Course Name: Stability constants of metal complexes

and their applications

Paper Number: 101
Section: A

Course Instructors: Dr. Sandeep Kaur (Associate Professor)

Dr. Heena Dahiya (Guest Faculty)
Dr. Sanjay Kumar Saroj (Guest Faculty)
 M. Sc. PART I
SEMESTER – I
Paper 101- Inorganic Chemistry-I (Core course 1) (100 Marks/ 4 Credits)
Course A: Stability constants of metal complexes and their applications

Stoichiometric and thermodynamic equilibrium constants, stepwise formation of

complexes, formation functions, φ, n and αC and relationship between different
functions. Calculation of stability constants. Graphical Methods: using sets of
data {φ, [A]}; {αC, [A]} and { n , [A]}.

Curve fitting method, Elimination method, Numerical method, Potentiometric

method, Method of corresponding solutions, Ion exchange method, Solvent
extraction, Polarographic method and Spectrophotometric methods, which
include Job's method of continuous variation, Logarithmic method, Bent and
French mole ratio method. Turner and Anderson methods and Yatsimirskiis
method.

Analytical applications of complex formation; gravimetric analysis,

complexometric titrations (Conditional constants, titration curves, titration error,
detection of end point using metal indicators and instrumental methods. Indicator
errors, Indicator correction, etc. Simultaneous titrations, stepwise titrations, back
titrations). Use of masking and demasking agents in complexometric titrations.

Recommended Texts:
1. Inczedy, J. Analytical applications of complex equilibria Halsted Press:
New York, NY (1976).
2. Martell, A. E. & Calvin, M. Chemistry of the Metal Chelate Compounds.
Prentice-Hall: N. Y. (1952).
3. Ringbom, A. Complexation in Analytical Chemistry Wiley: New York
(1963).
4. Hartley, F. R., Burgess, C. & Alcock, R. M. Solution Equilibria. Prentice-
Hall: Europe (1980).
5. Beck, M. T. Chemistry of Complex Equilibria van Nostrand Reinhold:
New York (1970)
6. Rossotti, F. J. C. & Rossotti, H. The Determination of Stability Constants
McGraw Hill: London (1961).
7. Mendham, J.; Denney, R.C.; Barnes, J. D.; Thomas, M., Vogel’s Textbook
of Quantitative Chemical Analysis. Pearson Education Ltd. (2000)
1. Stability constants of metal complexes and their Applications :
Complexes :
Complexation reaction : can be regarded as the exchange of solvent molecules for ligands.
M(H2O)n + L ⇌ M(H2O)n-1L + H2O, where M is the central metal ion and L is the

ligand.
In metal complexes, the central ion is a metal ion or possibly a proton. The ligand is an organic
or inorganic anion or neutral molecule.
Simple ions occur very rarely as such - only in gaseous phase – because if they are present in
solutions, they are always solvated. The number and orientation of the solvent molecules around
an ion are determined by the volume and charge density of the ion, and the spatial requirement of
the solvent molecules.
Thus during complexation, the solvent molecules surrounding the central ion may be
successively exchanged for other ligand ions or molecules.
M(H2O)n + n L ⇌ MLn + n H2O,

n = number of ligands in the complex which is equal to the coordination number if the ligand is
bound to the central ion at one site.
The charge of the complex formed may differ from that of the original solvated ion. The sign and
magnitude of the charge of the complex formed are given by the algebraic sum of the charges of
the ions constituting the complex.
For eg : [Cu(NH3)4]2+ ≡ +2 + (4x0) = +2
[Fe(CN)6]3− ≡ + 3 + (6 x −1) = − 3
[ZnCl2(H2O)2]0 ≡ + 2 + (2 x −1) + 2 x 0 = 0

2. Complex formation Equilibria :

The formation of the metal complexes can be represented by the following general reaction :
mM + nL ⇌ MmLn

The thermodynamic equilibrium constant of the reaction is :

 aM
t m Ln (P, T = constant)
amM a nL
where a = activities of the species.--------------- Eqn. 1
And these can be expressed as the product of concentrations and activity coefficients, therefore,

Mm L n f Mm L n
t m n m n
M L fM f L
where square brackets denote the
concentration in mole/L and ‘f’ is the activity coefficient. When ionic strength, I = 0, the activity
coefficient is equal to unity. Therefore,
Mm L n
M m
(P, T, I = constant)
mLn n
M L

This is known as thermodynamic equilibrium constant or stoichiometric equilibrium

constant.
According to Debye - Huckel theory, the activity coefficients in dilute solutions depend only on
the ionic strength and Ionic strength of a solution is a measure of the concentration of ions in that
solution.
1
I = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐶𝑖𝑍𝑖 2 , where c = concentration of the individual ions in solution in mole/L and z =
2

charge
When I = 0, a = 1. The average activity coefficients do not change much in the range of ionic
strength from 0.1 to 0.5 and can be considered as practically constant, as
√𝐼
− log 𝑓z± = Az2[ ] – 0.2 I, Davies equation
1+ √𝐼

Equilibria of mononuclear complexes :

The complexes are usually formed in a stepwise manner,
M + L ⇌ ML ………………A

ML + L ⇌ ML2 ……………… B

-----------------------------------------
MLn−1 + L ⇌ MLn ……………… C

The successive stability constants characterizing the formation of the different species are as
follows :
[𝑀𝐿] [𝑀𝐿2]
K1 =
[𝑀][𝐿]
K2 =
[𝑀𝐿][𝐿]
…………………….
[𝑀𝐿𝑛]
Kn =
[𝑀𝐿𝑛−1][𝐿]𝑛

Therefore, [ML] = K1[M][L]

[ML2] = K2[ML][L] = K1K2[M][L] …………… and [MLn−1] = K1K2 …...Kn [M][L]n

Now, β1 = K1, β2 = K1K2, ……………. βn = K1K2 ……Kn

or βn = ∏𝑛𝑖=1 𝐾𝑖
In general, the value of the first stability constant is largest and the values of successive stability
constants decrease.
In solutions in which various species are present simultaneously in amounts which depend upon
the K values, in these cases, the amounts of the particular species can be calculated if all the
stability constants and the total metal ion, ligand and hydrogen ion concentrations are known, or
conversely, the stability constants can be calculated if the composition of the system can be
determined.
That is why, the relationships between the constants (K or β) and quantities measurable by
analytical methods ([L], n, etc) are very important.
Average ligand number (suggested by Niels Bjerrrum) = This gives the degree of complex
formation. It is the mean number of ligands bound to one metal ion, i.e.
𝐶𝐿 −[𝐿] 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑛̅ = = , for unidentate ligands, 𝑛̅ (characteristic of the extent of
𝐶𝑀 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙
complexation) gives the average coordination number
CL = Total ligand concentration

CM = Total metal concentration

For the complexation reactions shown in page 2, K1, K2…..Kn are known as shown in page 3.
Total concentration of ligand or metal, whether it is complexed or not is given as below :

CL = [L] + [ML] + 2[ML2] + …… + n[MLn]

= [L] + β1[M][L] + 2 β2[M][L]2 + …… + nβn[M][L]n

i
= [L] + [M] ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [L]

CM = [M] + [ML] + [ML2] + …… + [MLn]

= [M] + K1[M][L] + K1K2[M][L]2 + …… + K1 K2…..Kn[M][L]n

= [M] + β1[M][L] + β2[M][L]2 + …… + βn[M][L]n

i
= [M]{1 + ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 [L] }

[𝐿]+[𝑀] ∑𝑁 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [𝐿] −[𝐿]
Hence, 𝑛
̅= [𝑀]{1+ ∑𝑁 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿] }

[𝑀] ∑𝑁 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]𝑖

= [𝑀]{1+ 𝑖=1
∑𝑁 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿] }

∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]
𝑖 [𝑀] ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]
𝑖
= If β0 = 1 = , then 𝑛
̅=
{1+ ∑𝑁 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿] } [𝑀][𝐿]0 ∑𝑁 𝑖
𝑖=0 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿] }

The last equation is the complex formation function. The equation shows that average ligand
number depends only on the concentration of the free ligand and is independent of that of the
metal ion.
If the concentrations of the ligand and the overall stability constants are known, average ligand
number can be calculated using the complex formation function.
When the total concentration of the ligand is much higher than that of the metal ion, i.e., CL >>
CM and the ligand is not involved in reactions other than the complex formation, then [L] ≈ CL,
i.e. , the total ligand concentration can be used instead of the free ligand concentration.

Mole fraction of the ith complex species in solution is given by :

[𝑀𝐿𝑖 ] 𝛽𝑖 [𝑀][𝐿]𝑖 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]𝑖
i [𝑀]+𝛽 2 𝑛
 
𝐶𝑀 1 [𝑀][𝐿]+𝛽2 [𝑀][𝐿] + ………. + 𝛽𝑛 [𝑀][𝐿] 1+𝛽1 [𝐿]+𝛽2 [𝐿]2 + ………..+ 𝛽𝑛 [𝐿]𝑛

𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]𝑖 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]𝑖
  as
1+ ∑𝑁𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]
𝑖 ∑𝑁
𝑖=0 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]
𝑖
Similarly, mole fraction of the free metal ion or degree of complex formation is given by :
[𝑀] 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑛 [𝑀]
0  [𝑀]+𝛽 2 + ……….

𝐶𝑀 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑛 1 [𝑀][𝐿]+𝛽2 [𝑀][𝐿] + 𝛽𝑛 [𝑀][𝐿]𝑛
1 1 1
   as
1+𝛽1 [𝐿]+𝛽2 [𝐿]2 + ………..+ 𝛽𝑛 [𝐿]𝑛 1+ ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]
𝑖 ∑𝑁
𝑖=0 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]
𝑖

Hence, i and0 depend on concentration of ligand i.e., [L].

∅𝑖
i 0𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]𝑖 , 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]𝑖
∅0

∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]
𝑖 ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]
𝑖
∅
𝑛̅ = = = 0∑𝑁𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]𝑖 = 0∑𝑁𝑖=1 𝑖 ∅ 𝑖
{1+ ∑𝑁 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿] } ∑𝑁
𝑖=0 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]
𝑖
0

= ∑𝑁𝑖=1 𝑖 ∅𝑖
Also from definition of mole fractions, 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + ….. + N = ∑𝑁
𝑖=0 ∅𝑖 = 1

̅ ∑𝑁𝑖=0 𝑖 ∅𝑖 
Therefore,𝑛

The mole fraction multiplied by 100 gives the amount of the species as a percentage of the total
metal ion concentration.
If L and Y are two ligands, and  and  are the corresponding overall stability constants,
then :
𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]𝑖
i 
1+𝛽1 [𝐿]+𝛽2 [𝐿]2 + ………𝛾1 [𝑌]+𝛾2 [𝑌]2

3. CONDITIONAL EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS :

• The dependence of the stability constants of the complexes on the ionic strength is
already known.
• It is very rare that the metal ions and the ligands which are involved in the complexation
reaction are the only species present in the system.
• The constituents of the complex may also take part in equilibrium reactions with other
species present in the system. This may also include the ions which are produced by the
solvent.
 • The ligand may be protonated and it may also be competed for by other metal ions
present in the solution, if any. Therefore, the real concentration of the free ligand may
differ in solutions of the same total ligand concn.
• Similarly, the real concn of the free metal ion may differ in solutions of the same total
metal concn. This is because the metal ion may interact with other complexing ligands
present, including hydroxide ions.
• Therefore, comes into picture, the name Conditional constant. It expresses the notion of
the term which can be assumed as constant only under given conditions of concentration
and pH. The general form of the overall conditional stability constant for a
mononuclear complex is :
[𝑀𝐿 ]
𝛽 ′ n = [𝑀′][𝐿𝑛′ 𝑛 , where [M] is the apparent free metal ion concn, which means the
]

concn of metal ion that has not reacted with complexant L and similarly, [L] s the
apparent ligand concn i.e., the concn of the ligand not bound to the central ion M. This
may include the ocncn of the ligand whether L is in protonated or non-protonated form,
or in the form of complexes with other metal ions.

Relationship between the apparent and free metal ion concn :

Let Y be the interfering complexant which reduces the free metal ion concn. Therefore,
[𝑀′ ] [𝑀] + [𝑀𝑌] + [𝑀𝑌2 ] + ………
=
[𝑀] [𝑀]

By the use of the overall stability constant, n of the complexes formed in the side reaction, the
above equation can be written as :
[𝑀𝑌]
M + Y ⇌ MY, 1 = Hence, [MY] = 1[M][Y]
[𝑀][𝑌]
[𝑀′ ] [𝑀] + 𝛾1 [𝑀][𝑌] + 𝛾2 [𝑀][𝑌]2 + ……… 1 + 𝛾1 [𝑌] + 𝛾2 [𝑌]2 + ………
= = = 𝛼𝑀(𝑌)
[𝑀] [𝑀] 1

The quantity 𝛼𝑀(𝑌) is called the side reaction coefficient or – coefficient for M reacting with

Y. From the above relation 𝛼𝑀(𝑌) can be calculated.

 [𝐿′ ]
In the same way, the ratio can be calculated for the side reaction of ligand, L with B :
[𝐿]

[𝐿′ ] [𝐿] + [𝐿𝐵] + [𝐿𝐵2 ] + ………

=
[𝐿] [𝐿]

[𝐿′ ] [𝐿] + 𝛾1 [𝐿][𝐵] + 𝛾2 [𝐿][𝐵]2 + ……… 1 + 𝛾1 [𝐵] + 𝛾2 [𝐵]2 + ………

= = = 𝛼𝐿(𝐵)
[𝐿] [𝐿] 1

The side reaction of the ligand is mostly protonation. Therefore, in such cases, 𝛼𝐿(𝐻) is given by

means of the protonation constants : 𝛼𝐿(𝐻) = 1 + K1[H+] + K1K2[H+]2 + ..…..

Now, putting the values of [M] and [L] in the equation given below :

[𝑀′ ] [𝐿′ ]
= 𝛼𝑀(𝑌) and = 𝛼𝐿(𝐵)
[𝑀] [𝐿]

[𝑀𝐿 ] [𝑀𝐿𝑛 ] 𝛽𝑛
𝛽 ′ n = [𝑀′][𝐿𝑛′ 𝑛 = [𝑀][𝐿]𝑛 𝛼𝑀(𝑌) 𝛼 𝑛 𝐿(𝐵)
=
] 𝛼𝑀(𝑌) 𝛼 𝑛 𝐿(𝐵)

Taking log on both sides,

log βn = log βn − log M(Y) − n log L(B)

If M and L are involved in more than one side reaction, the  values are summed to give an
overall value :
M = M(Y) + M(X) + …… − (i−1) and

L = L(B) + L(H) + …… − (i−1) where i is the number of side reactions

The correction − (i−1) is necessary since all  functions involve 1, representing free M or free L.
In practice one or two  terms predominate, therefore, − (i−1) can often be neglected including
the other  terms.
The complex itself may undergo side-reactions, for eg,
(i) Formation of protonated complexes
(ii) Formation of mixed ligand complexes
Therefore, in these cases an appropriate -coefficient is calculated and inserted in the numerator
of the equation calculated for βn.
The -functions are the reciprocal values of the partial mole fractions of the free metal ion
and free ligand, as this refers to the amount which does not take part in the main reaction.
1 1
M = and L =
∅′ 𝑀 ∅′ 𝐿

[𝑀′ ]
If no side reactions are involved, the value of the -function is 1. In such cases, = 1,
[𝑀]

[𝐿′ ]
therefore, [M] = [M] and similarly, = 1, hence, [L] = [L].
[𝐿]

The importance of conditional constants is that they can be applied in calculations like true
constants, to yield answers that refer to particular conditions.

Role of hydrogen ion concn in complex formation :

The hydrogen ion concn plays an important part in complex formation. This is because ligands
are usually strong Bronsted Bases and hence are easily protonated, and hence the free ligand
concn depends on pH.
In the presence of metal ion which forms mononuclear complexes, the total ligand concn is given
by the following equation :
CL = [L] + β1[M][L] + 2 β2[M][L]2 + ……… + K1 [H][L] + K1K2 [H]2[L] + …….
i
= [M] ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [L] + [L]L(H) -------------------------------Eqn 1

In the absence of complexing metal ions,

𝐶𝐿
CL = [L]L(H) or [L] =
𝛼𝐿(𝐻)

Also if CL >> CM, the first term on the right hand side may be neglected in the Equation 1,
above, hence, CL = [L]L(H)
Taking log on both sides : log [L] = log CL − log L(H)
The amount of ligand bound in the complex is given by the first term on the right hand side of
Eqn 1 and if we divide this by the total metal ion concn, it gives the average number of ligands
bound by one metal ion :
i
CL = [M] ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [L] + [L]L(H)
i
or, CL − [L]L(H) = [M] ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [L]

C𝐿 − [L]𝐿(𝐻) [M] ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [L]
𝑖
𝐶𝐿 −[𝐿]
𝑛
or ̅̅̅ = = because 𝑛̅ =
𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝑀

[M] ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [L]
𝑖
∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]
𝑖
= =
[M]{1 + ∑𝑁 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 [L] }
{1+ ∑𝑁 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿] }

𝑛 , is modified in this way if protonation of the ligand is to be

Thus the normal equation for ̅̅̅
taken into account.

Another example :
Another pH dependent phenomenon to be considered when dealing with aqueous solutions is the
formation of hydroxo-complexes, which is another side reaction of the metal ion, and has to be
taken into account when calculating conditional equilibrium constants. Hydroxo complexes are
formed by dissociation of protons from the corresponding aquo-complexes.

k1
[Fe(H2O)6] 3+
⇌ [Fe(H2O)5OH]2+ + H+

k2
[Fe(H2O)5OH] 2+
⇌ [Fe(H2O)4OH]+ + H+

In cases where only the formation of mononuclear complexes is to be considered, the hydroxo-
complex formation can be taken into account simply by using the  − function in equilibrium
calculations.
The pH below which practically no hydroxo-complexes are formed depends on the stability
constant of the hydroxo-complex first formed, since the first stability constant is usually the
greatest.
For the function, M(OH) = 1 + β1[OH] + ….. to be smaller than 1.01, the second term must
be smaller than 10−2. Therefore,
log β1 + log [OH−] ≤ − 2
log β1 + log [H+] + log [OH−] ≤ − 2 + log [H+]
log β1 − 14 ≤ − 2 − pH
pH ≤ 14 − 2 − log β1

Determination of the stability constants of Mononuclear Complexes :

In the case of mononuclear complexes, correlations exist between the concentrations CL, CM, [L],
[M], [MLn], etc, the average ligand number 𝑛̅, and the mole fractions ∅𝑖 , and it is possible to
establish the relationship between two variables experimentally for the determination of stability
constants.
The methods available for determining stability constants are mainly based on the preparation of
a series of solutions containing known amounts of complex-forming components in which the
concentration of one component is gradually varied and the concn of one of the reactant or
products is followed directly or indirectly by a suitable analytical method.
Usually the concentration of the metal ion is kept constant and that of the ligand varies within
wide limits.
The most suitable analytical methods are those which do not disturb the equilibria existing in
solution and by which low concentrations can be selectively determined with high accuracy.
Instrumental methods of analysis are based on the measurement of an intensive physico-chemical
property which is proportional to the concn of a substance.
In the investigation of complex formation which is stepwise, where several species are present in
the solution, it is very important to have a selective analytical method by which the concn of a
single species can be determined in presence of others, independently of the composition of the
solution. Such as by Potentiometry or ion-exchange method, etc.

POTENTIOMETRIC METHODS :
From these methods, the activity of the free metal and of the free ligand can be directly
determined.
Direct methods : (A) Measurement of free metal ion concn :
A series of solutions is prepared in which the total concn of the metal ion is constant and the
ligand concn gradually increases.
Usually in order to make the stability constants calculated from analytical concentrations
unambiguous, the ionic strength should be the same in each solution. Hence, in general the concn
of the complex forming substances should be low and a large concn of inert electrolyte should be
present to ensure constant ionic strength.
Therefore, in potentiometric method also, the constant ionic strength is ensured by adding an
inert electrolyte to each of the solutions.
If the potential of a reversible Mz+/M electrode is measured in a solution of concn, CM in the
absence and presence of complexing agent :

Cell is :
CL, CM Metal electrode
Reference
electrode constant ionic Mz+ / M
strength

In the complexed state, when more complex species are formed, the free metal ion concn is
calculated from the following expression :
𝐶𝑀
= {[M] + β1[M][L] + β2[M][L]2 + …… + βN[M][L]N} / [M]
[𝑀]
i
= 1 + ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 [L] = AM(L)

The function AM(L) obtained is the reciprocal of the function, ∅ (mole fraction) for the free metal
𝐶𝑀
ion. Therefore, [M] =
𝐴𝑀(𝐿)

Now for the two conditions, the Emf equation can be written as :
1. When no complexing agent is present : [M] = CM
0.059
E1 = E0M + log aM
𝑛
0.059
E1 = E0M + log [M] fM
𝑛
0.059
E1 = E0M + log CM fM , where fM is activity coefficient
𝑛
 𝐶𝑀
2. When complexing agent is present: [M] =
𝐴𝑀(𝐿)

0.059 𝐶𝑀 𝑓𝑀
E2 = E0M + log
𝑛 𝐴𝑀(𝐿)

The difference between 1 and 2 is :

0.059 0.059 𝐶𝑀 𝑓𝑀
E1 – E2 = ∆𝐸 = E0M − E0M + log CM fM − log
𝑛 𝑛 𝐴𝑀(𝐿)

0.059
∆𝐸 = log AM(L)
𝑛
Calculation of complex products from related ligand concn and AM(L) data. This can be done
by using the above equation in graphical method of calculation : (as shown by Leden). Also
known as elimination method.
The principle is as follows :
𝐶𝑀
−1 1 + ∑𝑁 𝑖
𝐴𝑀(𝐿) −1 [𝑀] 𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 [L] − 1
= = = {β1[L] + β2[L]2 + …… + βN[L]N} / [L]
[𝐿] [𝐿] [𝐿]
𝐴𝑀(𝐿) −1
= β1 + β2[L] + …… + βN[L]N−1
[𝐿]
𝐴𝑀(𝐿) −1
Plotting, vs [L], we get β1 from intercept (after extrapolation)
[𝐿]

AM(L) 1
[L]


[L]
𝐴𝑀(𝐿) −1
− 𝛽1
[𝐿]
Again, = β2 + β3[L] + …… + βN[L]N−2
[𝐿]
𝐴𝑀(𝐿) −1
− 𝛽1
[𝐿]
Plotting, vs [L], we get β2 from intercept (after extrapolation). Similarly for βN.
[𝐿]
𝐴𝑀(𝐿) −1
[𝐿]
= β1[L]1−N + β2[L] 2−N + …… + βN
𝐿𝑁−1
= βN + βN−1[L] −1 + …… + β1[L]1−N

AM(L) 1
[L]
[L]N-1

n
[L]-1

If only one complex species is formed, i.e., MLn,

M + nL ⇄ [MLn] n is the stability constant for this reaction

Hence, the overall complex formation constant can be calculated using the equation :
[𝑀𝐿𝑛 ]
βn = as [MLn] = CM − [M] and [L] = CL – n[MLn]
[𝑀][𝐿]𝑛
[𝑀𝐿𝑛 ]
Taking log on both sides, log βn = log  n log [L]
[𝑀]
[𝑀𝐿𝑛 ]
log = n log [L] + log βn
[𝑀]
[𝑀𝐿𝑛 ]
Plotting log versus log [L] will give a slope = n and intercept = log βn, from which one
[𝑀]

can obtain βn.

(B). Determination of free ligand concn :

A series of solutions is prepared in which the total concn of the central metal ion is the same but
the concn of the ligand is varied within wide limits.
The concn of the free ligand is determined potentiometrically in each solution by using ion-
specific electrode.
The average ligand number is calculated for each solution using the following equation :
𝐶𝐿 −[𝐿]
𝑛̅ =
𝐶𝑀

From the calculated 𝑛̅ , and related [L] data, the overall stability constants are determined by
using the following equation :

∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑖𝛽𝑖 [𝐿]
𝑖
𝑛̅ = =
{1 + ∑𝑁 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 [𝐿] }
Ion-specific electrodes used are silver-silver halide electrodes, Calomel is the reference
electrode.

SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC METHODS :
The optical properties of solutions containing complexes differ from those of the constituted ions
or molecules. The change in the optical behaviour is closely related to the formation of
coordinated bonds. Thus analytical methods based on the measurement of light absorption can be
used to study complex equilibria. And the determination is done at an appropriate choice of the
wavelength. The basis of this is the Beer-Lambert law.

(A). Method of Continuous Variation : This is also known as Job’s method.

The principle is : Mole ratio of metal ion and ligand is varied between 0 and 1 at constant total
concn which is C = CL + CM and the absorbance of the solutions of different composition is
measured.
The absorbances are then plotted against the mole fraction, 𝑥 L of the ligand. If only one species,
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
i.e, MLn is formed, then : n =
1 −𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where the absorbance is measured at a wavelength where neither the metal ion nor the ligand but
only the complex absorbs. Here, n can be calculated from the abscissa of the maximum of the
curve i.e., 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
The stability constant can also be calculated from the curve by drawing tangents to the initial and
final points of the curve. The points on the tangents drawn to the first part of the curve are
proportional to the concn of complex equivalent to the total ligand concn as the complex
formation is limited by ligand concn.

The points on the tangent drawn to the last part of the curve give the absorbances which would
be measured if the metal were completely present in the form of the complex.
The ratio of the observed absorbance to that indicated by the tangent, for the same value of x, is
equal to the mole-fraction of the metal ion in the complex, when 𝑥 > 𝑥 max.
Therefore,
𝐴 [𝑀𝐿𝑛 ]
= = ∅𝑛 𝑜𝑟 ∅𝑖 -------------------- 1 and [ex----stands for extrapolated]
𝐴𝑒𝑥 𝐶𝑀

the mole fraction of the ligand in the complex when 𝑥 < 𝑥 max
𝐴 𝑛[𝑀𝐿𝑛 ]
= ……………………. 2
𝐴𝑒𝑥 𝐶𝐿

The concn of the complex species can be expressed as follows from the above two equations :
𝐴
From equation 1, [𝑀𝐿𝑛 ] = × CM
𝐴𝑒𝑥
𝐴 𝐶𝐿
From equation 2, [𝑀𝐿𝑛 ] = ×
𝐴𝑒𝑥 𝑛
𝐶𝐿
Hence, CM = = Cx
𝑛
If multiplier of the ratio of absorbances is denoted by C𝑥 :
If 𝑥 > 𝑥max then Cx = CM
𝐶𝐿
If 𝑥 < 𝑥max then Cx =
𝑛
𝐶𝐿
If 𝑥 = 𝑥 max then Cx = CM =
𝑛
From these equations the concn of the free metal ion and free ligand can be expressed as follows:
𝐴
[M] = CM  𝐶𝑥
𝐴𝑒𝑥
𝐴
[L] = CL  n 𝐶𝑥
𝐴𝑒𝑥
The overall stability constant is given by :
[𝑀𝐿𝑛 ]
βn =
[𝑀][𝐿]𝑛
𝐴
𝐶𝑥
𝐴𝑒𝑥
= 𝐴 𝐴
[𝐶𝑀 − 𝐶 ][𝐶𝐿 − 𝑛 𝐶 ]𝑛
𝐴𝑒𝑥 𝑥 𝐴𝑒𝑥 𝑥

The absorption spectrum of the complex is used to choose the optimum wavelength, where the
absorption of the complex is high and also where a small shift in the wavelength does not cause
an appreciable change in the absorbance.

(B). Mole - Ratio Method :

The principle of the method is that a series of solutions is prepared in which the concn of one
complex (usually CM) is kept constant and that of the other varied. The absorbances of solutions
is measured at a suitable wavelength and plotted versus the ratio of the variable and constant
𝐶𝐿
concns, i.e., the ratio of the concn of = a.
𝐶𝑀
If only one stable complex is formed, which has selective light absorption, then the absorbance
increases approximately linearly with the mole-ratio and then becomes constant. The abscissa of
the point of intersection of the two tangents gives the number of ligands in the complex, if it was
the ligand concn that was varied.
The stability constant can be calculated from the coordinates of the points of the straight lines
and the curve in a similar way as in the case of the method of continuous variation. For the
[𝑀𝐿] [𝑀𝐿] 𝐴
formation of ML complex, ∅ML = = =
𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝑥 𝐴𝑒𝑥

𝐴
𝐶𝑥
𝐴𝑒𝑥
KML = 𝐴 𝐴
[𝐶𝑀 − 𝐶𝑥 ][𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶 ]
𝐴𝑒𝑥 𝐴𝑒𝑥 𝑥

Before, the intersection, Cx = CL and after that Cx = CM. Conditions : similar to those in the
case of method of continuous variation.
If the stability of the complex is greater, peak is sharper, hence, tangents can be drawn easily and
if the stability of the complex is less, drawing of the tangents becomes uncertain.
If the free metal ion or ligand also absorbs at the same wavelength chosen, then the absorbance
due to the metal or ligand has to be subtracted from the absorbance measured, and the difference
in absorbances is plotted as the ordinate.

Conditions for the applicability of this method :

1. It is the most widely used method, but if the stability constant is small or very large, or n is
greater than 3, the evaluation is uncertain.
2. The method cannot be used when more than one complex is formed simultaneously.
3. Metal and ligand should not react with the other constituents present in the solution.
4. As the majority of the ligands are weak bases, the commonest side reaction is protonation of
the ligand. Therefore, if the protonated form of the ligand is to be taken into account in the
case of aqueous solutions the pH must be kept constant by using buffer solutions during the
experiments and therefore, the free ligand concn and the stability constant will be conditional
 which is βn = βn nL(H), if L(H) has been calculated from the pH used in all the experiments
and from the protonation constants.
5. Similarly, possible side-reactions of the metal (formation of hydroxides or complexes with
buffer components) have to be taken into account if the position of the equilibrium is not to
shift during the experiments.
6. Validity of the Beer-Lambert’s law is a basic condition for the applicability of the method, it is
advisable to use low concn of complex forming constituents.
7. To ensure constant ionic strength, an inert electrolyte is added in a concn greater than that of
the complexing constituents.

Bjerrums Method : Graphical method

(Inczedy : Page 141- Page 143)
This method can be used in the case of successive complex formation, if the ligands tend to
protonate (and the protonation constants are known) and the complex with maximum number of
ligands has selective light absorption at the wavelength chosen. When determining stability
constants, it is necessary to know the composition of the complex species formed.
A series of solutions is prepared in which both CM and CL are constant, CL  CM but the pH is
varied. The absorbances of the solutions are measured and plotted vs the logarithm of the free
ligand concn.

The free ligand concn is calculated from the pH and the protonation constants by using the
𝐶𝐿
following equation : L = or log L = log CL  log 𝛼𝐿(𝐻)
𝛼𝐿(𝐻)
If the overall stability constant of the light absorbing complex with maximum coordination
number is high enough, then the absorbance will reach a limiting value in the pH range
investigated (see figure above).
As the concn of the complex with maximum ligand number is practically equal to CM when the
limiting value is reached, the mole-fraction ∅𝑁 can be calculated at any point of the curve by
dividing the actual absorbance by the maximum absorbance, i.e.,
𝑀𝐿𝑁  𝐸𝑎
∅𝑁 = =
𝐶𝑀 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

From the values L and ∅𝑁 , stability constants can be calculated by using the Sillén’s curve –

𝛽𝑖 𝐿𝑖
fitting method or by using the following equation  ∅𝑖 = 𝑖 --------- 1
1 𝛽𝑖 𝐿
1 +∑𝑁

𝛽1 𝐿
If N = 1 (complex ML), then eqn 1 above can be written as, ∅1 =
1 + 𝛽1 𝐿

∅1 + ∅1 𝛽1 𝐿 = 𝛽1 𝐿 ∅1 = 𝛽1 𝐿 − ∅1 𝛽1 𝐿

∅1 ∅1
= 𝛽1 𝐿 log ( ) = log β1 + logL
1 − ∅1 1 − ∅1

Plotting the left hand side of the above equation against log L gives a straight line, the intercept
of which is log β1 .
A great advantage of studies made by changing the pH is that the free ligand concn can be
changed sensitively over a wide range without changing the ionic strength [Link]
drawback of this method is that above pH 7, the results may be falsified by competing formation
of metal-hydroxo complexes.

The conditions for the applicability of the method are 

The maximum ligand number should not be greater than 2 (or 3) and only the complex species
with maximum coordination number should have appreciable absorption at the wavelength
chosen.
If N = 1, another light – absorbing constituent is permissible.
The value of 𝛽𝑁 has to be high enough for Emax to be reached in the pH range investigated but
not so high that the metal ion is present in the form of MLN even in acid solution (pH  3).
The first protonation constant should be large and the metal ion should not be involved in any
side reaction in the pH range studied.
The practical directions given for determination of protonation constants and application of the
method of continuous variation apply.
The complete series of measurements can be made on one solution of known composition by
adding to it small protions of standard alkali solution from a burette, and measuring the pH and
absorbance of the solution simultaneously. It is important that the dilution of the solution during
the measurements is negligible or can be corrected for (without causing further other errors).