Unit 1: Antennas and Radiation Basics

1. What is an antenna? An antenna is a transducer that converts electrical signals

into electromagnetic waves (for transmission) and electromagnetic waves into
electrical signals (for reception). It operates by radiating the energy from a
transmitter or capturing energy from free space to send it to a receiver. The
efficiency of the antenna depends on its design, operating frequency, and
environment.
2. Types of antennas? Antennas come in many forms, each suited for specific
applications:
o Dipole Antenna: A simple two-wire structure, often used for radio and
communication applications.
o Monopole Antenna: Similar to a dipole but only one arm with a ground
plane.
o Yagi-Uda Antenna: A directional antenna with multiple elements for high-
gain applications like TV broadcasting.
o Parabolic Antenna: Often used for satellite communications, it focuses
waves to a point using a parabolic reflector.
3. What are antenna parameters? Key parameters include:
o Radiation Pattern: How power is distributed by the antenna in space.
o Directivity: The measure of how focused the radiated power is in a
particular direction.
o Gain: How well the antenna converts input power into radio waves in a
specific direction, compared to an isotropic antenna.
o Polarization: The orientation of the electromagnetic wave's electric field
(e.g., linear, circular).
4. What is a radiation sphere? The radiation sphere represents the space around
an antenna where the radiated electromagnetic waves propagate. In the far-field
region, energy radiates uniformly, creating a spherical wavefront.
5. What is a radiation pattern? The radiation pattern shows how the antenna
distributes power in space. It is a three-dimensional representation, but often
shown in two dimensions (azimuth and elevation) for simplicity. Patterns include
 omnidirectional, directional, and bi-directional depending on how the power
is distributed.
6. What is radiation resistance? Radiation resistance is the equivalent resistance
of an antenna that accounts for the power radiated into space. It transforms the
power supplied to the antenna into radiated electromagnetic energy.
7. What is radiation intensity? Radiation intensity is the power per unit solid angle
radiated by the antenna in a specific direction. It is a function of both the distance
from the antenna and the radiated power.
8. What is directivity? Directivity measures how focused the radiated power is in a
particular direction. It compares the radiation intensity in a specific direction to
the average radiation intensity.
9. What is antenna gain? Antenna gain combines the directivity and efficiency of
the antenna. It indicates how much of the input power is converted to radiated
energy in a particular direction, considering the losses.
10. What is path loss? Path loss refers to the reduction in power density of an
electromagnetic wave as it propagates through space. It occurs due to the
spreading of the wavefront, obstacles, and other environmental factors.
11. What is free space propagation? Free space propagation refers to the idealized
situation where electromagnetic waves travel in a vacuum or an unobstructed
medium. In this case, the only factor influencing the signal is the distance from the
source, following the inverse square law.
12. Examples of types of antennas?
o Yagi Antenna: Used for television reception.
o Parabolic Reflector Antenna: Commonly used in satellite
communication.
o Patch Antenna: Compact and widely used in mobile devices.
o Log-Periodic Antenna: Used in wideband applications like frequency
scanning.
13. Applications of antennas?
o Telecommunications: Mobile phones, radio, and TV broadcasting.
o Radar Systems: For detecting objects at a distance.
o Satellite Communications: Parabolic antennas for transmitting/receiving
signals from satellites.
14. What is HPBW? Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) is the angle within which the
radiation intensity falls to half of its maximum value. It describes the width of the
main lobe in the radiation pattern.
15. What is FNBW? First Null Beamwidth (FNBW) is the angular width between the
first nulls (zero points) on either side of the main lobe in the radiation pattern. It
defines the extent of the radiation lobes.
16. What is HPBW of half-wave dipole antenna? The HPBW of a half-wave dipole
antenna is approximately 78 degrees in free space. This indicates the width of the
main lobe.
17. What are major and minor lobes? The major lobe is the region of the radiation
pattern where the majority of the power is radiated. Minor lobes are smaller
lobes where less power is radiated, usually in undesired directions.
18. What is an isotropic antenna? An isotropic antenna is a hypothetical antenna
that radiates power uniformly in all directions. It is often used as a reference to
compare real antennas.
19. What type of radiation pattern does an isotropic antenna, half-wave dipole
have?
o Isotropic Antenna: Spherical radiation pattern.
o Half-Wave Dipole: A doughnut-shaped pattern with nulls along the axis of
the antenna.
20. What is the near-field and far-field region?
o Near Field: The region close to the antenna where the electric and
magnetic fields do not yet form radiating waves.
o Far Field: The region where the fields form radiating waves, and the power
decreases as the inverse square of the distance.
21. Compare near and far-field regions. In the near field, the fields are reactive,
meaning they do not radiate power into free space. In the far field, the fields
propagate as electromagnetic waves, with a well-defined relationship between
electric and magnetic fields.
22. What is polarization? Polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field of
an electromagnetic wave. It can be:
o Linear: The electric field is in a single plane.
o Circular: The electric field rotates in a circular motion.
 o Elliptical: A generalized form where the field rotates in an ellipse.
23. Explain circular, elliptical, and linear polarization.
o Linear: The electric field maintains a single orientation, either horizontal
or vertical.
o Circular: The electric field rotates at a constant rate in a circular motion.
o Elliptical: A more general case where the electric field traces an elliptical
path.
24. What are types of wire antennas?
o Dipole Antenna: Simple wire antenna with two conductive elements.
o Monopole Antenna: A single wire over a ground plane.
o Loop Antenna: A wire loop, either circular or square, used for low-
frequency applications.
25. What are the lengths of respective antennas? The length of a dipole antenna is
typically half the wavelength of the signal it is designed to transmit/receive. For
other wire antennas, the length varies based on the design and operating
frequency.
26. State the pattern multiplication rule. The pattern multiplication rule states
that the total radiation pattern of an array of antennas is the product of the
individual element pattern and the array factor. This helps design antenna arrays
with specific directional properties.
27. What are antenna arrays? Antenna arrays consist of multiple antennas
working together to produce a directional radiation pattern. By controlling the
spacing and phase between elements, the array can focus energy in a desired
direction, increasing gain and directivity.

Unit 2: Transmission Lines and Waveguides

1. Compare transmission line with waveguide

o Transmission Line: Conducts signals via electrical currents (e.g., coaxial
cable). Efficient for lower frequencies but suffers from skin effect and
ohmic losses at microwave frequencies.
 o Waveguide: Hollow metallic tubes that guide electromagnetic waves. At
microwave frequencies, waveguides minimize power loss and eliminate
radiation leakage, making them superior for high-frequency applications.
2. What is a waveguide? A waveguide is a structure that directs electromagnetic
waves, typically used at microwave frequencies. The wave is confined within the
hollow tube, ensuring minimal loss and interference compared to other
transmission media.
3. What are TEM, TE, TM modes?
o TEM (Transverse Electromagnetic Mode): Both electric and magnetic
fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Not supported by
hollow waveguides.
o TE (Transverse Electric Mode): The electric field is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation, while the magnetic field has a component in the
direction of travel.
o TM (Transverse Magnetic Mode): The magnetic field is perpendicular,
and the electric field has a longitudinal component.
4. What are the limitations of transmission lines? At microwave frequencies,
transmission lines suffer from high losses, radiation leakage, and signal
distortion due to the skin effect and capacitive/inductive parasitics. Waveguides
are preferred for reducing these issues.
5. What is intrinsic impedance? Intrinsic impedance is the ratio of the electric field
to the magnetic field in a wave propagating through a medium. It determines how
the wave will propagate through materials and is crucial in impedance matching.
6. What are microwave frequency bands?
o L Band: 1-2 GHz
o S Band: 2-4 GHz
o C Band: 4-8 GHz
o X Band: 8-12 GHz
o Ku, K, Ka Bands: Used for satellite communications and radar systems.
7. What are the properties of microwave signals?
o High Frequency: Range from 1 GHz to 100 GHz.
o Line of Sight Propagation: Limited by obstacles and curvature of the
Earth.
 o Small Wavelength: Enables the design of smaller antennas and circuits.
o High Bandwidth: Supports a large amount of data transfer.
8. What are applications of microwave signals?
o Satellite Communication
o Radar Systems
o Medical Treatments (e.g., diathermy)
o Industrial Heating
o Microwave Ovens
9. What is cut-off frequency? The cut-off frequency is the lowest frequency at
which a wave can propagate in a waveguide. Below this frequency, the wave
becomes evanescent and does not propagate.
10. What is cut-off wavelength? The cut-off wavelength is the wavelength
corresponding to the cut-off frequency. It defines the maximum wavelength that
can be supported in a waveguide.
11. What is guide wavelength? The guide wavelength is the distance over which
the wave in a waveguide repeats itself. It is typically longer than the wavelength
in free space for the same frequency due to the boundary conditions imposed by
the waveguide.
12. What must be the value of beta for propagation of wave inside the
waveguide? For propagation, the phase constant (β) must be real. If β becomes
imaginary, the wave decays exponentially and does not propagate.
13. What is wave velocity? Phase velocity?
o Wave Velocity: The speed at which the wave propagates through space.
o Phase Velocity: The rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in a
medium. It can exceed the speed of light in certain media without violating
relativity.
14. What are losses in waveguide?
o Conductor Loss: Due to finite conductivity of the waveguide walls.
o Dielectric Loss: Occurs if the waveguide contains any dielectric material.
o Radiation Loss: Due to imperfections or discontinuities.
15. What are types of stripline?
o Single Stripline
o Double Stripline
 o Suspended Stripline Striplines are transmission lines used for
RF/microwave circuits, offering low radiation loss.
16. What is a cavity resonator? A cavity resonator is a hollow metallic enclosure
that traps electromagnetic waves. Resonators are used in filters, oscillators, and
amplifiers in microwave systems.

Unit 3: Scattering Parameters and Passive Components

1. What are S-parameters? Scattering parameters (S-parameters) are used to

describe how RF signals behave in a microwave network, detailing how much
power is transmitted or reflected at each port.
2. Properties of S-parameters?
o Reciprocity: Sij = Sji for reciprocal networks.
o Symmetry: S-parameters can be symmetrical for some networks.
o Power Conservation: Total power at any port equals the sum of the
transmitted and reflected powers.
3. S-matrix for microwave junctions The S-matrix describes how incident waves
are transformed into reflected and transmitted waves at each port of a junction.
4. What are passive components? Passive components, like resistors, capacitors,
inductors, tees, and couplers, do not generate power but are used to guide and
modify signals in microwave circuits.
5. What are tees? Tees are waveguide components that split or combine microwave
signals:
o E-plane Tee: Splits the signal into two equal parts.
o H-plane Tee: Adds or subtracts signals in a specific plane.
6. Explain properties of various tees
o E-plane Tee: Works on electric field components and provides signal
isolation.
o H-plane Tee: Works on magnetic field components, adding signals in a
coherent manner.
o Magic Tee: Combines both E and H-plane functionalities, used in balanced
mixers and modulators.
 7. Applications of magic tee The magic tee is used in hybrid couplers, radar
systems, and signal processing for its ability to split and combine signals while
maintaining phase relationships.

Unit 4: Active Microwave Components

1. What are active components? Active components generate or amplify

microwave signals, including:
o Klystrons
o Magnetrons
o Travelling Wave Tubes (TWTs)
2. List various microwave tubes.
o Klystron
o Magnetron
o TWT
o Reflex Klystron
o Crossfield Amplifiers
3. What are the limitations of conventional tubes? At high frequencies,
conventional tubes suffer from:
o Short Transit Time: Limits power output and efficiency.
o Electromagnetic Interference
o Reduced Gain
4. What are microwave oscillators and amplifiers?
o Oscillators: Generate microwave frequencies (e.g., Reflex Klystron, Gunn
Diode).
o Amplifiers: Amplify weak signals (e.g., TWT, Klystron).
5. Give examples.
o Reflex Klystron: Used in radar systems for frequency generation.
o TWT: Used in satellite communication for high-power amplification.
6. What are the advantages of TWT? TWTs provide wide bandwidth, high power
amplification, and linearity, making them ideal for satellite communication and
radar.
 7. What is phase focusing? Phase focusing is used in microwave tubes to keep
electron beams tightly focused by synchronizing the phase of the RF field with the
electron motion. This increases the efficiency of energy transfer from the electrons
to the RF field. It’s essential in devices like the klystron to maximize output power
by ensuring that all electrons contribute to amplification coherently.
8. What is a crossfield device? A crossfield device is a microwave vacuum tube,
like the magnetron, where the electric and magnetic fields are oriented
perpendicular (crossed) to each other. This crossfield arrangement forces
electrons to move in circular paths, helping them to interact efficiently with the
RF field, making these devices highly efficient for producing microwave power.
9. What is the difference between reflex klystron and magnetron?
o Reflex Klystron: A low-power, high-frequency microwave oscillator used for
signal generation and frequency modulation. Electrons are reflected by a repeller
to interact with a single cavity resonator.
o Magnetron: A high-power microwave oscillator used in radar and microwave
ovens. It has multiple resonant cavities and uses a strong magnetic field to induce
circular electron motion for efficient microwave generation.

Unit 5: Microwave Semiconductor Devices

1. What is a negative resistance device? A negative resistance device exhibits a

region in its current-voltage characteristic where an increase in voltage leads to a
decrease in current. This phenomenon is used for microwave oscillation in
devices like the Gunn diode. These devices are essential for generating stable
microwave frequencies.
2. Which microwave semiconductor diodes are negative resistance devices?
o Gunn Diode: Used in oscillators for generating microwave frequencies.
o Tunnel Diode: Known for its negative differential resistance, useful in high-
frequency oscillators and amplifiers.
3. What is a special feature of Tunnel diode, SBD, and PIN diode?
o Tunnel Diode: Exhibits negative resistance due to quantum tunneling.
o Schottky Barrier Diode (SBD): Has a very fast switching time, used in
microwave detectors and mixers.
 o PIN Diode: Functions as a fast switch or attenuator in RF and microwave circuits,
owing to its large intrinsic region between p and n layers.
4. What are the characteristics of the Gunn diode, Tunnel diode, SBD?
o Gunn Diode: Exhibits negative resistance and is used in oscillators and
amplifiers.
o Tunnel Diode: Exhibits negative differential resistance and is used in high-
speed switching and microwave amplification.
o SBD (Schottky Diode): Known for its low forward voltage drop and fast
response, used in mixers and detectors.
5. Applications of these diodes?
o Gunn Diode: Used in microwave oscillators for radar and communication
systems.
o Tunnel Diode: Used in high-frequency oscillators, amplifiers, and as high-speed
switches.
o SBD: Commonly used in microwave mixers, detectors, and RF switching.
6. Which diodes are used for generating microwave signals? Gunn diodes and
Tunnel diodes are widely used in microwave oscillators. Gunn diodes are
particularly effective for generating stable microwave frequencies.

Unit 6: Microwave Measurements and Applications

1. What is microwave measurement? Microwave measurement involves

techniques to quantify parameters such as power, attenuation, impedance, S-
parameters, and frequency of microwave signals. It requires specialized
equipment like network analyzers, power meters, and wavemeters due to the
high-frequency nature of microwave signals.
2. What is a RADAR system? RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) is a system
that uses microwave signals to detect objects and measure their distance, speed,
and size. It works by sending out microwave pulses and analyzing the reflected
signals.
3. Explain satellite communication. Satellite communication involves the
transmission of microwave signals between a ground station and a satellite.
Microwaves are ideal for long-distance communication due to their ability to
 penetrate the atmosphere. Satellites relay signals for TV broadcasting, internet,
and telecommunication across the globe.
4. What are the parameters measured in microwave labs? Common parameters
include:
o Power: Measured using power meters and bolometers.
o Attenuation: Using attenuators and network analyzers.
o Impedance: Measured using impedance bridges or vector network analyzers
(VNA).
o Frequency: Using wavemeters.
5. What is the use of a wavemeter? A wavemeter is used to measure the
wavelength (or frequency) of microwave signals accurately. It consists of a tunable
cavity resonator, where the resonance frequency gives the signal's wavelength.
6. What is the use of a slotted line section? A slotted line section is used in
microwave labs to measure the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) and
impedance of a transmission line. The slotted line allows precise measurement of
the standing wave pattern created by the incident and reflected waves.
7. What are the applications of microwave signals in medicine? Microwaves are
used in microwave diathermy to provide deep tissue heating for therapeutic
purposes. Microwaves can also be used for tumor ablation in cancer treatments
and for diagnostics in microwave imaging.
8. What is microwave diathermy? Microwave diathermy is a therapeutic
technique that uses microwaves to heat body tissues. It improves blood
circulation, reduces inflammation, and relaxes muscles, making it useful in
physical therapy.
9. Why is a microwave signal harmful? Microwave signals can be harmful at high
power levels due to their ability to cause tissue heating (thermal effects).
Prolonged or intense exposure can lead to burns and other biological effects, such
as tissue damage.
10. What hazards are caused by microwave signals?

• Thermal Effects: Prolonged exposure to microwaves can cause tissue heating, leading to
burns.
• Non-Thermal Effects: These include potential long-term biological effects, like changes
in cell structure, although these are still under study.
 11. What is SAR? Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) measures the rate at which the
human body absorbs microwave energy. It is a critical safety standard to prevent
harmful exposure from devices like mobile phones and microwave ovens.
12. What is a bolometer? A bolometer is a sensitive instrument used to measure the
power of microwave signals. It works by detecting the temperature change caused
by the absorption of microwaves.
13. What is a barretter? A barretter is a type of thermal detector used to measure
microwave power by detecting temperature changes in a thin wire or film when
microwaves are absorbed.
14. What are methods to measure power, attenuation, and impedance?

• Power Measurement: Using power meters, bolometers, and barretters.

• Attenuation Measurement: Using attenuators and VSWR meters.
• Impedance Measurement: Using impedance bridges or vector network analyzers
(VNA).

Experiment-Based Questions (RMT Oral Questions File)

Now let’s continue with the detailed explanations for the experiment-specific questions
from the RMT Oral Questions file.

Experiment 1: Microwave Components

1. Types of microwave components? Microwave components include:

o Tees (E-plane, H-plane, Magic Tees): For splitting or combining microwave
signals.
o Directional Couplers: For measuring power levels without disturbing the signal
path.
o Attenuators: Reduce signal strength without distorting the signal.
o Isolators: Allow unidirectional flow of microwave energy.
o Circulators: Route signals from one port to another in a circular pattern.
2. What is an E-plane tee? An E-plane tee is a type of waveguide tee junction where
the electric field is split between the output arms. It is used to divide or combine
signals in the electric plane of a waveguide system.
 3. What is an EH-plane tee? An EH-plane tee (also known as a magic tee) combines
both E-plane and H-plane functionalities, providing a unique phase relationship
between its ports, making it ideal for hybrid couplers and balanced mixers.
4. What is an H-plane tee? An H-plane tee is a junction in which the signal is
divided between two arms based on the magnetic field (H-field) of the wave. It’s
used to sum or split signals with minimal loss.
5. What is a directional coupler? A directional coupler is a four-port waveguide
component that allows a small portion of the power traveling in one direction to
be coupled to a port for measurement, without interrupting the main signal path.
6. What material is an attenuator made of? Attenuators are typically made from
materials with high resistivity, such as carbon film or nickel-chromium alloy,
designed to dissipate power without reflection, thus reducing the signal strength.

Experiment 2: Antenna Gain and Microwave Antennas

1. What is the formula for gain of an antenna? The gain of an antenna is given by:

G=4πAeλ2G = \frac{4\pi A_e}{\lambda^2}G=λ24πAe

Where:

o G = Gain of the antenna.

o A_e = Effective aperture of the antenna.
o λ = Wavelength of the signal. The gain quantifies how effectively the
antenna directs energy in a particular direction compared to an isotropic
radiator.
2. Which antenna is widely used for microwaves? The parabolic dish antenna
is most commonly used for microwave applications because of its high gain and
narrow beamwidth, making it ideal for satellite communication, radar, and
point-to-point links.
3. What is the aperture number? The aperture number is related to the effective
area of the antenna, which determines its ability to collect electromagnetic waves.
The aperture defines the area over which incoming electromagnetic waves are
collected, and it is a critical parameter for high-gain antennas.
 4. What is meant by RLB? RLB stands for Return Loss Bandwidth, which
measures the range of frequencies over which the antenna or device has good
impedance matching, minimizing reflections. A high RLB indicates better
matching, leading to reduced signal reflection and losses.
5. What is an ANT connector? An ANT connector refers to the physical interface
used to connect antennas to transmission lines. Common connectors include SMA,
N-type, and BNC connectors, each designed to handle specific frequencies and
power levels.

Experiment 3: Klystrons

1. What is a reflex klystron? A reflex klystron is a microwave oscillator where the

electron beam is reflected back toward the input cavity using a repeller
electrode. This reflection causes the electrons to interact with the RF fields in the
cavity, generating oscillations. Reflex klystrons are often used in radar and low-
power microwave systems.
2. Application of reflex klystron? Reflex klystrons are used in:
o Radar systems: As microwave frequency sources.
o Test and measurement equipment: For signal generation.
o Local oscillators: In superheterodyne receivers.
3. What is klystron used for? Klystrons are used as high-power amplifiers in radar,
satellite communication, and particle accelerators. They efficiently convert DC
power into microwave energy by modulating an electron beam.
4. What are the characteristics of a klystron?
o High gain: Amplifies weak signals to high power.
o Narrow bandwidth: Operates effectively over a specific frequency range.
o Efficiency: Converts input power into microwave energy with minimal
loss.
5. Which are the two basic klystron tubes?
o Two-cavity klystron: Used as an amplifier.
o Reflex klystron: Used as an oscillator for generating microwave
frequencies.
Experiment 4: Gunn Diode

1. Explain the operating modes of a Gunn diode. The Gunn diode operates using
the Gunn effect, where it exhibits negative differential resistance due to electron
movement in a semiconductor. Operating modes include:
o Transit Time Mode: The most common mode where electron velocity
creates microwave oscillations.
o Quenched Mode: The diode is pulsed to control oscillations.
o Delayed Mode: The oscillation is delayed by adjusting the diode's bias.
2. Application of Gunn diode? Gunn diodes are used in:
o Microwave oscillators: For radar and communication systems.
o Frequency generators: In test and measurement equipment.
3. Specifications of PIN diode?
o High power handling capacity: Can control large RF signals.
o Fast switching speed: Used in RF switches and modulators.
o Low capacitance: Suitable for high-frequency applications.
4. Block diagram of Gunn diode oscillator? The block diagram of a Gunn diode
oscillator typically includes:
o A DC power supply.
o A Gunn diode placed in a resonant cavity.
o A matching network to ensure efficient power transfer.
5. Draw waveform of Gunn diode modes (Transit time mode, Quenched mode,
Delayed mode). In Transit time mode, the oscillations are continuous and follow
a sinusoidal pattern. In Quenched mode, the oscillations are pulsed, appearing as
discrete bursts. Delayed mode introduces a delay in the onset of oscillations, so
the waveform shows a time lag before oscillations start.

Experiment 5: E-H Plane Tees

 1. What is the primary function of an E-plane tee in microwave engineering?
The E-plane tee splits or combines microwave signals with respect to the electric
field plane. It is commonly used to feed signals into antennas or combine signals
from different sources.
2. How does an E-plane tee differ from an H-plane tee in terms of operation?
o E-plane Tee: Signals are split or combined along the electric field axis.
o H-plane Tee: Signals are manipulated along the magnetic field axis,
resulting in different phase characteristics.
3. Explain the concept of isolation in the context of an E-H plane tee? Isolation
in an E-H plane (magic) tee refers to the property that prevents interference
between certain ports. For example, in a magic tee, port 1 is isolated from port 2,
meaning signals entering port 1 do not appear at port 2, thus ensuring clean signal
processing.
4. In what situations would you choose to use an E-H plane tee over a
conventional E-plane or H-plane tee? An E-H plane tee is used when you need
both phase coherence and isolation between ports. It is ideal for hybrid couplers,
where combining or splitting signals with minimal interference is crucial, such as
in balanced mixers or duplexers.
5. Describe the principle behind the operation of an H-plane tee? The H-plane
tee operates by splitting or combining signals along the magnetic field plane.
When signals enter the tee, they are divided into two output arms in phase or
combined constructively, depending on the port configuration.

Experiment 6: Directional Couplers

1. What is the coupling factor for a directional coupler? The coupling factor of
a directional coupler indicates how much of the input power is coupled to the
coupled port. It is defined as the ratio of power input to power coupled, typically
measured in decibels (dB).
2. Define the directivity for a directional coupler. Directivity measures the
coupler's ability to distinguish between forward and reverse signals. High
 directivity ensures that most of the signal is coupled in one direction, with minimal
power leaking into the reverse path.
3. Define the isolation for a directional coupler. Isolation refers to the level of
signal separation between the input and isolated ports. High isolation ensures
minimal leakage of the input signal into the isolated port, preserving the integrity
of the signal at the output.
4. Types of directional couplers?
o Single hole coupler: Used for monitoring signals with minimal signal loss.
o Multi-hole coupler: Offers wider bandwidth by utilizing multiple coupling
holes.
o Hybrid coupler: Combines signals with equal amplitude but a 90-degree
phase shift.
5. Properties of an ideal directional coupler?
o High directivity: Ensures minimal signal leakage in the reverse direction.
o Flat coupling response: Across a wide frequency range.
o Low insertion loss: Ensures that the mainline signal is minimally affected.

Experiment 7: Isolators and Circulators

1. What is insertion loss? Insertion loss is the amount of signal power lost when a
device (such as an isolator or circulator) is inserted into a transmission line. Lower
insertion loss indicates better performance, as less signal power is lost.
2. Differentiate between a circulator and an isolator.
o Circulator: A multi-port device that routes signals in a specific direction
from port to port (e.g., from port 1 to port 2, port 2 to port 3).
o Isolator: A two-port device that allows signals to pass in one direction
only, blocking signals in the reverse direction to prevent interference.
3. How does a circulator route RF energy through its ports? In a circulator, RF
energy is routed from one port to the next in a specific circular sequence. For
example, a signal entering port 1 is directed to port 2, port 2 to port 3, and so on.
It relies on magnetic materials to control the direction of the energy flow.
 4. What analogy is used to describe the behavior of RF energy in a circulator?
A circulator is often compared to a rotary switch, where energy enters one port
and is automatically routed to the next port in sequence, ensuring unidirectional
flow between ports.
5. How is insertion loss defined in the context of isolators & circulators? In
isolators and circulators, insertion loss refers to the power loss experienced as
the signal passes through the device. Low insertion loss is desirable, as it means
that most of the signal power is preserved.
6. What is the significance of VSWR in determining isolation level in an
isolator? Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) indicates how well the
impedance is matched in a transmission line. A lower VSWR (closer to 1:1)
indicates better matching, which improves the isolation of the device by
minimizing signal reflections.

Experiment 8: Reflex Klystron

1. What is a reflex klystron? A reflex klystron is a microwave tube oscillator that

generates microwave frequencies by utilizing an electron beam that is reflected
by a repeller electrode. The electrons interact with the electric fields in a
resonant cavity, which causes them to bunch and produce oscillations. Reflex
klystrons are commonly used in low-power radar and communication systems
for signal generation.
2. What are the main components of a reflex klystron?
o Electron Gun: Emits electrons in a beam.
o Cavity Resonator: The electron beam interacts with the RF field here,
generating oscillations.
o Repeller Electrode: Reflects the electrons back toward the cavity after
interaction with the RF field.
o Output Circuit: Extracts the generated microwave energy.
3. What is the distance between the two successive minima of the voltage
standing wave pattern? The distance between two successive minima in a
standing wave pattern is half the wavelength (λ/2) of the signal being
 measured. This occurs due to the constructive and destructive interference of the
incident and reflected waves in the transmission line.
4. What is the relation between repeller voltage and time taken by electrons?
The repeller voltage controls the time it takes for electrons to return to the cavity
after being reflected. A higher repeller voltage increases the reflection force,
decreasing the time spent by electrons in the cavity, while a lower voltage results
in longer transit time. The electron’s interaction with the RF field is critical in
determining the operating frequency of the klystron.
5. Application of reflex klystron? Reflex klystrons are used in:
o Low-power radar: As local oscillators to generate stable microwave
signals.
o Microwave signal generators: For test equipment.
o Superheterodyne receivers: As a local oscillator to generate intermediate
frequency (IF) signals.

Experiment 9: Transmission Lines

1. What are transmission lines? Transmission lines are specialized structures

used to transport electromagnetic signals from one point to another. Common
examples include coaxial cables, twisted pairs, and waveguides. They ensure
minimal loss and distortion of signals, especially at high frequencies like those
used in RF and microwave systems.
2. What are the properties of transmission lines? Key properties include:
o Characteristic Impedance (Z₀): The inherent impedance of the line,
typically 50Ω or 75Ω, which determines signal matching.
o Attenuation: The loss of signal power as it travels along the line.
o Capacitance and Inductance: Per-unit length values that affect the signal
propagation speed and phase.
o Velocity Factor: The ratio of signal speed in the transmission line to the
speed of light in vacuum.
3. Why are practical transmission lines arranged in some uniform pattern?
Transmission lines are designed in uniform patterns (e.g., parallel conductors or
 coaxial design) to maintain consistent characteristic impedance and minimize
signal reflections, losses, and distortion over long distances.
4. What are stationary waves? Stationary waves (standing waves) occur when an
incident wave interferes with a reflected wave, forming points of zero amplitude
(nodes) and points of maximum amplitude (antinodes). They are common in
mismatched transmission lines where signal reflections occur.
5. How are stationary waves different from traveling waves?
o Stationary Waves: The wave amplitude varies with position but remains
constant in time, leading to a pattern of nodes and antinodes.
o Traveling Waves: The wave propagates in one direction without standing
patterns, with the amplitude at each point varying over time.

Experiment 10: Vector Network Analyzer (VNA)

1. What is the primary function of a Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) in RF

measurements? A Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) measures the electrical
performance of RF components and networks by analyzing the magnitude and
phase of reflected and transmitted signals. It is used to determine S-parameters
like reflection (S11) and transmission (S21), providing critical information about
impedance matching, gain, and loss.
2. What components are included in the synthesized RF source assembly of the
analyzer? The RF source assembly in a VNA typically includes:
o Synthesized Signal Generator: Produces a stable, accurate RF signal.
o Mixer: Converts the RF signal to an intermediate frequency (IF) for easier
processing.
o Phase-Locked Loop (PLL): Ensures frequency stability by locking the
signal to a reference oscillator.
3. How are the processed digital signals utilized in the VNA system? After the RF
signal is measured, it is converted to digital form using analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs). These digital signals are then processed to extract amplitude
and phase information, which is used to calculate parameters like reflection
coefficient, impedance, and phase shift.
 4. Which components of the VNA are responsible for converting analog signals
into digital data? Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs) are responsible for
converting the analog signals captured from the RF circuits into digital data. This
data is then processed by digital signal processors (DSP) to compute the S-
parameters.
5. How is the reflected signal from the DUT routed in the VNA setup? The
reflected signal from the Device Under Test (DUT) is routed through a
directional coupler or bridge, which separates the incident and reflected signals.
The reflected signal is then measured and analyzed by the VNA to determine
parameters like the reflection coefficient (S11).

Experiment 11: Dipole Antennas

1. How will you determine the optimal length of the dipole antenna for the
desired frequency? The optimal length of a half-wave dipole antenna is
calculated using the formula:

L=λ2=c2fL = \frac{\lambda}{2} = \frac{c}{2f}L=2λ=2fc

Where:

o L = Length of the antenna.

o λ = Wavelength of the signal.
o c = Speed of light (~3 x 10⁸ m/s).
o f = Frequency of the signal. For example, if you are designing a dipole for a
frequency of 2 GHz, the wavelength would be 15 cm, and the antenna would
be about 7.5 cm in length.
2. What are the key parameters to analyze in the simulation? Key parameters
include:
o Radiation Pattern: Shows the directionality of the antenna.
o Gain: How effectively the antenna directs the power.
o Impedance: Ensuring proper impedance matching to minimize reflection.
o VSWR: Indicates how well the antenna is matched to the transmission line.
3. What is the desired operating frequency for the microwave dipole antenna?
The operating frequency depends on the application. Common frequencies for
microwave dipole antennas range from 300 MHz to several GHz, used in
applications such as satellite communication or radar systems.
4. Which software or simulation tools will you employ to model the behavior
of the dipole antenna? Common tools include:
o CST Microwave Studio: Used for simulating antenna designs,
electromagnetic fields, and radiation patterns.
o HFSS (High Frequency Structure Simulator): A 3D electromagnetic
simulation tool for RF/microwave components.
o MATLAB: Can be used for simple antenna analysis and plotting radiation
patterns.
5. What is the radiation resistance and capacitive reactance of the short
dipole? For a short dipole, the radiation resistance is typically small, around 10-
20 ohms, as the antenna is shorter than a half-wavelength. Capacitive reactance
becomes significant because the shorter length creates a capacitive load, which
must be tuned out with inductive elements or matching networks to ensure
efficient power transfer.