Activity 3

OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED

To represent set theoretic operations Hardboard, white thick sheets of
using Venn diagrams. paper, pencils, colours, scissors,
adhesive.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Cut rectangular strips from a sheet of paper and paste them on a hardboard.
Write the symbol U in the left/right top corner of each rectangle.
2. Draw circles A and B inside each of the rectangular strips and shade/colour
different portions as shown in Fig. 3.1 to Fig. 3.10.

DEMONSTRATION
1. U denotes the universal set represented by the rectangle.
2. Circles A and B represent the subsets of the universal set U as shown in the
figures 3.1 to 3.10.
3. A′ denote the complement of the set A, and B′ denote the complement of
the set B as shown in the Fig. 3.3 and Fig. 3.4.
4. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.1. represents A ∪ B.

24/04/18
 5. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.2. represents A ∩ B.

6. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.3 represents A′

7. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.4 represents B′

8. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.5 represents (A ∩ B)′

Mathematics 17

24/04/18
9. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.6 represents (A ∪ B)′

10. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.7 represents A′ ∩ B which is same as B – A.

11. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.8 represents A′ ∪ B.

18 Laboratory Manual

24/04/18
12. Fig. 3.9 shows A ∩ B = φ

13. Fig. 3.10 shows A ⊂ B

OBSERVATION
1. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.1, represents ______________
2. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.2, represents ______________
3. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.3, represents ______________
4. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.4, represents ______________
5. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.5, represents ______________
6. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.6, represents ______________
7. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.7, represents ______________
8. Coloured portion in Fig. 3.8, represents ______________
9. Fig. 3.9, shows that (A ∩ B) = ______________
10. Fig. 3.10, represents A ______________ B.
APPLICATION
Set theoretic representation of Venn diagrams are used in Logic and Mathematics.

Mathematics 19

24/04/18
Activity 4
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To verify distributive law for three Hardboard, white thick sheets of
given non-empty sets A, B and C, that paper, pencil, colours, scissors,
is, A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) adhesive.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Cut five rectangular strips from a sheet of paper and paste them on the
hardboard in such a way that three of the rectangles are in horizontal line
and two of the remaining rectangles are also placed horizontally in a line
just below the above three rectangles. Write the symbol U in the left/right
top corner of each rectangle as shown in Fig. 4.1, Fig. 4.2, Fig. 4.3, Fig. 4.4
and Fig. 4.5.
2. Draw three circles and mark them as A, B and C in each of the five rectangles
as shown in the figures.
3. Colour/shade the portions as shown in the figures.

DEMONSTRATION
1. U denotes the universal set represented by the rectangle in each figure.
2. Circles A, B and C represent the subsets of the universal set U.

24/04/18
 3. In Fig. 4.1, coloured/shaded portion represents B ∩ C, coloured portions in
Fig. 4.2 represents A ∪ B, Fig. 4.3 represents A ∪ C, Fig. 4.4 represents
A ∪ ( B ∩ C) and coloured portion in Fig. 4.5 represents (A ∪ B) ∩ (A∪ C).

OBSERVATION
1. Coloured portion in Fig. 4.1 represents ___________.
2. Coloured portion in Fig. 4.2, represents ___________.
3. Coloured portion in Fig. 4.3, represents ___________.
4. Coloured portion in Fig. 4.4, represents ___________.
5. Coloured portion in Fig. 4.5, represents ___________.
6. The common coloured portions in Fig. 4.4 and Fig. 4.5 are __________.

7. A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = ____________.

Thus, the distributive law is verified.

APPLICATION NOTE
Distributivity property of set operations In the same way, the other distributive
is used in the simplification of problems law
involving set operations.
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
can also be verified.

Mathematics 21

24/04/18
Activity 8
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To find the values of sine and cosine Cardboard, white chart paper, ruler,
functions in second, third and fourth coloured pens, adhesive, steel
quadrants using their given values in wires and needle.
first quadrant.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a cardboard of convenient size and paste a white chart paper on it.
2. Draw a unit circle with centre O on chart paper.
3. Through the centre of the circle, draw two perpendicular lines X′OX and
YOY′ representing x-axis and y-axis, respectively, as shown in Fig.8.1.

24/04/18
 4. Mark the points as A, B, C and D, where the circle cuts the x-axis and y-axis,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 8.1.

π π π
5. Through O, draw angles P1OX, P2OX, and P3OX of measures , and ,
6 4 3
respectively.
6. Take a needle of unit length. Fix one end of it at the centre of the circle and
the other end to move freely along the circle.

DEMONSTRATION

 3 1
1. The coordinates of the point P1 are  ,  because its x-coordinate is
 2 2
π π
cos and y-coordinate is sin . The coordinates of the points P2 and P3
6 6
 1 1  1 3
are  ,  and  ,  , respectively.
 2 2 2 2 

2. To find the value of sine or

cosine of some angle in the
2π
second quadrant (say) ,
3
rotate the needle in anti
clockwise direction
making an angle P4OX of
2π
measure = 120º with
3
the positive direction of
x-axis.
3. Look at the position
OP4 of the needle in

Mathematics 31

24/04/18
 2π π
Fig.8.2. Since = π – , OP4 is the mirror image of OP3 with respect to
3 3
 1 3
y-axis. Therefore, the coordinate of P 4 are  – ,  . Thus
 2 2 

2π 3 2π 1
sin = and cos = – .
3 2 3 2

π 4π −2π
4. To find the value of sine or cosine of some angle say, π + = , i.e.,
3 3 3
(say) in the third quadrant, rotate the needle in anti clockwise direction
4π
making as an angle of with the positive direction of x-axis.
3
5. Look at the new position OP5 of the needle, which is shown in Fig. 8.3.
Point P 5 is the mirror
image of the point P 4
(since ∠ P 4 OX′ =
P5OX′) with respect to
x-axis. Therefore, co-
ordinates of P 5 are

 1 − 3
 − ,  and hence
 2 2 

32 Laboratory Manual

24/04/18
  2π   4π  3  2π   4π  1
sin  –  = sin   = – and cos  −  = cos   = – .
 3   3  2  3   3  2

6. To find the value of sine or cosine of some angle in the fourth quadrant, say
7π
, rotate the needle in anti clockwise direction making an angle of
4
7π
with the positive direction of x-axis represented by OP6, as shown in
4
7π π
Fig. 8.4. Angle in anti clockwise direction = Angle − in the clockwise
4 4
direction.

From Fig. 8.4, P6 is the mirror image of P2 with respect to x-axis. Therefore,
 1 1 
coordinates of P6 are  ,− .
 2 2

Mathematics 33

24/04/18
  7π   π 1
Thus sin   = sin  –  = –
 4   4 2

 7π   π 1
and cos   = cos  –  =
 4   4 2
8. To find the value of sine or cosine of some angle, which is greater than one
13π
revolution, say , rotate the needle in anti clockwise direction since
6
13π π
= 2π + , the needle will reach at the position OP 1 . Therefore,
6 6

 13 π   π 1  13π   π 3
sin   = sin   = and cos   = cos   = .
 6   6 2  6   6 2
OBSERVATION
1. Angle made by the needle in one complete revolution is _________.
π  π
2. cos = _________ = cos  − 
6  6
π
sin = _________ = sin (2π + ______).
6
3. sine function is non-negative in _______ and _______ quadrants.
4. cosine function is non-negative in ______ and _____ quadrants.
APPLICATION
1. The activity can be used to get the values for tan, cot, sec, and cosec functions
also.
2. From this activity students may learn that
sin (– θ) = – sin θ and cos (– θ) = – cos θ
This activity can be applied to other trigonometric functions also.

34 Laboratory Manual

24/04/18
Activity 9
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To prepare a model to illustrate the A stand fitted with 0º-360º
values of sine function and cosine protractor and a circular plastic
function for different angles which are sheet fixed with handle which can
π be rotated at the centre of the
multiples of and π . protractor.
2

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a stand fitted with 0º-360º protractor.
2. Consider the radius of protractor as 1 unit.

24/04/18
3. Draw two lines, one joining 0º-180º line and another 90º-270º line,
obviously perpendicular to each other.
4. Mark the ends of 0°-180° line as (1,0) at 0°, (–1, 0) at 180° and that of
90° - 270° line as (0,1) at 90° and (0, –1) at 270°
5. Take a plastic circular plate and mark a line to indicate its radius and fix a
handle at the outer end of the radius.
6. Fix the plastic circular plate at the centre of the protractor.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Move the circular plate in anticlock wise direction to make different angles
π 3π
like 0, , π, , 2π etc.
2 2
2. Read the values of sine and cosine function for these angles and their
multiples from the perpendicular lines.

OBSERVATION
1. When radius line of circular plate is at 0º indicating the point A (1,0),
cos 0 = ______ and sin 0 = _______.
2. When radius line of circular plate is at 90º indicating the point B (0, 1),
π π
cos = _______ and sin = _______ .
2 2
3. When radius line of circular plate is at 180º indicating the point C (–1,0),
cos π = ______ and sin π = _________.
4. When radius line of circular plate is at 270º indicating the point D (0, – 1)
3π 3π
which means cos = _______ and sin = _______
2 2
5. When radius line of circular plate is at 360º indicating the point again at A
(1,0), cos 2 π = _______ and sin 2 π = ________.

36 Laboratory Manual

24/04/18
Now fill in the table :

π 3π 5π 7π
Trigonometric 0 π 2π 3π 4π
2 2 2 2
function
sin θ – – – – – – – – –

cos θ – – – – – – – – –

APPLICATION
This activity can be used to determine the values of other trigonometric functions
π
for angles being multiple of and π.
2

Mathematics 37

24/04/18
Activity 15
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To construct a Pascal's Triangle and to Drawing board, white paper,
write binomial expansion for a given matchsticks, adhesive.
positive integral exponent.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a drawing board and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take some matchsticks and arrange them as shown in Fig.15.

24/04/2018
 3. Write the numbers as follows:
1 (first row)
1 1 (second row)
1 2 1 (third row)
1 3 3 1 (fourth row), 1 4 6 4 1 (fifth row) and so on (see Fig. 15).
4. To write binomial expansion of (a + b)n, use the numbers given in the
(n + 1)th row.

DEMONSTRATION
1. The above figure looks like a triangle and is referred to as Pascal’s Triangle.
2. Numbers in the second row give the coefficients of the terms of the binomial
expansion of (a + b)1. Numbers in the third row give the coefficients of the
terms of the binomial expansion of (a + b)2, numbers in the fourth row give
coefficients of the terms of binomial expansion of (a + b)3. Numbers in the
fifth row give coefficients of the terms of binomial expansion of
(a + b)4 and so on.

OBSERVATION
1. Numbers in the fifth row are ___________, which are coefficients of the
binomial expansion of __________.
2. Numbers in the seventh row are _____________, which are coefficients
of the binomial expansion of _______.
3. (a + b)3 = ___ a3 + ___a2b + ___ab2 + ___b3
4. (a + b)5 = ___ +___+ ___+ ___ + ___+ ___.
5. (a + b)6 =___a6 +___a5b + ___a4b2 + ___a3b3 + ___a2b4 + ___ab5 + ___b6.
6. (a + b)8 = ___ +___ +___+ ___ + ___+ ___ + ___ + ___+ ___.
7. (a + b)10 =___ + ___ + ___+ ___ + ___+ ___ + ___+___+ ___+ ___+ __.

APPLICATION
The activity can be used to write binomial expansion for (a + b)n, where n is a
positive integer.

Mathematics 51

24/04/2018
Activity 21
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To construct different types of conic Transparent sheet, scissors, hard-
sections. board, adhesive, white paper.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a hardboard of convenient size and paste
a white paper on it.
2. Cut a transparent sheet in the shape of sector
of a circle and fold it to obtain a right circular
cone as shown in Fig.21.1.
3. Form 4 more such cones of the same size
using transparent sheet. Put these cones on a
hardboard.
4. Cut these cones with a transparent plane sheet
in different positions as shown in Fig. 21.2 to
Fig. 21.5.

24/04/18
DEMONSTRATION
1. In Fig. 21.2, the transparent plane sheet cuts the cone in such a way that the
sheet is parallel to the base of the cone. The section so obtained is a circle.
2. In Fig. 21.3, the plane sheet is inclined slightly to the axes of the cone. The
section so obtained is an ellipse.
3. In Fig. 21.4, the plane sheet is parallel to a generator (slant height) of the
cone. The section so obtained is a parabola.
4. In Fig. 21.5 the plane is parallel to the axis of the cone. The sections so
obtained is a part of a hyperbola.

OBSERVATION
1. In Fig. 21.2, the transparent plane sheet is ______ to the base of the cone.
The section obtained is _____.
2. In Fig. 21.3, the plane sheet is inclined to ______. The conic section
obtained is _________.
3. In Fig. 21.4, the plane sheet is parallel to the _________. The conic section
so obtained is ______.
4. In Fig. 21.5, the plane sheet is ________ to the axis. The conic section so
obtained is a part of ______.

Mathematics 67

24/04/18
APPLICATION
This activity helps in understanding various types of conic sections which have
wide spread applications in real life situations and modern sciences. For example,
conics have interesting geometric properties that can be used for the reflection of
light rays and beams of sound, i.e.
1. Circular disc reflects back the light issuing from centre to the centre again.
2. Elliptical disc reflects back the light issuing from one focus to the other focus.
3. Parabolic disc reflects back the light issuing from one focus parallel to its
axis.
4. Hyperbolic disc reflects back the light issuing from one focus as if coming
from other focus.

68 Laboratory Manual

24/04/18
Activity 27
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To explain the concept of octants by three A piece of plywood, saw, wires,
mutually perpendicular planes in space. rulers wooden-board, coloured
papers, scissors, cutter, thin sheet of
wood, wires.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Cut out three square sheets each of size 30 cm × 30 cm from a piece of
plywood and paste chart paper of different colours on both sides of sheets.
2. Fix two sheets in such a way that they intersect orthogonally in the middle of
each other (see Fig. 27)
3. Cut the third sheet into two equal rectangles.

24/04/18
 4. Insert one rectangle from one side in the middle cutting the two orthogonally,
and the other rectangle from the other side (see Fig. 27). The space is divided
into eight parts by these three sheets. Each part is referred to as an octant.
5. Fix the model on a wooden board.
6. In one of the octants, fix rulers to represent x-axis, y-axis and z-axis. Extend
each of the axis piercing to other sides to represent XX′, YY′ and ZZ′ . Mark
the point of intersection of XX′, YY′ and ZZ′ as origin O.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Fix a rod perpendicular to xy-plane at a point P (x, y) and parallel to z-axis.
2. Fix a wire joining the origin to the upper tip P′ (x, y, z) of this perpendicular
rod.
3. The distance of point P on xy-plane with coordinates (x, y) from the origin is

x2 + y 2 .
4. The distance of P′ with coordinates (x, y, z) in space from the origin is
2
( x2 + y 2 ) +z 2
= x2 + y 2 + z2 .

OBSERVATION
1. The three planes are intersecting at right angles at a point and they divide the
space into ___________ parts. Each part is called an __________.
2. Distance of the point (5, 4) on the xy plane from origin is _______.
3. Distance of the point (3, 2, 1) from the origin is _______.
4. If we fix a wire perpendicular to any of the planes, then it will represent
___________ to plane.
5. If two normals are drawn to any two of the planes, then these normals are
_______ to each other.

82 Laboratory Manual

24/04/18
APPLICATION
1. Model can be used to visualise the position and coordinates of a point in
space.
2. Model can be used to explain the distance of the origin from a point in the
plane or in the space.
3. Model can also be used to explain the concept of a normal to a plane.

Mathematics 83

24/04/18
Activity 28
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
Pencil, white paper, calculator.
x2 − c 2
To find analytically x→c ( ) =
lim f x
x−c

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

x2 – 9
1. Consider the function f given by f ( x ) =
x–3
2. In this case c = 3 and the function is not defined at x = 3.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Take some values of c less than c = 3 and some other values of c more than
c = 3.
2. In both cases, the values to be taken have to be very close to c = 3.
3. Calculate the corresponding values of f at each of the values of c taken close
to c = 3.

DEMONSTRATION : TABLE 1
1. Write the values of f (x) in the following tables:

Table 1

x 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999 2.99999 2.999999

f (x) 5.9 5.99 5.999 5.9999 5.99999 5.999999

24/04/18
 Table 2

x 3.1 3.01 3.001 3.0001 3.00001 3.000001

f (x) 6.1 6.01 6.001 6.0001 6.00001 6.000001

OBSERVATION

1. Values of f (x) as x → 3 from the left, as in Table 1 are coming closer and
closer to _____.
2. Values of f (x) as x → 3 from the right, as in Table 2 are coming closer and
x2 − 9
lim f ( x ) =
closer to _____ from tables (2) and (3), x→ = ______.
3 x −3

APPLICATION

This activity can be used to demonstrate the concept of a limit lim f ( x ) when
x→c
f (x) is not defined at x = c.

Mathematics 85

24/04/18
Activity 32
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To write the sample space, when a die is A die, paper, pencil/pen, plastic discs,
rolled once, twice -------- marked with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Throw a die once. The number on its
top will be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.
2. Make a tree diagram showing its six
branches with number 1,2, 3, 4, 5 or 6
(See Fig. 32.1)
3. Write the sample space of these
outcomes.
4. Throw a die twice. It can fall in any of
the 36 ways as shown in Fig. 32.2 by
the tree diagram. Write the sample space
of these outcomes.

24/04/18
 5. Repeat the experiment by throwing a die 3 times, and write the sample space
of the outcomes using a tree diagram.

DEMONSTRATION
1. If a die is thrown once, the sample space is

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Number of elements in S = 6 = 61

2. If a die is thrown twice, the sample space is

(1,1) , (1, 2 ) , (1,3 ) , (1, 4 ) , (1,5 ) , (1,6 ) , ( 2,1) , ( 2, 2 ) , ( 2,3) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 2,5 ) , ( 2,6 ) 
 
Sample space S = ( 3,1) , ( 3, 2 ) , ( 3,3) , ( 3, 4 ) , ( 3,5 ) , ( 3,6 ) , ( 4,1) , ( 4, 2 ) , ( 4,3) , ( 4, 4 ) , ( 4,5 ) , ( 4,6 ) 
 
( 5,1) , ( 5, 2 ) , ( 5,3) , ( 5, 4 ) , ( 5,5) , ( 5,6 ) , ( 6,1) , ( 6, 2 ) , ( 6,3) , ( 6, 4 ) , ( 6,5 ) , ( 6,6 ) 

The number of elements in S = 36 = 62 and so on.

OBSERVATION
Number of elements in sample space when a die is thrown

Once = _________, Thrice = _______, Four times = _________

APPLICATION
Sample space of an experiment is useful in determining the probabilities of
different events associated with the sample space.

Mathematics 95

24/04/18
Activity 33
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To write the sample space, when a coin One rupee coin, paper pencil/pen,
is tossed once, two times, three times, plastic circular discs, marked with
four times. Head (H) and Tail (T).

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Toss a coin once. It can have two outcomes – Head or Tail.
2. Make a tree diagram showing the two branches of a tree - with H (Head) on
one branch and T (Tail) on the other (see Fig. 33.1).
3. Write its sample space.
4. Toss a coin twice. It can have four outcomes (see Fig. 33.2)
5. Repeat the experiment with tossing the coin three times, four times, ...........,
n and write their sample spaces, if possible. (see Fig. 33.3 and 33.4).

DEMONSTRATION
1. If a coin is tossed once, the sample space is

S = {H, T}

Number of elements in S = 2 = 21
2. When a coin is tossed twice, the sample space is

S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}

Number of elements in S = 4 = 22

24/04/18
 3. When a coin is tossed three times, the sample space is

S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}

Number of elements in S = 8 = 23

Mathematics 97

24/04/18
4. When a coin is tossed four times, the S = Sample space is

HHHH, HHHT, HHTH, HHTT, HTHH, HTHT, HTTH, HTTT, 

 
THHH, THHT, THTH, THTT, TTHH, TTHT, TTTH, TTTT 
Number of elements in S = 16 = 24 and so on.

OBSERVATION
Number of elements in sample space, when a
1. coin is tossed once = __________.
2. coin is tossed twice = __________.
3. coin is tossed three times = __________.
4. coin is tossed four times = __________.

APPLICATION
Sample space of an experiment is useful in determining the probabilities of
different events associated with the sample space.
98 Laboratory Manual

24/04/18