MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 1

The interferometer is a device to exploit the interference of light for some

scientific purpose. The Michelson Interferometer was first devised by Albert
Michelson in 1881, and was used to detect the motion of earth through ether or
to detect the so called hypothetical ether as the medium through which light
waves were supposed to propagate.
Experimental set up
it consists of two well polished mirrors M1 and M2 placed perpendicular to each
other. GP is a half-silvered glass plate equally inclined to the mirrors M1 and M2. It
is called beam splitter. When parallel beam of light is incident on plate GP, a
part of the light is reflected and remaining part of almost same amplitude is
transmitted. The refracted beam (1) goes to the mirror M1. From the mirror, the
incident beam is reflected along the same path and is then incident on the
plate GP, from where it is reflected downwards. The reflected beam (2) goes to
the mirror M2 and is incident normally on it. From the mirror M2 , the incident
beam is reflected along the same path and is then transmitted through GP and
joints the beam reflected from mirror M1.
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 2
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 3
Thus the beam (3) contains light reflected from both M1 and M2. The reflected
beam (2) passes through plate GP thrice, but the beam (1) passes through it
only once. So, to compensate for it, a plate C of same material and same
thickness as that of GP is placed parallel to GP in the path of beam (1). The
optical paths of two parts of beam (3) can be varied and they interfere to
produce interference fringes, which can be seen through an eye piece.
Formation of fringes
The shape of the fringes is determined by the mutual inclination of the mirrors M1
and M2. To simplify the analysis, we consider an equivalent optical system
having a single optical axis, perpendicular to the mirror M2. Mirror M1 is replaced
by its image M1’ in the mirror M2. Also the source S is replaced by its image S’ in
the mirror M2. P is any point on the source image S’ and a ray of light inclined to
the optical axis at an angle θ is incident on M1’ and M2.
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 4
The reflected beam appears to come from the virtual
images P1 and P2 of the source S’ in the M1’ and M2. If
the separation between the mirrors M1’ and M2 is ‘d’
then the separation between S1’ and S2’ will be ‘2d’.
Hence the optical path difference between the
reflected beams going to eye piece will be:
∆= 2𝑑 cos 𝜃
Beam (1) experience a reflection from denser medium
from plate GP. But the reflection of beam (2) from GP is
at rarer medium. So, an additional path difference of
λ/2 is introduce in the beam reflected from mirror M1.
Hence, the optical path difference between the
interfering beams will be:
𝜆
∆= 2𝑑 cos 𝜃 + …..(68)
2
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 5
𝜆
Hence condition for minima is: ∆= 2𝑝 + 1
2
𝜆 𝜆
Hence for minima: 2𝑑 cos 𝜃 + = 2𝑝 + 1 or 2𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 𝑝𝜆
2 2
𝜆 𝜆
For maxima: 2𝑑 cos 𝜃 + = 𝑝𝜆 or 2𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 2𝑝 − 1
2 2

Circular fringes-fringes of equal inclination

The interference produced by the equivalent optical system is a case of
interference by an air film of same thickness, illuminated by an extended source
of light. Hence the fringes of equal inclination are produced. so, the
interference pattern consists of circular fringes with their centre on the optical
axis. The fringes are localized at infinity and can be seen by the eye or a
telescope focused at infinity.
Case 1: If d=0. That is geometrical distance of the two mirrors from the plate GP
is same, then:
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 6
𝜆 𝜆
∆= 2𝑑 cos 𝜃 + =
2 2

Hence central fringe will be dark.

Case 2: If we move one of the mirror parallel to itself, d starts increasing and so
path difference also increases. For the rays of light incident along the optic axis
of the system θ=0 and hence:
𝜆 𝜆
∆= 2𝑑 cos 0 + = 𝑜𝑟 ∆= 2𝑑 +
2 2
𝜆 𝜆
When d=λ/4, we have: ∆= 2 × + = 𝜆
4 2

So, the centre of interference pattern becomes a maximum. Again moving the
mirror further by λ/4 we get minimum at the centre. Thus, by moving one of the
mirrors parallel to itself, the central fringe becomes a maximum and minimum
alternatively.
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 7
Case 3: If we look on the fringe pattern obliquely at an angle θ, we observe the
circular fringe, say a minimum for which when d increases, 2d cos θ increases.
2𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 𝑝𝜆
But for a fringe of pth order it should remain constant. i.e.
1
2𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 or cos 𝜃 ∝
𝑑
So, when d increases, for the fringe of pth order cos θ decreases or θ increases.
In other words, as one of the mirrors is moved parallel to itself, the fringe pattern
appear to be expanding outwards and the central fringe becomes a maximum
and minimum alternatively.
Localized fringes
If the mirrors are perpendicular to each other, the air film trapped between the
mirrors will have same thickness every where and we get circular fringes.
However, if mirrors are inclined to each other at some angle, the air film
between M1 and M2 becomes wedge shaped and we get localized fringes of
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 8
equal thickness located between S1’ and S2’. When one of the mirrors is moved
these fringes move across the field of view.
The shape of the fringes observed for various values of inclination between the
mirrors are shown in fig.
The fringes are curved and are always
convex towards the thin edge of wedge.
Fringes are straight as shown in fig. (b), when
M2 actually intersects M1’ in the middle.
Order of central fringe
For the central fringe, θ = 0, and so if it is dark then:
2𝑑
2𝑑 = 𝑝λ or 𝑝= λ
The above equation shows that the order of central fringe is not zero, unless d=0. on
the other hand for the given interference pattern, the order of central fringe is
maximum. As θ increases, cos θ decreases, so order p decreases.
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 9
APPLICATIONS OF MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER
(i) Determination of wavelength of light
For central dark fringe, we have θ = 0, Therefore:
2𝑑
2𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 𝑝λ gives 2𝑑 = 𝑝λ or λ=
𝑝

So, the two mirrors are adjusted exactly perpendicular to each other and
circular fringes are obtained. One of the mirrors is moved parallel to itself and
the number (m) of fringes crossing the field of view is counted. Suppose the
distance between M1’ and M2 for the pth order central dark fringe be d1 and
that for (p+m)th order central dark fringe be d2, then:
2𝑑1 = 𝑝λ and 2𝑑2 = (𝑝 + 𝑚)λ
Subtracting: 2 𝑑2 − 𝑑1 = 𝑚λ
2 𝑑2 −𝑑1 2∆𝑑
or λ= = So, we can find wavelength.
𝑚 𝑚
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 10
(ii) Measurement of small difference in wavelength
Suppose source of light emits two wavelengths λ1 and λ2 such that λ1 ≈ λ2. i.e.
difference in wavelength is small. Two interference patterns are formed, which
are superimposed upon each other. Let at certain point maxima of two
patterns are superimposed. Intensity at that point will be maximum. Now we
change the distance between mirrors by moving one of the mirrors parallel to
itself. Two patterns will get out of step and intensity at observation point will
decrease. If we further go on moving the mirror, the intensity will again increase
and attains the initial value. This change from one state to other will occur when
the number (m1) of fringes of one wavelength say (λ1) crossing the field of view
is 1 more than that (m2) for (λ2). Now if change in separation of M1’ and M2 be
∆𝑑, Then:
2∆𝑑 2∆𝑑
𝑚1 = and 𝑚2 =
𝜆1 𝜆2

But 𝑚1 − 𝑚2 = 1
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 11
2∆𝑑 2∆𝑑
Therefore: − =1
𝜆1 𝜆2
1 1 1 𝜆2 −𝜆1 1
or − = or =
𝜆1 𝜆2 2∆𝑑 𝜆1 𝜆2 2∆𝑑

Since 𝜆2 ≈ 𝜆1 so 𝜆1 𝜆2 = 𝜆 2 (Where 𝜆 is mean wavelength)

𝜆2 𝜆2
or 𝜆2 − 𝜆1 = or Δ𝜆 =
2Δ𝑑 2Δ𝑑

(iii) Determination of refractive index of material or thickness of thin sheet

A thin sheet of thickness ‘t’ whose refractive index ‘n’ is to be measured is
placed in the path of light rays going towards mirror M1, then:
Optical path of sheet= 𝑛𝑡 − 𝑡 = 𝑛 − 1 𝑡
Increase in optical path towards mirror M1= 𝑛 − 1 𝑡
Increase in optical path after reflection from mirror M1= 𝑛 − 1 𝑡
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 12
So, total increase in optical path= 2 𝑛 − 1 𝑡
Net path difference produced by transparent sheet= 2 𝑛 − 1 𝑡
If (m) fringes cross the field of view, then:
2 𝑛 − 1 𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑚𝜆
or 𝑛= +1
2𝑡

From this relation, we can find refractive index of material of sheet, if its
thickness is known.
Or we can find thickness of sheet if its refractive index is known by using the
relation:
𝑚𝜆
𝑡=
2 𝑛−1
Fabry Perot Interferometer and Etalon 13
Principle: It is based on the principle of interference by multiple reflections.
Fabry Perot Interferometer and Etalon 14
Construction: It consists of two thick glass or quartz plates, placed parallel to
each other, so that a film of air is enclosed between them. This air film forms the
medium in which the multiple reflections occur. The inner surface of the plates
are coated with thin layer of silver or aluminium (about 50nm) to make it
partially reflecting. The outer surfaces of the plates are made very very slightly
inclined w.r.t. the inner surfaces, to avoid the spurious interference due to the
plates themselves acting as the medium for multiple reflections.
Working: The transmitted light is brought to focus on the screen with the help of
a lens. If the distance between the inner surfaces of plates be (d), then the
point P at which the light rays are focused, will be a maxima if:
2𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 𝑝𝜆
Where p=0,1,2,3,……..
FABRY PEROT INTERFEROMETER AND ETALON 15
The fringe pattern consists of alternate bright and dark circular rings with centre
on the optical axis (O). These are fringes of equal inclination called Haidinger
fringes.
In actual interferometer, one plate is kept fixed, while other plate is capable of
moving slowly with the help of slow motion screw. So, the thickness of air film
between the plates can be changed. The interference pattern obtained in
Fabry Perot interferometer is extremely sharp as compared to Michelson’s
interferometer. Hence it is very useful for resolving very small wavelength
differences.
Etalon: In the etalon two semi-silvered plates are mounted in a framework. Their
coated faces are kept in constant parallel position a fixed distance apart by a
fixed spacer, which is generally a hollow cylinder of invar or silica with three
FABRY PEROT INTERFEROMETER AND ETALON 16
Projecting stud at each end. The plates are kept in place slightly inclined by
using springs attached in proper way. Etalons with spacing of length ranging
from 1 to 200 mm are used in investigation of hyperfine structure of spectral
lines.
Distribution of intensity in Fabry Perot fringes
Let amplitude of incident wave = a
Reflection coefficient of surface = R
Transmission coefficient of medium = T
Transmission coefficient of incident wave in
passing from air to glass = t
Transmission coefficient of wave in passing
from glass to air = t’
FABRY PEROT INTERFEROMETER AND ETALON 17
Amplitudes of reflected beams after 1st , 2nd ,3rd , …. reflections will be atr, atr2
=atR, atr3 , atr4 =atR2…… respectively.
Amplitudes of transmitted waves after 1st , 2nd ,3rd , …. reflections will be att’=aT,
att’r2 =aTR, att’r4 = aTR2…… respectively.
Common phase difference between successive waves is:
2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋𝑑 cos 𝜃
𝛿= × 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (2𝑑 cos 𝜃) =
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

The transmitted waves re represented by: 𝑎𝑇𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 , 𝑎𝑇𝑅𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛿) , 𝑎𝑇𝑅2 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−2𝛿) , … … .
Where ω is angular frequency of incident beam.
The resultant amplitude of all the interfering beams is given by:
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑇𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎𝑇𝑅𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛿) + 𝑎𝑇𝑅2 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−2𝛿) + ⋯
or 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑇𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 (1 + 𝑅𝑒 −𝑖𝛿 + 𝑅2 𝑒 −𝑖2𝛿 + ⋯ )
FABRY PEROT INTERFEROMETER AND ETALON 18
1
But 1 + 𝑅𝑒 −𝑖𝛿 + 𝑅2 𝑒 −𝑖2𝛿 + ⋯ = , 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.
1−𝑅𝑒 −𝑖𝛿
𝑎𝑇𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑎𝑇𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
Therefore 𝑦 = and its complex conjugate 𝑦 ∗=
1−𝑅𝑒 −𝑖𝛿 1−𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝛿
𝑎𝑇𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑎𝑇𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
Thus resultant intensity: 𝐼 = 𝑦𝑦 ∗= .
1−𝑅𝑒 −𝑖𝛿 1−𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝛿
𝑎2 𝑇 2 𝑎2 𝑇 2
= =
1−𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝛿 −𝑅𝑒 −𝑖𝛿 +𝑅 2 1−𝑅(𝑒 𝑖𝛿 +𝑒 −𝑖𝛿 )+𝑅 2
𝑎2 𝑇 2 𝑎2 𝑇 2
= =
1−𝑅(cos 𝛿+𝑖 sin 𝛿+cos 𝛿−𝑖 sin 𝛿)+𝑅 2 1−2𝑅 cos 𝛿+𝑅 2
𝑎2 𝑇 2 𝑎2 𝑇 2
= 𝛿 = 𝛿
1+𝑅 2 −2𝑅(1−2 sin2 ) 1−𝑅 2 +4𝑅 sin2
2 2

𝑎2 𝑇 2
I= 4𝑅
…...(69)
1−𝑅 2 1+ sin2𝛿
(1−𝑅)2 2
FABRY PEROT INTERFEROMETER AND ETALON 19
𝛿
Intensity will be maximum when sin2 = 0
2
𝑎2 𝑇 2
Therefore maximum intensity, 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = …..(70)
(1−𝑅)2
𝛿
Intensity will be minimum when sin2 =1
2
𝑎2 𝑇 2 𝑎2 𝑇 2 𝑎2 𝑇 2
Therefore minimum intensity, 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = …..(71)
(1−𝑅)2 1+
4𝑅 (1−𝑅)2 +4𝑅 (1+𝑅)2
(1−𝑅)2

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 1+𝑅 2
Therefore: = …..(72)
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 1−𝑅

Using (70), equation (69) can be written as:

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
I= 4𝑅 𝛿
= 𝛿 …..(73)
1+ sin2 2 1+𝐹 sin2 2
(1−𝑅)2

4𝑅
Where 𝐹=
(1−𝑅)2
FABRY PEROT INTERFEROMETER AND ETALON 20
𝐼 1
From (73), = 𝛿 ….(74)
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹 sin2 2

𝐼
This equation shows that is controlled by (i) F which depends upon R only
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
and (ii) 𝛿 which depends upon separation between plates ‘d’ and the direction
of incidence θ.
𝐼
Graphs between and 𝛿 for various values of R=0.4, 0.6, 0.8 are shown in fig.
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼
From the graph, we find that fall of
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
is most sharp for R=0.8 and diminishes as
R decreases. Thus the visibility and
hence the resolution depends upon the
𝐼
rate of change or ratio with R
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
FABRY PEROT INTERFEROMETER AND ETALON 21
4𝑅
e.g. if R = 0.8, then: 𝐹= = 80
(1−𝑅)2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
Hence : I= 𝛿 = 𝛿
1+𝐹 sin2 1+80 sin2
2 2
𝛿 1
If sin2 =
2 80
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
Then: I= 1 = i.e. intensity falls to one half of the maximum.
1+80× 2
80
𝛿 1 𝛿
Now sin2 = or sin = (80)−1/2 or 𝛿 = 2 sin−1 (80)−1/2 = 2(𝑛𝜋 ± 0.112)
2 80 2

or 𝛿 = 2𝑛𝜋 ± 0.224
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
And for minima, we can write: 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4𝑅 = for R = 0.8
1+ 81
(1−𝑅)2

Hence a sharp change occurs from maxima to minima for greater value of R.
FABRY PEROT INTERFEROMETER AND ETALON 22
4𝑅
e.g. if R = 0.6, then: 𝐹= =15
(1−𝑅)2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
Hence : I= 𝛿 = 𝛿
1+𝐹 sin2 1+15 sin2
2 2
𝛿 1
If sin2 =
2 80
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
Then: I= 1 = i.e. intensity falls to 1/1.19=0.84 of the maximum.
1+15× 1.19
80
𝛿 1 𝛿
Now sin2 = or sin = (80)−1/2 or 𝛿 = 2 sin−1 (80)−1/2 = 2(𝑛𝜋 ± 0.112)
2 80 2

or 𝛿 = 2𝑛𝜋 ± 0.224
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
And for minima, we can write: 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = for R = 0.6
1+15 16

Hence a sharp change will not occurs from maxima to minima for greater value
of R.
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