 to 150 words per minute. One has to bring the speed of speaking within this range
by proper practice.
3. Pronunciation of the words used must be correct with due stresses wherever required.
4. One should speak loudly enough so that everyone including even the last man in the
audience is able to listen to the speech clearly.
5. Do not use repeatedly words like "You see", "I mean," "Do you understand," "Is it clear"
etc.
6. The microphone should be kept eight to ten inches away from the mouth to ensure
proper transmission of ones voice to the audience.
(i) Audience Awareness:
Before starting the speech the speaker should first:
1. Size up the listeners.
2. Consider the age, sex, background and interest of the listeners.
3. Ascertain whether the audience is friendly or hostile.
4. Use common sense to become a good speaker.
5. Select an approach that suits the audience.
6. Make the listener feel that he/she is being addressed individually.
7. No verbal fireworks are necessary to arrest the attention of the audience.
8. Make the audience feel that the speaker is sincere in gaining their interest.
9. Dramatise certain ideas to overcome the barriers of communication.
10. Create an impression that you want to share the views and ideas of the audience.
11. A 'joke' should be delivered in such a way that it appears to be part of the speech. The
audience should receive it almost unprepared.
12. Do not get distracted if a listener smiles or whispers to a neighbour.
13. Concentrate on ideas.
Communication Skills - I 6.22 Etiquettes and Body Language

(j) Silence:
• Speech is silver, but silence is golden. It means silence speaks louder than words. It is a non–
verbal language par excellence. It establishes the relationship between communicators and
their attitudes towards one another. Moments of silence show that the parties involved are
either confused or do not know how to continue the conversation. In case of public speaking,
when the speaker punctuates his remarks with periods of silence, he could be using it for
stressing the importance of his message. In some cases, silence is generalised. For example,
when a worker fails to complete his assigned job and the supervisor makes enquiries about it,
his silence speaks for his failure.
(k) Physical Appearance:
• How one looks and what one wears affects listeners. Thus some organisations are more
causal in dress, others are not so. Learning an organisation's culture includes learning its
dress code. Most organisations encourage men to wear a shirt, a tie and a suit and women to
wear a white blouse and a dark skirt and a jacket. But these rules are continuously changing.
Terms as ‘smart casual’ or ‘business casual’ indicate symbols for appearance, and it is
important that one knows what such terms mean is one's particular surroundings or
organisation.
• Clothing, hairstyles, neatness, postures, stature are part of personal appearance. They convey
impressions regarding occupation, age, nationality, social and economical level, job status
and good or poor judgement, depending on some conditions. Aspects of surroundings
include room size, location, furnishings, machines, architecture, wall decorations, floor,
lighting, windows, view and other related features wherever people communicate orally.
Surroundings will vary according to the status and according to the country and culture.
• Whether one is speaking to one person face to face or to a group in a meeting, physical
appearance and surroundings convey non-verbal stimuli that affect attitudes towards spoken
words.
Professional Dressing
Objective language is non-verbal message communicated through appearance. As a medium
of non-verbal communication, it includes arrangement and display of material things. This
method may include intentional or unintentional communication through material things like
clothing, make-up, ornaments and other accessories, books, buildings, room furniture, interior
decorations etc. These offer signals relating to the context, such as formal and informal settings.
Dress and decoration communicate a great deal about the speaker's rank, status, personality,
feelings, emotions, attitudes, opinions etc. What they reveal is something special about the
person. For instance, when a professional bathes every day, wears clean clothes and his socks are
not stinking, it indicates his outlook and concern for others. On the other hand, if he has body
odour and wears clothes and socks which have not been washed for a couple of days, he will be
looked down upon right at the outset. First impressions count and whether one likes it or not,
people are immediately judged by their appearance.
Professional dressing conveys a non-verbal message as it creates an impression about the
person, his background, his tastes and choices. Obviously, the person is instantaneously assessed
by the audience. Hence the emphasis is on choice of dress and accessories.
Professional dressing includes dressing appropriately for a job, an interview, an internship, a
networking event, etc. Each company and event is different. Secondly, there are many other
variables, like time of event, season, the city of residence and work, mode of transport being used,
and whether person will be sitting or standing most of the time, dress code announced, what the
others are likely to be wearing etc.
Types of Business Attire: There are three types of dress codes viz., Professional Dress,
Business Casual and other Casual.
Communication Skills - I 6.23 Etiquettes and Body Language

1. Professional Dress: Professional dress is the most

conservative type of business wear for most ‘white collar’, job
situations, whether it is accounting, finance, or other
conservative industries. For men, professional dress means a
business suit or a blazer, dress pants and a tie. For women in
the Western societies, this means a business suit, pants suit, or
dress and jacket. However, in India, one can see even ladies
holding top level jobs wearing saris. At the worker level, viz.,
‘blue collar’ jobs, there are the uniforms, overalls and safety
gear.
For those in specialised services like the defence services,
police forces etc., there are the Service-Regiment-Seniority-
specific uniforms, which instantaneously communicate the
status of the person. Religious leaders, political leaders,
lawyers, judges, doctors, nurses, sports persons, porters,
security persons and other workers have their own way of Fig. 6.4
dressing, which identifies them distinctly.
The professional dress worn by people of different countries varies. What is formal office
wear by women in India may be considered informal and dressy in the western countries. Many
companies have an established dress code which is binding on the employees.
A professional who does not take the time to maintain a professional appearance presents
the image of not being able to perform adequately on the job. If a person looks and behaves like a
highly trained and well-groomed professional, he/she will win appreciation, respect and honour.
Apart from dress, professional men should take care of various aspects of grooming, such as a
fresh haircut, removal of all facial hair, nicely shined shoes and a crisp, nicely pressed suit etc., as
they go a long way in establishing a professional demeanour. Cologne and after-shave are
optional, but if used, it must not be very strong.
Women professionals as a rule do not wear heavy jewellery, very strong cosmetics and
perfumes etc., and they keep their hair neatly organised. Tattoos are discouraged in many
companies in America. Those who display them are considered unprofessional, low-class and
ignorant.
There are a number web sites where the ‘do’s & ‘don’ts are described.
2. Business Casual: This is a more relaxed but not casual version of the ‘Professional
Dress’. If the organisation environment is semi-conservative, wearing business casual would be
appropriate. Apart from this, some interviews and events may also call for business casual.
Basically, for women, business casual is a shirt with a collar and/or a sweater, khakis or
dress pants and nice shoes. They can also sometimes wear a moderate length (knee length or
longer) dress or skirt. For men, business casual is a polo shirt or shirt with a collar and/or
sweater, khakis or dress pants and dress shoes. No tie is required.
3. Other Casual: This is a type of comfortable outfit a person wears on an everyday basis,
or for casual networking events in the organisation, but does not to work. However, It includes
jeans, tee shirts, flip flops, sneakers.
4. Adornment and Artifacts: The way in which people carry cigarettes, pipes, canes or
glasses also suggests different semiotic meanings. (Semiotics is the science of the emotional or
psychological impact of signs, appearances and of how things look). This understanding is
gaining a lot of importance, especially in audio-visual communication including advertisements
and entertainment, where a lot has to be communicated very effectively in a very short time.
(5) GROUP DISCUSSION
Group Discussion : Refer to Point (3) of Chapter No. 5.
Group Discussion is not a debate in which you either oppose or support the topic. There are
no clear cut positions or stands to be taken. GD is a continuous discussion, a live interaction, in
which you examine a subject/problem from different angles and view points. As a participant,
you may disagree with or support the other's point of view or bring in a new point of view. This
Communication Skills - I 6.24 Etiquettes and Body Language

should not be done by showing disrespect for the other person, even if you do not accept his/her
point of view. Courtesy in discussions indicates our level of culture and sophistication.
Some techniques or guidelines to be followed by the Group Discussion participants are as
follows:
1. How to join the discussion:
• I'd like to raise the subject of ……
• What I think is ……
• In my opinion ……
• If I had to say a word about it ……
• I feel strongly that ……
• May I make a point about ……
2. To support what some other participant has said:
• I'd like to support the view point of Mr. A about ……
• I completely agree with Mr. B about the point ……
3. To support disagreement:
• I would like to offer a different viewpoint ……
• Please allow me to differ here ……
• I think differently on this issue ……
• I do not agree here, in my opinion ……
4. To make a point very strongly:
• I am convinced that ……
• You can't deny that ……
• Anybody can see that ……
• It is quite obvious that ……
5. To bring a discussion back to the point:
• Perhaps, we could go back to the point ……
• Could we stick to the subject, please ……
• I am afraid; we are drifting away from the point.
Your analytical ability and your verbal and non verbal skills of communication give you a
competitive edge over others.
Listening in Group Discussions:
In Group Discussions, only speaking is not essential, but listening has its own vital
importance. Only a good listener can be an effective speaker and can bind and convince the
group with his opinions. In GDs, Listening is also a participative act. Listen to what others have to
say. Do not listen with a desire to refute. Listen to assimilate and analyse; then speak to express
your thoughts in the light of thoughts of others.
Do not interrupt, but try to join in the discussion tactfully.
Finally, if you really want to stand out, do not try to dominate by demolishing other
participants.
Exercise
1. What are the different etiquettes of telephone?
2. What are the Do's and Don'ts of telephone?
3. What are the different aspects and types of body language?
4. Write short notes on:
(a) Physical appearance (b) Telephone etiquettes
(c) Facial expressions (d) Eye contact
(e) Body language (f) Artifacts
(g) Postures and Gestures (h) Silence
(i) Audience Awareness
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 SBT - Jharkhand
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
1st Semester Diploma Engineering Examination, 2018 (New Syllabus)
Communication Skills
Time: 3 Hours Full Marks: 80, Pass Marks: 26
1. Read the following passage and answer the questions given below: [2 × 5 = 10]
An e-reader is a device that allows you to read a book-length publication in digital form,
consisting of text, images, or both, and produced on, published through, and readable on
computers or other electronic devices. Sometimes the equivalent of a conventional printed book,
e-books can also be born digital. The Oxford Dictionary of English defines the e-book as "an
electronic version of a printed book," but e-books can and do exist without any printed
equivalent.
E-readers are superior to printed books because they save space, are environmentally
friendly, and provide helpful reading tips and tools that printed books do not. E-readers are
superior to printed books because they save space. The average e-reader can store thousands of
digital books, providing a veritable library at your fingertips. What is more, being the size and
weight of a thin hardback, the e-reader itself is relatively petite. It is easy to hold and can fit in a
pocketbook or briefcase easily.
In addition, e-readers are superior to books because they are environmentally friendly. The
average novel is about 300 pages long,. So, if a novel is printed 1000 times, it will use 300000
pieces of paper. That's a lot of paper! If there are about 80000 pieces of paper in a tree, this means
it takes almost 4 trees to make these 1000 books. Now, we know that the average bestseller sells
about 20000 copies per week. That means that it takes over 300 trees each month to sustain this
rate. And for the super bestsellers, these figures increase dramatically. For example, the Harry
Potter book series has sold over 450 million copies. That's about 2 million trees! Upon viewing
these figures, it is not hard to grasp the severe impact of printed books on the environment. Since
e-readers use no trees, they represent a significant amount of preservation in terms of the
environment and its resources]
Finally, e-readers are superior to books because they provide helpful reading tips and tools
that printed books do not. The typical e-reader allows its user to customize letter size, font, and
line spacing. It also allows highlighting and electronic bookmarking. Furthermore, it grants users
the ability to get an overview of a book and then jump to a specific location based on that
overview. While these are all nice features, perhaps the most helpful of all is the ability to get
dictionary definitions at the touch of a finger. On even the most basic e-reader, users can conjure
instant definitions without having to hunt through a physical dictionary.
It can be seen that e-readers are superior to printed books. They save space, are
environmentally friendly, and provide helpful reading tips and tools that printed books do not.
So what good are printed books? Well, they certainly make nice decorations.
(a) What is an e-reader?
(b) Define e-book. Can e-books exist without a printed edition?
(c) Why are e-books better than printed books?
(d) How are e-books environment friendly?
(e) How does an e-reader make reading a hassle-free experience?
2. Answer any four from the following questions: [2 × 4 = 8]
(a) What made Shaw decide about delivering extempore speeches?
(b) What will enrich peoples' lives?
(c) Why did Herman stay with her mother?
(d) Why was Gandhi against the craze for machinery?
(e) Who inspired Kalpana Chawla?
(P.1)
Communication Skills - I P.2 Model Question Paper

(f) Which areas did Kiran Bedi prefer to work in?

(g) What is unintelligible to the author of "the Painted Face"?
(h) What is the leading source of water pollution today?
3. Answer any one from the following questions: [6 × 1 = 6]
(a) 'If you look to do something, it is always possible'. Explain.
(b) What aspect of modern life does Gardiner satirise in his essay?
4. Classify any four of the following words as Noun, Verb, Adverb, Adjective: [1 × 4 = 4]
Hostile, Inflict, Economically, Suspicion, Obviously, Disrupt, Nationalist, Ambition
5. Fill in the blanks using appropriate form of verbs from brackets: [1 × 5 = 5]
(a) Students frequently (make) mistakes of tense usage when they do this exercise.
(b) Whenever I (go) to see him, he was out.
(c) Most of the class (understand) the results of the experiment yesterday.
(d) Production has fallen this year, but it (rise) next year.
(e) If you heat this liquid, it (explode).
6. Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate verbs from the following list: [1 × 5 = 5]
can, could, may, might, should, would
(a) We …… love our country.
(b) I …… not solve this problem.
(c) …… you please lend me your pen for a moment?
(d) …… we go to watch a film this evening?
(e) Probably, he …… lend you money.
7. Do as directed: [1 × 4 = 4]
(a) hurray i won the match (Punctuate).
(b) Your friends are good. (Add a Question Tag).
(c) He runs in the evening. (Make Negative).
(d) He is …… student. (Use an Article).
8. Correct errors from the following sentences: [1 × 4 = 4]
(a) He saw that the clock has stopped.
(b) It has been raining for Monday last.
(c) Ramesh is my older brother.
(d) Danish, I and you have finished work.
9. Write a paragraph on any one of the following: [6 × 1 = 6]
(a) Role of technical education for women.
(b) Problems of learning English as a Second Language
(c) Lokpal Bill as a tool for controlling corruption.
10. Use any four of following words into sentences of your own. [1 × 4 = 4]
vary, very, tear, tier, tail, tale, suite, suit, side, site.
11. Give antonyms of the given words (any four): [1 × 4 = 4]
Accept, Genuine, Come, Wealthy, Dull, Release, Win, Lucky.
12. Give synonyms of the given words (any four): [1 × 4 = 4]
Guilty, Lazy, Kind, Assert, Arrive, Hold, Simple, Brave.
13. Write brief notes on any four of the following: [4 × 4 = 16]
(a) Physical appearance (b) Body language (c) Speaking skills
(d) Leadership skills (e) Group discussion (f) Telephonic Etiquettes.

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