Civil & Environment Engineering

Lab Manual
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Introduction: Surveying, use of chain, tape and arrow

2. Chain Survey to find the area of pentagon. (Sheet No.1)
3. Chain Survey: Open traverse offset survey.
4. Chain Survey: Close traverse. To draw plan of a building
block (Auditorium or any building) (Sheet No. 2)
5. Conventional Signs and Symbols. (Sheet No. 3)
6. Compass Survey: Introduction. To measure the bearing of a
line and calculate included angles using prismatic compass
7. Compass Survey: Close traverse using chain and compass.
(Sheet No.4)
8. Compass Survey: To determine distance between two
inaccessible points by using a compass and chain. (Sheet
No.5)
9. Levelling: Introduction, dumpy and tilting levels, reading a
staff, recording in level field book.
10. Levelling: To find reduced level of different points by fly
leveling using tilting and dumpy level.
11. Profile Levelling (Longitudinal Sectioning, Cross
sectioning) (Sheet No.6)
12. Study of minor instruments
 Experiment 1

AIM: - Introduction of surveying, use of chain, tape and arrow

Surveying :- “Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of various points or
stations on the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical distances , angles
, and taking the details of these points and by preparing a map or plan to any suitable scale”.

Principles of Survey:-
1. Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference.
2. Working from whole to part.

Methods of Surveying:
1. Plane Surveying: - Plane surveying is conducted by state agencies as well as private
agencies. As we know earth is spherical in shape but its diameter is big enough to
consider plane in small dimensions. It is that type of surveying in which the mean
surface of the earth is considered as a plane and the spheroidal shape is neglected. All
triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane triangles. The level line is
considered as straight and plumb lines are considered parallel. Plane surveying is done
of the area of survey is less than 250 km2.
2. Geodetic Surveying: - Geodetic survey is conducted by survey department of the
country. It is that type of surveying in which the curved shape of the earth is taken in to
account. The object of geodetic survey is to determine the precise position on the
surface of the earth, of a system of widely distant points which form control stations in
which surveys of less precision may be referred. . Line joining two points is considered
as curved line and angles are assumed as spherical angles. It is carried out if the area
exceeds over 250 km2.
Objective of Surveying: - The object of surveying is to prepare a map or plan to show
the relative positions of the objects on the surface of earth. The map or plan is drawn to
some suitable scale. It includes details of different engineering features such as
buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals etc.
Uses of Surveying:
1. To prepare a topographical map which shows hills, valleys, rivers, forests, villages,
towns etc.
2. To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots, houses and
other properties.
3. To prepare an engineering map which shows the position of engineering works such as
buildings, roads, railways, canals.
4. To prepare a contour map to know the topography of the area to find out the best
possible site for roads, railways, bridges, reservoirs, canals etc.
5. Surveying is also used to prepare military map, geological map, archaeological map etc.
Chain Survey: - Chain surveying is the basic and oldest type of surveying. The
principle involved in chain survey is of triangulation. The area to be surveyed is divided
into a number of small triangles. Angles of triangles must not be less than 30 degree
and greater than 120 degree. Equilateral triangles are considered to be ideal triangles.
No angular measurements are taken, tie line and check lines control accuracy of the
work. This method is suitable on level ground with little undulations and area to be
survey is small.
 Fig. 1 Chains

Types of Surveying Chains:

1. Metric Chain: - Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and 30m. Tallies are fixed at
every five-meter length and brass rings are provided at every meter length except where
tallies are attached.

Fig. 2 Metric Chain

2. Gunter’s chain: - Used for measuring distances in miles or furlongs (220 yards), acres
(Area).Length = 66’ (22 yards), No of links = 100, each link = 0.66’.
 Fig. 3 Gunter or Surveyor Chain

3. Engineer’s Chain: - Used in all Engineering Surveys. Length = 100’, No of links =

100, each link = 1’.

4. Revenue Chain: - Commonly used for measuring fields in cadastral Survey. Length
= 33’, No of links = 16.

Tapes: - Tapes are used for more accurate linear measurements in surveying and are classed
according to the material of which they are made.

Types of Tapes In Surveying:-

1. Cloth or Linen Tape: - Cloth tapes are made up of closely woven linen, 12 to 15 mm
wide. These tapes are varnished on outer surface so as to resist moisture. Cloth tapes
are light and flexible. Cloth tapes are used for taking rough measurements such as
offsets. Cloth tapes are available in lengths of 10, 20, 25, and 30 meters and in 33, 50,
66, 100 ft.

Fig. 4 Cloth or linen tape

2. Metallic Tape: - A metallic tape is made of varnished strip of water proof linen
interwoven with small brass, copper or bronze wires. Due to this tape does not stretch
easily as a cloth tape. Metallic tapes are light in weight and flexible and are not easily
broken. Metallic tapes are particularly useful in cross-sectioning and in some methods
of topographical surveys where small errors in length of the tape are not given
importance. Metallic tapes are manufactured in lengths of 2, 5, 10, 20, 30 and 50
meters. Tapes of lengths 10, 20, 30 & 50 meter are provided with a metal ring at outer
end. Metallic tapes are supplied in a metal or leather case fitted with a winding device.

3. Steel Tape: - A steel tape consists of a light strip of width 6 to 10 mm and is more
accurately graduated as compared to cloth and metal tape. Steel tapes are available in
lengths of 1, 2, 10, 20, 30 and 50 meters. The tapes of lengths 10, 20, 30 & 50 meters
are provided with a brass ring at outer end, fastened to it by a metal strip of the same
 width of the tape. The length of the tape is included in metal ring. Steel tapes vary in
quality and in accuracy of graduation, but even a poor steel tape is generally more useful
and accurate as compared to cloth or metallic tape. Steel tapes are wound on a corrosion
resisting metal case with winding device. Steel tape is a delicate and light weight
instrument hence it cannot withstand rough usage. Tape should be cleaned, dried and
oiled after use so that it does not get rusted.

4. Invar Tape: - Invar tapes are available in lengths of 20, 30 and 100 meters. Invar
tapes are used whey high degree of accuracy and precision in linear measurements is
required such as measurement of base lines. Invar tapes are made of alloys of nickel
and steel and have very low coefficient of thermal expansion. Invar tapes are more
expensive as compared to other tapes. Main disadvantage of this tape is that it’s length
and coefficient of thermal expansion is not constant. It keeps changing with time.
Therefore it is suggested to determine the length and coefficient of thermal expansion
time to time.
Arrows :- Land Chain Arrows, or known, as Survey Arrows are hardened galvanized steel
arrows in red and white with a 35mm red ringed top.
• Each arrow is 400mm long with a diameter of 4.5mm. Used in conjunction with Land
Chains for measuring in Land Surveying.
• Supplied in sets of 10 c/w a steel galvanized carry ring.

Procedure:
Unfolding of Chain
1) Remove the strap of the folded chain and take both the handles in the left hand and hold the
remaining portion of the chain in the right hand.
2) Holding both the handles in the left hand, throw the remaining portion o f the chain in the
forward direction on the ground.
3) Now the ‘follower’ stands at the starting station by holding one handle and directs the
‘leader’ to move forward by holding the other handle until the chain is fully stretched.

Reading the Chain

Chain can be read from both the ends. While taking the measurement, observe the tag
immediately before the point to be measured. Then count the number of links in the forward
direction up to the point of measurement.
Folding of Chain
1) Bring the two handles together on the ground by pulling the chain at the center.
2) Commencing from the center two pairs of links are taken at a time with the right hand and
placed alternatively in both directions in the left hand.
3) When the chain is completely folded the two brass handles will appear at the top.
4) Now tie the chain with leather strap.

Ranging
1) To range a long line AB whose length is more than the length of a chain or tape: fix ranging
rods at the end of the line AB, that is, ranging rods are placed at points A and B on the
ground.
2) The follower stands 2m behind the ranging rod at the starting point A.
3) The leader holds a ranging rod at arm’s length at C, approximately on the line AB.
4) The follower then directs the leader to move his ranging rods to the right or left as required
till all the three ranging rods are in one line.
5) The leader then fixes a rod or an arrow or a peg in the ground to establish the point ‘C’ in
line with AB.
6) Similarly, other points are established on the line AB.

Erecting a perpendicular line on a chain line

Cross-staff is a simplest instrument used to erect perpendicular lines/off-sets on a survey line.
1) Hold the cross-staff vertically on the chain line at a point where the perpendicular has to be
erected.
2) Turn it so that one line of sight passes through the ranging rods fixed at the end of the
survey line.
3) Looking through the other pair of slits fix the ranging pole at a required distance and mark
the point on the ground using either an arrow or a peg.

Comments/Inference
Write your opinion about the usefulness of each equipment and also their limitations.
 Experiment 2

AIM : Chain survey to find the area of pentagon.

Instrument Required: 1. Chain 20m - 1 No.
2. Arrows - 5 Nos.
3. Ranging rods - 3 Nos.
Procedure:
• Prepare the key plans for layout plots.
• Let A B C D E be the given field whose area is to be measured. Fix the arrows at A B
C D E.
• Measure the length of AB, BC, CD, DE, EA, AC, AD and a check line BC.
• Divide the given area into three traingles ABC, ACD and ADE by joining AD and AC.
• Calculate the area of traingles.
• The sum of the three traingles is the area of the given field.
Sketch : D

E E C

A B

Fig. 5 Traverse
Observation Table :
S LINES MEASUREMENT
No.
1. AB
2. BC
3. CD
4. DE
5. EA
6. AC
7. AD
8. CE

Calculation :

Where s is the semiperameter of traingle, that is –

‘s’ for traingle ABC =

Area of traingle ABC =
‘s’ for traingle AED =
Area of traingle AED =
‘s’ for traingle ACD =
Area of traingle ACD =
Area of pentagon = area of traingle ABC + area of traingle AED + area of traingle
ACD

Experimental check line = X m

Theortical check line = Y m
Error = X - Y
Result : The area of pentagon is ……. and error in measurement is ……
Precaution :
1. Ranging rod should be ranged accurately.
2. Before starting the chain survey the chain length must be checked whether it is
accurate or not.
3. While changing across survey line chain must be held tightly. Loose in chain is not
permitted.
 Experiment 3
AIM: Open traverse offset survey.
Instrument Required -
[Link]
[Link] Rod
[Link]
[Link] Shaft

1. Chain :- A surveying chain or simply a chain is commonly used for measurement of

distances where high accuracy is not required. The chain consists of links made of galvanized
mild steel wire of 4 mm diameter. Each end of the link is bent into a loop. These links are
connected in series by small connecting links. The connecting links consist of three rings. The
outer rings are of oval shape whereas the central ring is circle.
2. Ranging rods: - The process of fixing intermediate stations to maintain the direction during
a chaining work is known as ranging. Ranging rods are used to fix the respective intermediate
stations. They are made up the good quality, well-seasoned timber and are provided with an
iron shoe at the bottom. They can also be made of light steel tubes. They are usually of circular
cross-section with a diameter of about 30mm. They are available in two lengths namely, 2m
and 3m. They are divided into equal parts, each parts being 200mm long. These parts or bands
are alternatively painted red and white so that they can be easily identified from a distance, red,
white or black and white so that they can be easily identified from a distance. If the ranging rod
is placed at a considerable distance, red, white or yellow flags are put up at the top of the
ranging rod for better visibility.

3. Taps: - Tapes are used in surveying for measuring horizontal, vertical or slope distances.
4. Cross staff: - Cross staff is simple instrument used for setting out right angles.
Open cross staff – An open cross staff consists of two parts, namely head and leg. Head is
generally in the form of a wooden piece in the shape of cross. Each arm of the cross has a
sighting vane made of metal. Each of the sighting vanes is provided with a narrow vertical slit
in the center of which is stretched a fine vertical wire. The two wires opposite to each other
give a line of sight. Thus, there are two line to sight at right angles to each other. The instrument
is fixed at the top of a vertical pole having an iron shoe at its bottom.

Fig. 6 Open Cross staff

Traversing
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines form the
framework and directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of an
angle measuring instrument and a tape or chain respectively.
Types of Traverse -
Two types of traverse
• Open traverse
• Cl osed traverse

Open Traverse-

An open traverse origi nates at a point of known position and terminates at a point of
unknown position. In short ends elsewhere except starting point.

Method of traversing
There are four methods by which the direction of the survey li nes are determi ned are
as follow.
1. By the chain angle
2. By the free or loose needle method
3. By the fast needle method
4. By the measurement of angles between the successi ve li nes.

By the chain angle method/ chain traversing-

In this method , the enti re work is done wi th a chai n/tape only and the angle
between the successi ve lines is measured with the chain. Angles fixed by the
measurements are known as chai n angle.

Observations
1) We note distance between station A and B marked at the end of chain.
2) We note distances of all objects which are perpendicular to chain with the help
of cross staff.
3) We take distance measurement with the help of tape.

Procedure
(i) First we have mark two station (let point A and B) on given place.
(ii) After we marks substations every 20M distance use chain ranging method.
(iii) After this we takes offset from point A at every 5M distance up to point b and
we note perpendicular distance between offset and Objects like tree, building
etc. We have to take observation only stable or fixed things. We note all
distance in the survey field book.
Result:-
We calculate perpendicular distance of objects with the help of mentioned instruments and
draw neat and clean sketch of position of objects on the sheet.

Precaution:
The following points should be kept in view while booking the field notes.
(i) All the measurements should be recorded as soon as they are taken.

(ii) Each chain line should be recorded on a separate page of the field book.

(iii)Drawing and writing should be neat and legible. Overwriting of the figures should be
avoided complete.
(iv) Notes should be so full and neat that the draftsman who is unfamiliar with the area
surveyed may plot easily

(v) Neat reference sketches should be given in the field book, and explanatory notes should
be added.

(vi) The field book should be kept clean, and no entry should be made in it nor should it be
rubbed. If an entry is wrong, a line should be drawn through it, and the count entry is
made over it.
 Experiment 4

AIM: Close Traverse. To draw a plan of a building block.

Equipment: Chain, Tapes, Ranging Rods, Arrows, Cross Staff

Procedure:

1. Make a reconnaissance of the area and select a suitable framework (chain lines) and stations.
2. Measure all the chain (based) lines once in each direction using the direct measurement
method.
3. Measure the offsets/or ties from every necessary point on the details to the corresponding
base line.
4. You may need some measurements on the details (on the building sides…).
5. Measure the bearing of one of the chain lines by using the prismatic compass.
6. Record all the information and measurements properly in the surveying book. Make the
calculations and corrections.
7. Draw the details in a suitable scale to produce a detailed map of the area.

Note 1: Chain Lines & Stations Selection

To locate a suitable stations and chain lines, a reconnaissance of the area should be undertaken
by walking around the area required to be surveyed. Any obstacles should be noticed. The
selected stations should produce well-formed linked triangles or braced quadrilaterals.
The principles to be considered are:
1. Few long lines should be used.
2. Avoid any obstacles to ranging or chaining.
3. Angles should be > 30 & <120.
4. Make check lines when possible to detect errors when plotting.
5. The lines should be closed to the details (Avoid long offsets (>10m) and ties. After selection
of the framework you should draw sketch of the area and mark the stations by wooden pegs or
marker paints, and give a number for each station.
Note 2: Setting the Offset
Any point on the details can be related to the chain line by offset or ties: The pair of ties method
depends on taking the measurement of two distances from the point to be surveyed to a traverse
line (base line). The offset method is based on taking a perpendicular distance from the point
to the survey line (base line).
To set out offsets, a prism square can be used. To locate the point at which a perpendicular
from any point on the feature would meet the chain line (say AB) you can follow the following
steps:

• One man should hold the ranging pole at the given point, while the other pole is placed
at any point on the chain line AB.
• The observer holds the instrument and walk along the line AB until he sees both poles
coincide in each other. Then the distance to this point along the chain line can be
measured beside the length of the perpendicular.
Another method can be used by holding the zero point of the tape at the given point and
swinging tape over the chain line and mark the point on the chain line at minimum reading.
Note 3: Measuring the Bearing of a Line
To measure the angle that any line (say AB) makes with the magnetic direction, you can use a
prismatic compass. The procedure is as follow:
1. Place the ranging pole vertically at point B.
2. Place the prismatic compass over its tripod at point A and level it using the bubble and
screws.
3. Rotate the compass until it is directed to the pole and read the angle. 4. Repeat the whole
procedure for point B.
Note 4: Booking
The field book should be neat and consistent:
1. Each chain line is represented by double line drawn through the corner of the page.
2. Entries start at the bottom of the page.
3. Detail that is on the right-hand side of the line is booked on the right-hand side of the page
and vice versa.
4. The lengths from the beginning of the line are written inside the double lines while the offset
lengths outside.
Comments and Summary:
Minimize the personal error as much you can. Be attentive and serious while doing the survey.
If a mistake is undetected it produces a serious effect upon final result. Carefully handle all the
instruments.
 COMPASS SURVEY
INTRODUCTION

If two lines are required to be plotted in chain surveying, the third line to form the triangle must
also be measured. However, if the bearings of the two lines are known they can be plotted by
scaling the angle they make with a reference direction without the need for making further
linear measurements.
By setting up a compass at the intersection of the lines and by observing their magnetic bearings
their directions may be plotted. This process may be extended through successive lines,
forming a compass traverse, which enables a complete network of survey lines to be plotted
without the need for a base line or check [Link] the series of lines closes back on to the starting
point, the work may be checked because the plotted figure must also close back on to its starting
point.
Compass surveys are mainly used for rapid filling in of detail in larger surveys and for
exploratory work and not for accurate, large-scale plans. Compasses do not provide a very
accurate determination of the bearing of a line as the compass needle aligns itself to the earth’s
magnetic field, which does not provide a constant reference direction.

1) EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES:

The magnetic compasses used in surveying may be classified as:

▪ Prismatic compass
▪ Surveyor's compass
▪ Trough compass
▪ Tubular compass

The general principle on which the compasses work is same for all types of compass. If a long
and narrow magnetized iron or steel strip suspended on a pivot at its centre, is allowed to
oscillate freely about its vertical axis passing through the pivot, it will always tend to assume
a direction of the magnetic meridian at the place.
In our fieldwork exercises we will use the prismatic compass
Prismatic compass
It is the most suitable portable form of compass used for surveying. Main parts of a prismatic
compass are shown in figure given below.
 Fig.7 Prismatic compass
A prismatic compass consists of a circular box of about 100 mm diameter. A magnetic needle
is attached to a light circular aluminum ring balanced on a hard steel pointed pivot. The ring is
graduated to degree and half degree with 0° mark at the south end of the needle and 180° mark
at its north end. The graduations run clockwise, therefore, 90° mark is towards west and 270°
mark is towards east as shown in figure.

Fig.8 Section through prismatic compass

 Fig.9 Graduations in prismatic compass

The figures on the ring are written inverted. When these are read using a prism, they are erected
and magnified. The object vane carries a vertical hair attached to a suitable frame. Sight vane
or eye slit consists of a vertical slit cut into the upper assembly of the prism. The object vane
and sight vane are hinged to the box, diagonally opposite at the top.
To sight an object, the sight vane is rotated with respect to N-S ends of the ring through an
angle which the line makes with the magnetic meridian. The angle read is the whole-circle
bearing of the line at the compass station. Brake pin may be used to dampen the oscillations of
the needle by pressing it. The sun glasses provided at the eye vane may be used to sight the
bright objects. When the instrument is not in use, the object vane frame may be folded on the
glass lid. It automatically presses against a bent lever, which lifts the needle off the pivot and
holds it against the glass lid.
The other equipment and accessories used in this type of surveying are tripod stand, chain,
tape, ranging rods, pegs, plumb bob, hammer, field-book, pencils, eraser.

2) Terminology:
Bearing
Bearing of a line is its direction relative to a given meridian. A meridian in any direction such
as (1) True Meridian (2) Magnetic Meridian (3) Arbitrary Meridian

True Meridian
True meridian through a point i.e., the line in which a plane, passing that point and the north
and south poles, intersects with surface of the earth. It thus, passes through the true north and
south. The direction of true meridian through point can be established by astronomical
observations.

True Bearing
True bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with l the true meridian through
one of the extremities of the line. Since the direction of the meridian through a point remains
fixed, the true bearing of a line is a constant quantity.
Magnetic Meridian
Magnetic meridian through a point is the direction shown by a freely floating and balanced
magnetic needle free from all other attractive forces. The direction of magnetic meridian can
be established with the help of a magnetic compass.
Magnetic Bearing
The magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with the magnetic
meridian passing through one of the extremities of the line. A magnetic compass is used to
measure, it.
Arbitrary Meridian
Arbitrary meridian is any convenient direction towards a permanent and prominent mark or
signal, such as a church spire or top of a chimney. Such meridians are used to determine the
relative positions of lines in a small area.
Arbitrary Bearing
Arbitrary bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with any arbitrary meridian
passing through one of the extremities. A theodolite or sextant is used to measure it.

3) Temporary adjustments:
Temporary adjustments are those adjustments which have to be made at every set up of the
instrument. They comprise the following:
Centering
Centering is the process of keeping the instrument exactly over the station. Ordinary prismatic
compass is not provided with fine centering device as is generally fitted to engineer's
theodolite. The centering is invariably done by adjusting or manipulating the legs of the tripod.
A plumb-bob may be used to judge the centering and if it is not available, it may be judged by
dropping a pebble from the center of the bottom of the instrument.
Levelling
If the instrument is a hand instrument, it must be held in hand in such a way that graduated
disc is swinging freely and appears to be level as judged from the top edge of the case.
Generally, a tripod is provided with ball and socket arrangement with the help of which the
top of the box can be levelled.
Focusing the Prism
The prism attachment is slide up or down for focusing till the readings are seen to be sharp
and clear.

4) Errors in Compass Survey:

The error may be classified as:
a) Instrumental errors
b) Personal errors
c) Errors due to natural causes

Instrumental error
These errors arise due to the faulty adjustments of the instruments. They may be due to the
following reasons.
1) The needle not being perfectly straight.
2) Pivot being bent.
3) Sluggish needle.
4) Blunt pivot point.
5) Improper balancing weight
6) Plane of sight not being vertical

Personal errors
These errors arise due to the following reasons
1) Inaccurate Levelling of the compass box.
2) Inaccurate centring.
3) Inaccurate bisection of target.
4) Carelessness in reading and recording.

Natural errors
These errors arise due to the following reasons
1) Variation in declination.
2) Local attraction due to proximity of local attraction forces.
3) Magnetic changes in the atmosphere due to clouds and storms.
4) Irregular variations due to magnetic storms etc.

Precautions:

In every fieldwork exercise relevant precautions have to be taken to minimize the errors that
are mentioned in the previous paragraphs.

6) Applications

Compass surveys are mainly used for rapid filling in of detail in larger surveys and for
exploratory work. It is also used for tracing of streams and plotting irregular shore lines.
 Experiment 6

AIM: To measure the bearing of a line and calculate included angles using prismatic compass
Instruments: Prismatic compass, tripod and ranging rods.
Sketch:

A Back Bearing of OA C

Fore Bearing of OA B
O D

Fig. 10 Fore Bearing and Back Bearing

Procedure: The following station adjustments are to be done at each station where the compass
is set up.
1. Centering:
a. Centering is the process of keeping the prismatic compass over the station point.
b. By moving the legs of the tripod suitably, centering will be done.
c. Centering is checked by dropping a stone so that it falls on the top of the peg.
2. Levelling:
a. Leveling is the process of making the compass exactly horizontal.
b. Level the compass by means of ball and socket arrangements.
c. When the compass is leveled, the aluminum ring swings freely.
3. Focusing: To adjust the height of the prism so that the observations can be read clearly.
4. Observing Bearings:
a. Set up the prismatic compass over station ‘O’ and perform station adjustments.
b. Rotate the compass till the line of sight bisects the object at ‘A’.
c. Read the graduated ring through prism.
d. The reading directly gives the magnetic bearing of ‘OA’ in whole circle bearing system.
e. Follow the same procedure to observe the magnetic bearings ‘AB’ ‘BC’ also.
5. Tabular Form:
S. No. LINE LENGTH FORE BEARING BACK BEARING REMARKS
(FB) (BB)
1 OA
2 AB
3 BC
4 CD
 Experiment 7

AIM: To perform the Compass survey in Closed Traverse formed by series of connected
straight lines (traversing).
Instruments Required: Prismatic compass, tape, chain, arrows, and ranging rods.
Sketch :

Fig. 11 Closed Traverse

Field Applications:
This type of surveying is useful for ponds, etc.

Procedure:
Temporary/ Station Adjustments:
The following Temporary/ Station Adjustments are to be done at each station where the
compass is set up.
i. Centering
ii. Levelling
iii. Focusing

i. Centering: Normally, the compass is centered by dropping a piece of stone

from the bottom of the compass box. Centering may also be done with aid
of a plumb bob held centrally below the compass box.

ii. Levelling: Leveling is done with the help of a ball-and-socket arrangement

provided on the top of the tripod stand. This arrangement is loosened and
the box is placed in such a way that the graduated ring rotates freely
without touching either bottom of the box or glass cover on top.
 iii. Focusing: The prism is moved up and down till the figures on the graduated
ring are seen sharp and clear.

6. Observing Bearings:
• Set the instrument at the starting station ‘A’ and perform all the necessary
adjustments.
• Sight the next station ‘B’, take FB of line AB and measure the distance AB.
• Sight the object at ‘E’ and note down the BB of line EA.
• Locate the details by observing bearings or lengths or both from the traverse
stations wherever necessary.
• Shift the instrument to subsequent station ‘B’, perform all the temporary
adjustments. After fixing the instrument, sight the next station ‘C’ and observe
the reading which gives the fore bearing of BC and measure the distance BC. And
now, sight the previous station ‘A’ and observe the reading which gives the back
bearing of AB.
• Repeat the process at every station.
• It is to be noted that first and last stations have only fore bearing and back bearing
respectively.

Enter the readings in a tabular form.

Tabular form for closed traverse:

S. No. LINE LENGTH FORE BEARING BACK BEARING REMARKS

(FB) (BB)
1 AB
2 BC
3 CD
4 DE
5 EA

Check on closed traverse:

The difference between fore bearing and back bearing of each line should be 1800, if no
local attraction exists at either station.
Check on angular measurements:

i. The sum of the measured interior/included angles =

(2n-4) x 900 where N= Number of sides of the
traverse

ii. The sum of the measured exterior/external angles =

(2n+4) x 900 where N= Number of sides of the
traverse
 iii. The algebraic sum of the deflection angles should
be 3600.(Right hand deflection is considered +ve
and Left hand deflection is considered -ve)

Check on linear measurements:

i. The lines should be measured once on two different days (along
opposite directions). Both measurements should tally.

ii. Linear measurement should also take by Stadia method. The

measurements by chaining and stadia method should tally.
 Experiment 8

AIM: To find the horizontal distance between two inaccessible points.

Equipment and Accessories: Prismatic compass, chain, tape, ranging rods, pegs, plumb bob,
hammer, field-book, pencils, eraser.

Principle:
Prismatic compass is an instrument based on the principle that a freely suspended or pivoted
magnetic needle point in the direction of magnetic meridian. The bearings of lines are obtained
in the WCB system.

Procedure:
It is required find the distance between two points P and Q. Both P and Q are inaccessible.

1. Select two stations A and B on the ground such that line AB is nearly parallel to line PQ.

2. Measure the distance AB.

3. Centre the prismatic compass over station A and observe the bearings of lines AP, AQ and
AB and record them as θ1, θ2 and θ3 Thus angles α and β can be obtained.

4. Centre the prismatic compass over station B and observe the bearings of lines BA, BP and
BQ and record them as θ4, θ5 and θ6. Thus angles γ and δ can be obtained.

Fig.12 Distance between two inaccessible points – compass survey

Observations and Calculations:

1) α = θ2 - θ1 ; β = θ3 – θ2 ; γ = θ5 – θ4 ; δ = θ6 – θ5

AB

2) PB = Sin180 − ( +  +  ) * Sin (  +  )

AB

3) QB = Sin180 − ( +  +  ) * Sin 

2 2 1/2
4) PQ = (PB + QB – 2*PB*QB*Cos  )

Result:
Distance between inaccessible points PQ is ________
 Experiment 9
AIM: Introduction of levelling, dumpy and tilting levels, reading a staff, recording in
level field book.
Instrument required: Dumpy level, tilting level, staff
Introduction:
Levelling (or Leveling) is a branch of surveying, the object of which is: i) to find the elevations of
given points with respect to a given or assumed datum, and ii) to establish points at a given or
assumed datum. The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the second
operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Levelling deals with
measurements in a vertical plane.

Fig. 13 Leveling
Level surface: A level surface is defined as a curved surface which at each point is perpendicular
to the direction of gravity at the point. The surface of a still water is a truly level surface. Any
surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth is, therefore, a level surface.
Level line: A level line is a line lying in a level surface. It is, therefore, normal to the plumb line
at all points.
Horizontal plane: Horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to the level surface at that
point. It is, therefore, perpendicular to the plumb line through the point.
Horizontal line: It is a straight line tangential to the level line at a point. It is also perpendicular
to the plumb line.
Vertical line: It is a line normal to the level line at a point. It is commonly considered to be the
line defined by a plumb line.
Datum: Datum is any surface to which elevation are referred. The mean sea level affords a
convenient datum world over, and elevations are commonly given as so much above or below sea
level. It is often more convenient, however, to assume some other datum, specially, if only the
relative elevation of points are required.
 Elevation: The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its vertical distance above
or below an arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum. The difference in elevation between two
points is the vertical distance between the two level surfaces in which the two points lie.
Vertical angle: Vertical angle is an angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane.
Generally, one of these lines is horizontal.
Mean sea level: It is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides. At any particular place
it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights over a long period of 19 years.
Bench Mark: It is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with respect to some
assumed datum is kno

A. Dumpy Level:

The dumpy level originally designed by Gravatt, consists of a telescope tube firmly secured in two
collars fixed by adjusting screws to the stage carried by the vertical spindle. The modern form of
dumpy level has the telescope tube and the vertical spindle cast in one piece and a long bubble
tube is attached to the top of the telescope. This form is known as solid dumpy.

Fig. 14 Dumpy level

Components of Dumpy Level

The name “dumpy level” originated from the fact that formerly this level was equipped with an
inverting eye-piece and hence was shorter. However, modern forms of dumpy level generally have
erecting eye-piece so that inverted image of the staff is visible in the field of view. In some of the
instruments, a clamp screw is provided to control the movements of the spindle about the vertical
axis. For small or precise movement, a slow motion screw (or tangent screw) is also provided.
Some of the important parts of Dumpy Level are listed and described below:

1. Tripod Stand: The tripod consists of three legs which may be solid or framed. The legs
are made of light and hard wood. The lower ends of the legs are fitted with steel shoes.
2. Levelling head: The levelling head consists of two parallel triangular plates having three
grooves to support the foot screws.
3. Foot screws: Three foot screws are provided between the trivet and tribrach. By turning
the foot screws the tribrach can be raised or lowered to bring the bubble to the center of its
run.
4. Telescope: The telescope consists of two metal tubes, one moving within the other. It also
consists of an object glass and an eye-piece on opposite ends. A diaphragm is fixed with
the telescope just in front of the eye-piece. The diaphragm carries cross-hairs. The
telescope is focused by means of the focusing screw and may have either external focusing
In the external focusing telescope, the diaphragm is fixed to the outer tube and the objective
to the inner tube. By turning the focusing screw the distance between the objective and
diaphragm is altered to form a real image or the plane of cross hairs.
In the internal focusing telescope, the objective and eye-piece do not move when the
focusing screw is turned. Here, a double concave lens is fitted with rack and pinion
arrangement between the eye-piece and the objective. This lens moves to and fro when the
focusing screw is turned and a real image is formed on the plane of cross-hairs.

Fig. 14 Dumpy level (schematic)

 5. Bubble tubes: Two bubble tubes, one called the longitudinal bubble tube and other
the cross bubble tube, are placed at right angles to each other. These tubes contain spirit
bubble. The bubble is brought to the center with the help of foot screws. The bubble tube
are fixed on top of the telescope.
6. Compass: A compass is provided just below the telescope for taking the magnetic bearing
of a line when required. The compass is graduated in such a way that a ‘pointer’, which is
fixed to the body of compass, indicates a reading of 0 degree when the telescope is directed
along the north line. In some compasses, the pointer shows a reading of a few degrees when
the telescope is directed towards the north.

The advantages of dumpy level are:

1. Simpler construction with fewer movable parts.

2. Fewer adjustments to be made.
3. Longer life of the adjustments.

B. Tilting Level:
A surveying instrument with sighting telescope so mounted that it can be raised or lowered through a
limited arc without impairing accuracy of reading, though axis of rotation is not precisely horizontal. The
bubble tube is usually mounted alongside the telescope and is viewed from the eyepiece and through an
optical sighting arrangement, which either brings opposite halves of the bubble image into coincidence
or the end of the bubble to a reference line.

Working:
A variation on the dumpy and one that was often used by surveyors, where greater accuracy
and error checking was required, is a tilting level. This instrument allows the telescope to be
effectively flipped through 180°, without rotating the head. The telescope is hinged to one side
of the instrument's axis; flipping it involves lifting to the other side of the central axis (thereby
inverting the telescope). This action effectively cancels out any errors introduced by poor setup
procedure or errors in the instrument's adjustment.

Fig. 15 Tilting Level

C. LEVELLING STAFF:
A level staff, also called levelling rod, is a graduated wooden or aluminium rod, used with a levelling
instrument to determine the difference in height between points or heights of points above
a datum surface. It cannot be used without a leveling instrument.
• Reading levelling staff:
1. Taking the Back Sight (BS):
• The first measurement that you need to take is the BS. This will enable you to calculate
the height of the instrument/level (IH) from which all other levels are calculated.
• The person with the staff should place the bottom of the staff level on the BM or TBM,
keeping it as vertical as possible.
• The person at the Level rotates the telescope until the central line/cross hairs are lined up
with the staff; you may need to focus the eyepiece first to see the cross hairs then the telescope
focus to see the numbers on the staff; use the fine adjustment to be perfectly lined-up.
• When looking through the telescope, you take the reading where the central or stadia cross
hairs meet, to the nearest centimeter.

2. Calculating the instrument height (IH) (or height of the Level):

In order to calculate the height of the instrument (IH; ie the height of the Level Head
telescope) you add the value of the reading you have just taken to the known value of the BM
or TBM that you are using.

3. Taking Foresight (FS) readings and calculating reduced levels:

Begin taking height (level) readings of anything you want to illustrate on your site: top of
slope, bottom of slope, break of slope – to illustrate changes in height and create profiles.
Mark the location of your levels on the plan, starting at 1 or the next available number if
returning to a survey, and read off each height reading and record these in a separate notebook.
Make sure you write clearly and record the date, where the survey is, what the BM or TBM
is and the initials of the people undertaking the survey.

Fig. 16 Taking Reading

D. RECORD READINGS:

Fig. 17 Schematic of reading

Fig. 18 Sample reading

Procedure:
• Readings noted from the staff can be written in layout given below.
• After every time instrument place is changed, reading of previous staff is again taken as a
backsight (BS).
• Once you have taken all the levels you want, you will need to calculate the actual height
values, or reduced levels (RL) by subtracting each one from the instrument height (IH). This
gives you the 'real' height of the ground at the base of the staff