Sets

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 Sets

•Any collection of objects.

Elements/MEMBERS
•The objects contained in a set.
The roster method defines a
particular set by listing its
elements, separated by
commas, within curly
brackets.

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Roster method

Here are examples of sets defined by the roster

method.
{a, b, c}
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
{Moe, Larry, Curly}
{cat, dog}
Names for sets
It is conventional to use capital letters for names of sets.

S = {a, b, c}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
T = {Moe, Larry, Curly}
B = {cat, dog}
Sets, elements
Referring to the sets
S = {a, b, c} and
T = {Moe, Larry, Curly},

we observe, for example, that “a is an element of S” and

“Larry is an element of T.”
These statements are denoted symbolically, as follows:
aS
Larry  T
Sets, elements
Referring to the sets S = {a, b, c} and T = {Moe, Larry,
Curly},
we observe, for example, that “d is not an element of
S” and “Shemp is not an element of T.”
These statements are denoted symbolically, as
follows:
dS
Shemp  T
Cardinality
The cardinality of a set is the number of elements contained
in that set.
For example, let S = {a, b, c} and B ={dog, cat}.

Then, the cardinality of S is 3, and the cardinality of B is 2.

These facts are denoted symbolically, as follows:

n(S) = 3
n(B) = 2
Cardinality

In general, if V is any set, then n(V)

represents the number of elements in set V.
Set Equality
Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements.

For example
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {5, 3, 1, 4, 2}
{Moe, Larry} = {Moe, Larry}
{b, c, a} = S (referring to the set S defined earlier).

However,
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}  {a, b, c, d, e}
 Set Equality

More formally, if V and W are any sets, then V =

W means that every element of V is also an
element of W and every element of W is also
an element of V.

Note: the order in which the elements are listed

is not important.
Subsets (informal definition)
Suppose V is a set, and W is a set that is formed using only
the elements of V (that is, W can be formed entirely by
including/excluding elements of V).

We say that W is a subset of V.

This is conveyed symbolically as follows:

WV
Subsets
Example
Let T = {Moe, Larry, Curly}
List all the subsets of T.
{Moe}
{Larry}
{Curly}
{Moe, Larry}
{Moe, Curly}
{Larry, Curly}
{Moe, Larry, Curly}
{ } This set is known as the empty set.
 Subsets

Observe the following, from the previous example.

1. {Moe, Larry, Curly}  {Moe, Larry, Curly}
General fact: Every set is a subset of itself.

2. { }  {Moe, Larry, Curly}

General fact: The empty set is a subset of every set.
Subsets (formal definition)
Here is a more formal definition of the term subset:
Suppose V and W are sets, and that every element of W is also an element
of V. Then W  V.
This is equivalent to saying that W is a subset of V, if there is no element of
W that isn’t also an element of V.
Examples (True or false)
1. {b, h, r, q}  {h, r} A. True B. False
2. {3, 12, 5, 19}  {19, 3, 5, 12, 18} A. True B. False
3. {a, 13, d, 2}  {13, 2, d, a} A. True B. False
Proper Subsets

Suppose W is a subset of V, but W is not equal to V.

Then W is a proper subset of V.

This is denoted
WV
Proper Subsets
A proper subset is a subset that is not equal to the set it is a
subset of.
A proper subset is a subset that is “smaller than” the set it is a
subset of.
A moment ago, we listed all the subsets of the set {Moe, Larry,
Curly}. Here they are:
1. { } 2. {Moe} 3. {Larry}
4. {Curly} 5. {Moe, Larry} 6. {Moe, Curly}
7. {Larry, Curly} 8. {Moe, Larry, Curly}
Which of these are also proper subsets of {Moe, Larry, Curly}?
Answer: They are all proper subsets, except #8.
Complements and Universal Sets
Let T = {Moe, Larry, Curly}.

List all elements that aren’t in T.

Without a frame of reference, we can’t go

anywhere with this exercise.
 Universal Sets
For a particular discussion or sequence of exercises in set
mathematics, a Universal Set (U) is “larger” set that contains, at
least, all the elements of all the other sets in the discussion.
A universal set serves as a frame of reference for the discussion.
Example
Let U = {Moe, Larry, Curly, Shemp, Curtney, Joe}.
Let T = {Moe, Larry, Curly}.
List all the elements that aren’t in T.

{Shemp, Curtney, Joe}

We call this set the complement of T, denoted T
 Set-builder notation

An alternative approach is to define a set by

describing its elements, rather than literally listing
them.

a way of defining a set by describing

its elements, rather than listing
them.
 Set-builder notation

Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f}.

The universe for this discussion consists of six letters,
four of which are consonants, two of which are
vowels.
Within this universe, let C be the set containing all
the consonants, and let V be the set containing all
the vowels.
 Set-builder notation

Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f}.

C = {x|x is a consonant}
C is “the set of all x, such that x is a consonant.”
C = {x|x is a consonant} = {b, c, d, f}
V = {x|x is a vowel}
V is “the set of all x, such that x is a vowel.”
V = {x|x is a vowel} = {a, e}
 Exercises
Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {3, 5}
E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
F = {x|x is an odd number}
True or false:
1. E = F A. True B. False
2. F  A A. True B. False
3. {1, 2, 3}  {2, 3, 5, 6} A. True B. False
4. {4, 7}  {4, 7} A. True B. False
 Exercises

Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

A = {3, 5}
E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
F = {x|x is an odd number}
True or false:
5. {4, 7}  {4, 7} A. True B. False
6. {4}  {4, 7} A. True B. False
 Exercise

Let U = {Moe, Larry, Curly, Shemp, Curtney, Joe}

T = {Moe, Larry, Curly}

True or False:

{}{}

A. True B. False
The number of subsets in a finite set

Common sense suggests that the more

elements a set has, the more subsets it
will have.

As we shall see, there is a precise

relationship between the cardinality of a
set an the number of subsets it has.
 The number of subsets in a finite set.
S n(S) subsets of S number of subsets
{}
{a}
{a, b}
{a, b, c}
{a, b, c, d}
 S n(S) subsets of S No. of
subsets
{} 0 {} 1
{a} 1 { }, {a} 2
{a, b} 2 { }, {a}, {a, b}, {b} 4
{a, b, c} 3 { }, {a}, {a, b}, {b}, {c} 8
{a, b, c}, {a, c}, {b, c}
{a, b, c, d} 4 { }, {a}, {b}, {c}, {d} 16
{a, b}, {a, c}, {a,d},
{b,c}, {b,d}, {a, b, c},
{a, b,d}, {b,c,d}, {b,d},
{c, d}, {a, b,c, d}
Set of Numbers
Cartesian Product of Sets
The Cartesian product of sets A and B, written,
is
A  B,
A  B  {(a, b) | a  A and b  B}.

© 2008 Pearson Addison-

2-3-31
Wesley. All rights reserved
Example: Finding Cartesian Products
Let A = {a, b}, B = {1, 2, 3}
Find each set.
a) A  B
b) B  B
Solution
a) {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}
b) {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3),
(3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}

© 2008 Pearson Addison-

2-3-32
Wesley. All rights reserved
Cardinal Number of a Cartesian Product

If n(A) = a and n(B) = b, then

n  A  B   n( B  A)
 n( A)  n( B)  n( B)  n( A)
 ab  ba

© 2008 Pearson Addison-

2-3-33
Wesley. All rights reserved
Example: Finding Cardinal Numbers of Cartesian
Products

If n(A) = 12 and n(B) = 7, then find

n  A  B  and n  B  A .
Solution
n  A  B   n( B  A)
 n( A)  n( B)  n( B)  n( A)
 7 12  84
© 2008 Pearson Addison-
2-3-34
Wesley. All rights reserved
 Example
Let A = 1,3,-4 and B =0,3
Find a) AxB b) BxA
Solution
AxB =(1,0),(1,3),(3,0),(3,3),(-4,0),(-4,3)
BxA = (0,1),(0,3),(0,-4),(3,1),(3,3),(3,-4)
Plot on the coordinate plane the points
(1,3) and (3,1)
Are ordered pairs (1,3) and (3,1) the same?
Math in the
Modern World

GE MATH 1
 Getting to Know Mathematics

• What is it? • Where is it?

• How is it done? • What is it about?

• What is it for? • Who uses mathematics?

Mathematics is defined as...
• study of numbers and arithmetic operations

• set of tools that can be used to answer questions

involving quantities
• a science that involves logical reasoning, drawing
conclusions from assumed premises and strategic
reasoning based on accepted rules, laws and
probabilities
• an art which studies patterns, a specialized language
that deals with form, size and quantity
 A set of
problem
solving
tools..

A
Art
language
Mathematics
is…

A
A study
process
of
of
patterns
thinking
 “We have developed a formal system of thought for
recognizing, classifying, and exploiting patterns called
mathematics” (Stewart, p.1.)

• origins of counting

• geometric patterns
• wave patterns in water and
land
• patterns of movement

• fractals, the new sciences of

irregularity - a never ending pattern
 What is Mathematics?

– Mathematics today is much more than Algebra and Geometry.

 It has evolved from just performing calculations or deduction
into...

 revealing patterns that help individuals to better

understand the world
 estimating results  testing
 modeling natural
data management & conjectures,
phenomenon including
measurements human behavior & social
systems
 Where is Mathematics?

We see hints or clues of it:

in nature in our daily routine

in our work in people and

communities
in events
 What is Mathematics for?

to help us unravel the puzzles of nature, a useful way to

think about nature
to organize/describe regularities & irregularities
to be able to predict to provide tools for calculations
to help us perform daily tasks to get things done
to provide new questions to think about
 What is Mathematics for?

o to put order in disorder

o to help us become better o to help make the

person world a better place to
live in
o help us make decisions
like buying wisely, o choosing the most
appropriate insurance
plan,
o or even betting on a game
 What is Mathematics About?

Numbers, symbols, notations

Operations, equations and functions

Process and “trinification” of processes (abstractions)

Proof - a story rather than a sequence of statements
 How is Mathematics Done?

 with curiosity because they can be directly related to

human experiences
with a penchant for seeking patterns and
generalities
with a desire to know the truth without fear of facing
more questions and
with trial and error problems to solve
 Who Uses Mathematics?

Mathematicians: pure and applied

Scientists: natural and social
Practically everyone

“But different people use different mathematics at different times for

different purposes, using different tools with different attitudes”.
 Section 1.1: Patterns and Numbers in Nature
and the World

• Mathematics & Nature.pptx

• ..\..\Downloads\Nature by Numbers.mp4
 TYPES OF PATTERNS IN NATURE

• ARE VISIBLE REGULARITIES OF FORM

FOUND IN THE NATURAL WORLD
• THESE PATTERNS RECUR IN DIFFERENT
CONTEXTS AND CAN SOMETIMES BE
MODELLED MATHEMATICALLY
1) SYMMETRY - Is pervasive in living things

Animals mainly have bilateral or mirror symmetry

Leaves of plants and some flowers such as Orchids
Plants often have radial or rotational symmetry
Examples:
Sea Anemones
Echinoderms
Starfish
Sea urchins
Sea lilies
 Starfish

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 2) TREES, FRACTALS

• Are infinitely self-seminar, iterated mathematical constructs have

fractal dimension (approximate)
Examples:
• Ferns
• Corals
• River networks
• Animal coloration
• Snow flakes, etc.
 Ferns

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 snowflakes

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ND

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 3) SPIRALS
Such arrangements in mollusks, sunflower seed heads
or structure of a pineapple fruit are called spirals.
Some of these spirals can be generated mathematically
from Fibonacci ratios (sequence)
Examples:
• When leaves alternate up a stem, one rotation of the spiral touches
two leaves, so the pattern or ratio is a Fibonacci ratio
• Hazel – ratio is 1/3
• Apricot – ratio is 2/5
• Pear – ratio is 3/8
• Almond – ratio is 5/13
Sunflower and daisy, the florets are arranged in
Fermat’s spiral with Fibonacci numbering
Fibonacci ratios approximate the golden angle,
137.5080, which governs the curvature of
Fermat’s spiral
the sunflower
the flower petals
 4) CHAOS, FLOW, MEANDERS

• In mathematics, a dynamical system is chaotic if it is

(highly) sensitive to initial conditions (the so called
“butterfly effect”) which requires the mathematical
properties of topological mixing and dense periodic
orbits.

Examples
• Clouds formation
• Shell of mollusk
• Brain coral
 Clouds formation

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the snail’s shell
 5) WAVES, DUNES

• Are disturbances that carry energy as they move

Example
• Breaking wave in a ship’s wake
• Sand dunes in a desert
• Wind ripples with dislocations
 Breaking wave

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 6) BUBBLES, FOAM

• Soap bubble – form a sphere. Two bubbles together form a

more complex shape, the other surfaces are spherical; these
surfaces are joined by a third spherical surface as the smaller
bubble bulges slightly into the lighter one
• Foam – a mass of bubbles
 Soap bubbles

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 7) TESSELLATIONS

Patterns formed by repeating tiles all over a flat surface

Common in art and design
Example
• Honeycomb
• Crystals
• Snake fruits
• Tessellated pavement of a rare rock formation
honeycomb
 8) CRACKS
• Linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress
• The pattern of cracks indicates whether the material is elastic
or not

Example
• Drying inelastic mud
• Old pottery surface
• Palm trunk
 Drying inelastic mud

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 9) SPOTS, STRIPES

• These patterns have an evolutionary explanation:

camouflage, signaling, survival, etc.
Example
• Leopard
• Zebras
• Butterfly
• Royal angelfish
• Ladybirds
• Cuttlefish
 tiger’s stripes

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 hyena’s spots

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 10) PATTERN FORMATION

• These patterns formed out of reaction-diffusion system,

vegetated landscape, fissured pattern, and fir waves

Example
• Human brain
• Putter fish
• Fairy circles
• Patterned ground
• Guineafowl
 Human brain

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 the world’s population

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A Study of Patterns
 Pattern
• An arrangement which helps observers anticipate what they might see
or what happens next.
• It shows what may have come before
• It organizes information so that it becomes more useful

Human mind is programmed to make sense of data or to bring order

where there is disorder
• Seeks to discover relationships and connections between seemingly
unrelated bits of information.
Example 1: Logic Patterns
Answer: d
 • Ex. 1
Example 2: Number Patterns •
•
9,3
32, 6
• Ex. 2

• Ex.1 • 4, 16, 40

Observe the pattern and fill in the blanks.

• 18, 3, 15, 3, 12, 3, ( ), ( ).
• 1, 2, 2, 4, 3, 8, 4, 16, 5, ( ), ( ).
• Ex.2
Observe the following triples:
• (1, 4, 10), (2, 8, 20), (3, 12, 30), … ,
Example 3: Geometric Patterns
 Example 4: Word Patterns

• Knife : knives
• Life: lives
• Wife: Wives
 Exercises:

• Answer: C
 Exercises:

Answer: 3: c; 4:c
Exercises:

Answer: a
Exercises:

Answer: C
 Exercises:

• Answer: d
Exercise:

Answer: d
Number Patterns:
Systemizing Patterns
through Mathematics
Section 2
The Fibonacci Sequence & The Golden
Ratio
 Sequence
• An ordered list of numbers, called terms that may have
repeated values. The arrangement of these terms is set by
a definite rule.
• Example 1: Analyze the given sequence for its rule and
identify the next three terms.
• A. 1, 10, 100, 1000
• B. 2, 5, 9, 14, 20
The Fibonacci Sequence
 The Fibonacci Sequence

•
 Find a Fibonacci Number

•Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the seventh and

eighth Fibonacci numbers.

Solution: The first six Fibonacci numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8. The

seventh Fibonacci number is the sum of the two previous Fibonacci
numbers.

•Thus, F7 = F6 + F5
=8+5

= 13
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

•The eighth Fibonacci number is

F8 = F 7 + F6
= 13 + 8
= 21
 The Fibonacci Sequence can be
written as a "Rule" .
• First, the terms are numbered from 0 onwards like this:

n= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ...
Fib(n) = 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 ...

So term number 6 is called Fib(6) (which equals

8).
Find Fib(15)?

𝐹𝑖𝑏 15 = 𝐹𝑖𝑏 13 + 𝐹𝑖𝑏 14 = 233 + 277 = 610

 The Golden Ratio
…in mathematics and the arts, two quantities are in
golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the ratio of
their sum to the larger of the two quantities.
• The Golden ratio is a special number found by dividing a line into two parts
so that the longer part divided by the smaller part is also equal to the whole
length divided by the longer part. It is often symbolized using phi, after the
21st letter of the Greek alphabet. In an equation form, it looks like this:

• 𝒂
𝒃
=
𝒂+𝒃
𝒂
= 1.6180339887498948420 …

Where: a>b>0
 The Golden Ratio
When we take any two successive (one after the other) Fibonacci
Numbers, their ratio is very close to the Golden Ratio"φ" which
is approximately 1.618034...
In fact, the bigger the pair of Fibonacci Numbers,
the closer the approximation. Let us try a few:

A B B/A

2 3 1.5

3 5 1.666666666..

5 8 1.6

8 13 1.625

It takes longer to get good values, but it shows that not just the Fibonacci
Sequence can do this!
 n= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ...
Fib(n) = 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 ...

Find the ratio of Fib(13) and Fib(14)?

𝐹𝑖𝑏 (14) 377

=
𝐹𝑖𝑏 (13) 233
= 1.6108025761
• Golden ratio is often symbolized by the Greek
letter phi ( φ ). It is the number
=1.6180339887498948420 …

• 1+ 5
And the irrational number 2
 History
• Fibonacci was not the first to know about the sequence, it was
known in India hundreds of years before!
• His real name was Leonardo Pisano Bogollo, and he lived
between 1170 and 1250 in Italy.
• "Fibonacci" was his nickname, which roughly means "Son of
Bonacci".
• As well as being famous for the Fibonacci Sequence, he helped
spread Hindu-Arabic Numerals (like our present numbers
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) through Europe in place of Roman
Numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, etc).
• That has saved us all a lot of trouble!
Fibonacci Day is November 23rd, as it has the digits "1, 1, 2, 3" which
is part of the sequence. So next Nov 23 let everyone know!
Example: The Parthenon
Seurat’s Bathers The Mona Lisa
The Vitruvian Man
Leonardo da Vinci has
incorporated geometry in
many of his paintings, with
the golden ratio being one
of his many mathematical
tools. Experts agree that he
probably thought the golden
ratio made his paintings
more attractive.
 Activity:

• The Golden Ratio and the Human Body

• Measure the following:
• Distance from the ground to your navel.
• Distance from your navel to the top of your head
• Distance from the ground to your knees
• Length of your hand
• Distance from your wrist to your elbow
• Distances A, B and C as indicated in the figure
• Now, calculate the following ratios and write the results in the table:

• 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙

1. 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑

• 2.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑠

• 3.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑜𝑤
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑

Students’ Ratio 1 Ratio 2 Ratio 3 Ratio 4 Ratio 5

• 4.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵 Name
Juan
Jane
• 5.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴

Can you see anything special about the ratios?

 Human anatomy
"φ" • Is exhibited in both human physique and facial dimensions:
a. The width of the face and the length of the face
b. The width of the nose and the length of the mouth
c. The little finger and the middle finger
d. The human lung is divided into sections based on the golden ratio
e. The eardrum consist of chambers that are located at approximately golden
ratio to optimize sound regulation and vibrations
f. The ratio of systolic and diastolic pressure is ideally 1.6, a close approx. of the
golden ratio
g. The helix spirals of the DNA molecule is configured at 34 angstroms and 21
angstroms, two consecutive Fibonacci’s number whose ratio is close to "φ“.
The width of the face and the length of the
face
The width of the nose and the length of the
mouth
The little finger and the middle finger
The human lung is divided into sections based
on the golden ratio
The eardrum consist of chambers that are located at
approximately golden ratio to optimize sound
regulation and vibrations
The helix spirals of the DNA molecule
 Mathematics for our
World
Section 1. 3
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 Mathematics for Organization

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Mathematics for Prediction

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Mathematics for Control
A large cosmic disturbance could cause
ripples in space – time, like a pebble
thrown in a pond.

Man is able to exert control over

himself and the effects of nature –
example: climate change

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Man and Nature

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Mathematics is Indispensable
• Albert Einstein:
“How is it possible that mathematics, a product of human thought that
is independent of experience, fits so excellently the objects of reality?”
INTRODUCTION
TO LOGIC
LOGIC

 Logic – science of correct reasoning

Logic
Main goal: use logic to analyze arguments
(claims) to see if they are valid or invalid.
This is useful for math theory, but also in the
real world any time someone is trying to
convince you of something.

To analyze an argument, we break it down

into smaller pieces: statements, logical
connectives and quantifiers.
Uses of logic

 Lawyers and judges – communicate effectively,

construct valid arguments, analyze legal
contracts, make decisions
 Programmers – design computer software
 Electrical engineers – design circuits for smart
phones
 Mathematicians – solve problems, prove
theorems
Historical Background

 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716)

 Augustus de Morgan (1806-1871)
 George Boole (1815-1864)
 Charles Dodgson (1832-1898) – known as
Lewis Carroll
Everyday Language

Do we have a test today? – Question

Close the door – Command
Math is a useful subject – Opinion
CPU is an educational institution - Statement
Statement

 A declarative sentence that is either

true or false, (but not both at the same
time).
Determine whether each sentence is a
statement.

a. Boracay Island is in the province of

Iloilo.
b. How are you?
c. 2 is a prime number.
d. x+1 = 5
Simple Statement

 A statement that conveys a single idea.

Examples
Two is an even number.
Two is a prime number.
Compound Statement

A statement consists of simple

statements combined using logical
connectives like and, or, not, if…then.
Examples
Two is an even prime number.
I will study my lesson in GE Math or I
will fail in this subject.
 Let p and q be two simple statements
Connective Symbol Compound Symbolic Form Type of
Statement of the Compound Compound
Statement Statement

or  p or q pq Disjunction

and
 p and q pq Conjunction

If…then  p if q pq Conditional

If and only

if and pq Biconditional
if only if q

 not p p Negation
not not q q
Example 1

Let p = Hacksaw Ridge depicts a true story.

q = Hacksaw Ridge is a beautiful movie.

Write the following compound statements .

a. d.
b. e. p
c. f. q
Example 2
Consider the following simple statements:
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
 •P ^ q
Example 3 •q v r
•~p ~r

Consider the following statements

p: It is raining
q: The streets are flooded.
r: There is heavy traffic.
Translate the following in symbolic form.
a. It is raining and the streets are flooded.
b. The streets are flooded or there is heavy traffic.
c. If it is not raining, then there is no heavy traffic.
Example 4

 Translate Symbolic Statements

p: The game will be played in Atlanta.
q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Mets are favored to win.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.
a) q ^ p b) ~ r ^ s c) s ~p
Check your progress 4

 e: All men are created equal.

 t: I am trading places.
 a: I get Abe’s place.
 g: I get George’s place.
Translate:
a. e^ ~t b. a V ~t c. e t
d. t g
Compound Statements and
Grouping Symbols
Symbolic form The parentheses indicate
that:
𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑟) 𝑞 and ∼ 𝑟 are grouped
together
𝑝∧𝑞 ∨𝑟 𝑝 and 𝑞 are grouped together

𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞 → 𝑟 ∨ 𝑠 𝑝 and ∼ 𝑞 are grouped

together
𝑟 and 𝑠 are also grouped
together
Translating Compound Statements

Let p, q, and r represent the following:

p: You get a promotion.
q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.
a. Write 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑟 as an English sentence.
b. Write “If you do not complete the training,
then you will not get a promotion and you
will not receive a bonus.” in symbolic form.
Example

Let p, q, and r represent the following:

p: Kesha’s singing style is similar to Uffie’s.
q: Kesha has messy hair.
r: Kesha is a rapper.
a. Write 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑟 as an English sentence.
b. Write “If Kesha is not a rapper, then Kesha
does not have messy hair and Kesha’s singing
style is not similar to Uffie’s.” in symbolic form.
 Kesha’s singing style is similar to
Uffie’s and has messy hair then
she is a rapper.
 ~r → (~q ∧ ~p)
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

 Can be written in “if p, then q” form or

in “if p, q” form.
 p statement called the antecedent
 q statement called the consequent
 Can be written using the arrow notation 𝑝 → 𝑞
read as ‘if p, then q” or ‘p implies q”
“Life moves pretty fast. If you don’t stop and look around once in a while,
you could miss it.” – Ferris Bueller’s Day Off
 Example
Identify the antecedent and consequent in the following
statements.
1. If our school was this nice, I would go there more than
once a week.
–The Basketball Diaries
2. If you don’t get in that plane, you’ll regret it.
–Casablanca
3. If you strike me down, I shall become more powerful than
you can possibly imagine.
–Obi-Wan Kenobi, Star Wars, Episode IV, A New Hope
Check Your Progress

Identify the antecedent and consequent in

each of the following conditional statements.
1. If I study for at least 6 hours, then I will
get an A on the test.
2. If I get the job, I will buy a new car.
3. If you can dream it, you can do it.
The Conditional Statement
(Implication) ( p  q)
 Equivalent forms of 𝑝 → 𝑞.
“If p, then q” “q, if p”
“p implies q” “q when p”
“If p, q” “q whenever p”
“p is sufficient for q” “q is necessary for p”
“p only if q” “q follows from p
“q provided that p” “Every p is a q”
“a sufficient condition for q is p”
“a necessary condition for p is q”
Example

 Write each of the following in “If p, then q”

form.
1. The number is an even number provided
that it is divisible by 2.
2. Today is Friday, only if yesterday was
Thursday.
3. Every square is a rectangle.
The Converse, the Inverse, and
the Contrapositive

Statement related to the Conditional

Statement:
 The converse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is 𝑞 → 𝑝.
 The inverse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is ~𝑝 → ~𝑞.
 The contrapositive of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is ~𝑞 → ~𝑝.
Example

Write the converse, inverse and

contrapositive of the following conditional
statements.
1. If I get the job, then I will rent the
apartment.
2. If we have a quiz today, then we will not
have a quiz tomorrow.
p. 68

 1. If a quadrilateral is not a
rectangle, then it is not a square.
 2. If yesterday is not Wednesday,
then tomorrow is not Friday.
Biconditional Statements

 The statement 𝑝 → 𝑞 ⋀ 𝑞 → 𝑝 is called

a biconditional and is denoted by 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞,
which is read as “p if and only if q”.
Example

Let p, q, and r represent the following

p: She will go on vacation.
q: She cannot take the train.
r: She cannot get a loan.
Write the following symbolic statements in words.
1. 𝑝 ↔ ~𝑟
2. 𝑝 ↔ ~𝑞
3. ~𝑟 ↔ ~𝑝
 4.8 Functions and
Relations
Goal: Decide whether a relation is a
function and use function notation
 Definitions
Relation - Any set of ordered pairs

Function -A type of relation

where there is exactly one
output for every input. For
every x there is exactly one y.
 x y x y
1 6 1 6
2 7 2 7
Not a Function Function
 y = 2x
x-y chart mapping
xy input output
-2 -4 -2 -4
-1 -2 -1 -2
0 0
00 1 2
12 2 4
24 Function
Determine whether the equation is a function.

y x x y
x y input output x y input output
-2 2 -2 0 2 -2 0 -2
-1 1 -1 1 -1 -1
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2

Function Not a Function

 Vertical Line Test - Functions
y y y y

x x x x

Function

y y y y

x x x x
 Vertical Line Test - Functions
y y y y

x x x x

Function Function

y y y y

x x x x
 Vertical Line Test - Functions
y y y y

x x x x

Function Function Not a

Function
y y y y

x x x x
 Vertical Line Test - Functions
y y y y

x x x x

Function Function Not a Function

Function
y y y y

x x x x
 Vertical Line Test - Functions
y y y y

x x x x

Function Function Not a Function

Function
y y y y

x x x x

Not a Function Not a Not a

Function Function Function
Tell whether the relation below is a function.
1) input output 3) y
0
1 x
Not a
5 Function
2 Function
3
2) x y 4) input output
-3 -1 -2 3
-3 0 4
Not a -1 Not a
-3 1 Function 5
0 Function
-3 2 6
 Function Notation
y  2x  3 f (x)  2x  3
when x  1, y  5 f (1)  5
when x  2, y  7 f (2)  7
when x  3, y  9 f (3)  9
when x  4, y 11f (4)  11
f ( 4)  5
 g(x)  x 2
h(x)  3x  2
Evaluate the following.
1) g(4)  16 5) h(4)  g(1) 
10  1  11
2) h( 2)  8 6) h( 5)  g( 2) 
17  4  68
3) g( 3)  9 7) g  h(3)  
g(7)  49
4) h(5)  13 8) h  g(2)  
h(4)  10
Evaluate the function over the domain,
x = -1, x = 0, x = 2.
1) f (x)  4x
{4, 0, 8 }
2) g(x)  3x  9
{12,  9,  3 }
3) h(x)  x  1
2

{ 0,  1, 3 }
Graph the linear function.
f (x)   x  3 f(x)
x f (x)
-3 6
-2 5
-1 4
x
0 3
1 2
2 1
3 0
Section 2. Mathematics Language and Symbols
 Core Idea: Like any language, mathematics has its own symbols,
syntax and rules
 Characteristics of mathematical language
 Expression vs. sentences
 Conventions in the mathematical language
 Four basic concepts: set, functions, relations, binary operations
 Elementary logic: connectives, quantifiers, negations, variables
 1. Mathematics is a language in itself. Hence, it is
useful in communicating important ideas.
 2. Mathematics as a language is clear and objective.
 3. Language conventions are necessary in
mathematics for it to be understood by all.
People sometimes have trouble understanding
mathematical ideas: not necessarily because the
ideas are difficult, but because they are being
presented in a foreign language—the language of
mathematics.
The language of mathematics makes it easy to
express the kinds of thoughts that mathematicians
like to express.
It is:
 precise (able to make very fine distinctions)
 concise (able to say things briefly)
 powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative
ease)
 Every language has its vocabulary (the words) and its
rules for combining these words into complete thoughts
(the sentences).
Mathematics is no exception.
 As a first step in studying the mathematical language, we
will make a very broad classification between the ‘nouns’
of mathematics (used to name mathematical objects of
interest)
and the ‘sentences’ of mathematics (which state complete
mathematical thoughts).
Uses:
1. Imagined as one that has one or more values
2. Wanted to be equally true for all elements in a
given set
“It” is replaces by a variable. Say “x” then:
2𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 2
“the unknown” will be replaced by “n”
No matter what number “n” might be chosen,
if “n” is greater than 2, then “𝑛2 " is greater
than 4
  Use variables to rewrite the following sentences more formally.

A. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of

their squares equals the square of their sum?
Are there numbers a and b with the property that 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 =
𝒂 + 𝒃 𝟐?
Or: Are there numbers a and b such that 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 2 ?
Or: Do there exist any numbers a and b such that 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 =
𝒂 + 𝒃 𝟐?
 Use variables to rewrite the following sentences more formally.

 B. Given any real number, its square is nonnegative.

Given any real number r, 𝒓𝟐 is nonnegative.

Or: For any real number r, 𝑟 2 ≥ 0.
Or: For all real numbers r, 𝒓𝟐 ≥ 𝟎.
 An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English
noun; it is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols
used to represent a mathematical object of interest.

 A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English

sentence; it is a correct arrangement of mathematical
symbols that states a complete thought.
 EXAMPLES:
2 is an expression
1+1 is an expression
x+1 is an expression
1+1=2 is a (true) sentence
1+1=3 is a (false) sentence
is a (sometimes true/sometimes
X +1=3
false) sentence

So, x is to mathematics as cat is to English: hence the title of the book,

One Mathematical Cat, Please!
 Like other languages, mathematics has nouns, pronouns, verbs and
sentences.
 It has its own vocabulary, grammar, syntax, synonyms, negations,
sentence structure, paragraph structure, conventions and
abbreviations.
 It is designed in such a way that one can write about numbers, sets,
functions, etc. as well as the processes undergone by these elements
(like: adding, multiplying, grouping and evaluating).
Mathematics uses many of symbols.
Ten digits (0, 1,2,3..9)
Symbols for operations ( +, -, X , ÷)
Symbols that represent values (x, y, z,
etc.)
Many special symbols ( = , <, >, ≥, π, etc.)
Universal Statements
Conditional Statements
Existential Statement
A certain property is true for all elements in a
set. (“for all”)
Ex. All positive numbers are greater than zero.
2. Conditional Statements
• If one thing is true then some other thing also has to
be true.
• Ex. If 378 is divisible by 18, then 378 is divisible by 6.
Universal conditional statement - A statement that is both
universal and conditional. (“if – then”)
Ex. For all animals a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.

Can be rewritten in ways that make them appear to be purely

universal or purely conditional.
Ex. Conditional: If a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
or: If an animal is a dog, then the animal is a mammal.
Universal: For all dogs a, a is a mammal.
or: All dogs are mammals
 Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:
For all real numbers x, if x is nonzero then 𝑥 2 positive.

a. If a real number is nonzero, then its square ___.

b. For all nonzero real numbers x, ___.
c. If x ___, then ___.
d. The square of any nonzero real number is ___.
e. All nonzero real numbers have ___.
Solution:
a. Is positive
b. 𝑥 2 is positive
c. Is a nonzero real number; 𝑥 2 is positive
d. Positive
e. Positive squares ( or: squares that are positive
 There is at least one thing for which the property is true.
 Ex. There is a prime number that is even.

Universal Existential Statements – universal because its first

part says that a certain property is true for all objects of a given
type, and it is existential because its second part asserts the
existence of something.
Ex. Every real number has an additive inverse.
All real numbers have additive inverses.
Or: For all real numbers r, there is an additive
inverse for r.
Or: For all real numbers r, there is a real
number s such that s is an additive inverse
 Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:

Every pot has a lid.

 a. All pots ___.
 b. For all pots P, there is ___.
 c. For all pots P, there is a lid L such that ___.

Solution:
a.Have lids
b.A lid for P
c.L is a lid for P
 Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:
All bottles have cap.

a. Every bottle ___.

b. For all bottles B, there ___.
c. For all bottles B, there is a cap C such that ___.
– its first part asserts that a certain object
exists and is universal because its second
parts says that the objects satisfies a
certain property for all things of a certain
kind.
 Ex. There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to
every positive integer.

 Some positive integer is less than or equal to every positive

integer.
 Or: There is a positive integer m that is less than or
equal to every positive integer.
 Or: There is a positive integer m such that every positive
integer is greater than or equal to m.
 Or: There is a positive integer m with the property that
for all positive integers n, m ≤n.
 Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement in three different ways:
 There is a person in my class who is at least as old as
every person in my class.

a. Some ___ is at least as old as ___.

b. There is a person p in my class such that p is ___.
c. There is a person p in my class with the property that
for every person q in my class, p is ___.

Solution:
a. Person in my class; every person in my class
b. At least as old as every person in my class
c. At least as old as q
 Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement in three different ways:
There is a bird in this flock that is at least as heavy as every bird in the flock.
a. Some ___ is at least as heavy as ___.
b. There is a bird b in this flock such that b is ___.
c. There is a bird b in this flock with the property that for every bird b in the flock,
b is ___.