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C An-Najah National University
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M Force and pressure

E Pressure is defined as force per unit area or pressure is the amount of force
acting over a unit area, as indicated by:
C F Where:
P =
H A P = Pressure.
A F = Force.
T A = area.

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M Note that P will have units of lb/ft2 if F and A have units of lb and ft2,
respectively.
E Similarly, by changing the units of A from ft2 to in2, the units for P will become
C lb/in2.
For example: The pressure acting on the bottom of 1-ft3 container can be
H calculated as: Knowing that the total force acting at the bottom of the
A container equals the 62.4-lb weight of the water
è P = W/ A = 62.4 Ib/ 1 ft2 = 62.4 Ib/ ft2 = 62.4 psf
T è P = 62.4 Ib/ 144 in2 = 0.433 Ib/ in2 = 0.433 psi
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Pressure is transmitted equally undiminished in all directions

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M Head
From the definition of pressure, we can now conclude that, due to its weight, a
E 1-ft column of water develops at its base a pressure of 0.433 psi. The 1-ft height
C of water is commonly called a pressure head.
Example: Pressure developed by a 10-ft column of water.
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M Example: Pressure developed by 1- and 2-ft column of oil.

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M The relation between pressure (P) and head (H) is given by:
E P= r g H = g H
C Where:
H P ≡ Pressure at bottom of liquid column.
A r ≡ Mass density of liquid.
T g ≡ Acceleration of gravity.
R g ≡ Specific weight of liquid,
O H ≡ Liquid column height or head.
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M Atmospheric Pressure
The following Figure shows a column of air with a cross-sectional area of 1 in2 and as high
E as the atmosphere extends above Earth’s surface. This entire column of air weighs about
14.7 lb and thus produces a pressure of about 14.7 lb/in2 on Earth’s surface at sea level.
C This pressure is called atmospheric pressure and the value of 14.7 lb/in2 is called standard
atmosphere pressure because atmospheric pressure varies a small amount depending on the
H weather conditions which affect the density of the air.
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M Gauge (Gage) and Absolute Pressure

E Gage pressure: Measured relative to the atmosphere.
Absolute pressure: Measured relative to a perfect vacuum such as that
C existing in outer space.
H Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 psia = 0 psig
The terms suction or vacuum and the use of the minus sign mean that the
A pressure is below atmospheric pressure.
T Absolute Pressure = Gage Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure.
Pabs = Pgage + Patm
R Patm = 14.7 psi = 101400 Pa = 101.4 KPa = 1.014 bar
1 bar = 105 Pa = 14.5 psi
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M Difference between absolute and gage pressures.

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M Pascal’s Law
This law can be stated as follows: Pressure applied to a confined fluid is
E transmitted undiminished in all directions throughout the fluid and acts
C perpendicular to the surfaces in contact with the fluid.
Demonstration of Pascal’s Law
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M Pascal’s law can be applied to produce a useful amplified output force in a

simple hydraulic jack which is a device used for lifting large weights.
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C Force multiplication in a simple mechanical lever system.

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M Force multiplication in a simple hydraulic jack

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N Thus, a force multiplication occurs from the input to the output of the jack if
I the output piston area is greater than the input piston area. The force
multiplication ratio F2/ F1 equals the piston area ratio A2/A1.
C The output piston does not move as far as does the input piston. The ratio of
S the piston movements can be determined by assuming the oil to be
incompressible.
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M Work energy equals the product of force and the distance moved by the force.
Energy input to the hydraulic jack equals the energy output from the jack.
E This result occurs because the force-multiplication factor equals the motion-
C reduction factor. It should be noted that in a real hydraulic jack, friction
between the piston and cylindrical bore surface will produce frictional
H energy losses. This causes the actual output energy to be less than the input
A energy. This loss of energy should be taken into account, where the energy
equation is used to solve hydraulic system problems.
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conserved.
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Þ Force - amplification factor equals the motion – reduction factor.
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Questions
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