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Geosynthetic barriers systems for dams

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3 9th International Conference on Geosynthetics, Brazil, 2010

Geosynthetic barriers systems for dams

Cazzuffi, D.
CESI SpA, Milano, Italy
Giroud, J.P.
JP GIROUD, INC., Ocean Ridge, United States
Scuero, A. & Vaschetti, G.
Carpi Tech, Chiasso, Switzerland

Keywords: Geosynthetic, geomembrane, composite geomembrane, geocomposite, dam, embankment dam,

earthfill dam, rockfill dam, concrete face rockfill dam, CFRD, bituminous concrete face rockfill dam, con-
crete dam, masonry dam, roller compacted concrete dam, RCC, water barrier, composite barrier, waterproof-
ing, seepage, drainage, design, construction, rehabilitation, performance, durability.

ABSTRACT: In more than 270 dams worldwide, geomembranes are the main waterproofing component. The
geomembrane is generally associated with other geosynthetics performing various functions, thereby forming
a geosynthetic barrier. In this paper, uses of geosynthetic barriers in the various types of dams are reviewed.
The types of dams reviewed include: embankment dams (earthfill and rockfill dams), concrete and masonry
dams, and roller compacted concrete (RCC) dams. Design and construction aspects are considered, as well as
selection of geosynthetic materials and performance (including seepage control and durability). The paper is
illustrated using a number of examples of new dams and rehabilitation of existing dams, including examples
of the early dams constructed or rehabilitated using geosynthetic barriers in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.

1 INTRODUCTION important milestones in the development of the geo-

synthetics technology. The same approach is used
The use of geosynthetics as water barriers is one of for tailings dams, which are not discussed specifical-
the numerous uses of geosynthetics in hydraulic and ly, in accordance with a request from the conference
geotechnical applications of geosynthetics. The use organizers.
of geosynthetics in dams is a major application of
geosynthetics since “dams have a particular status
due to their impact on the environment and on safe- 2 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
ty”, as pointed out by Heibaum et al. (2006). This
paper discusses various aspects of design and con- 2.1 Early uses of geomembranes
struction of geosynthetic barriers in dams, and is il-
lustrated by innovative case histories as well as by The use of polymeric liners since the 1950s has been
case histories of historical interest. made possible by the availability of synthetic poly-
The discussions address the geosynthetic barrier mers after the war. This availability resulted from
as a system, which includes not only the geomem- the significant increase in production of synthetic
brane barrier but also the other geosynthetic compo- rubber and plastics in the 1940s in the United States
nents of the system, such as the geosynthetics pro- because supply of natural rubber was quasi impossi-
viding drainage, support, protection, etc. All types of ble due to the war situation in Southeast Asia.
dams are discussed, listed under three main groups, Geomembranes were first used as barriers in hy-
according to the specific issues pertaining to each draulic structures shortly after the Second World
group: embankment dams, concrete and masonry War (Scuero & Vaschetti 2009). For example, in the
dams, and roller compacted concrete (RCC) dams. 1940s and 1950s, the US Bureau of Reclamation
New construction as well as rehabilitation of dams (USBR) carried out research and field experimenta-
are addressed, following the same approach adopted tion on various types of canal linings. The first pub-
by Cancelli & Cazzuffi (1994). Cofferdams and lications of the USBR on the subject were in 1957:
heightening of embankment dams are not discussed on “asphalt membrane canal linings” (Elsperman
specifically, but are mentioned when they represent 1957) and on “Plastic films as canal lining mate-

115
rials” (Hickey 1957). They were the first publica- located on top of a steep slope whose stability could
tions of the USBR on the materials called today be impaired by excessive leakage. At the Pont-de-
“geomembranes”, a terminology proposed twenty Claix Reservoir, the secondary liner is a bituminous
years later (Giroud & Perfetti 1977) and adopted geomembrane made in-situ by spraying hot bitumen
worldwide. on a needle-punched nonwoven geotextile, the drai-
The polymeric materials used in these early appli- nage layer is made of rounded aggregate (stabilized
cations were low density polyethylene (LDPE), po- with cement on the 1V:2H slopes), and the primary
lyvinyl chloride (PVC) and butyl rubber. The ther- liner is a 1.5 mm thick butyl rubber geomembrane.
moplastic liners (LDPE and PVC) were very thin: A polyester needle-punched nonwoven geotextile
0.25 mm and even less some times. The thickest was used between the geomembrane and the aggre-
thermoplastic liners were typically 0.5 mm (LDPE) gate. The butyl rubber geomembrane is exposed and
and 0.75 mm (PVC). In contrast, as soon as the mid- the reservoir is still in service. Learning from suc-
1950s, butyl rubber liners became available in a va- cess, it should be remembered that the consequences
riety of thicknesses ranging from 0.5 mm to 2.5 mm. of liner failure should always be considered in de-
Thus, in 1957, a 3.7 m deep brine reservoir, Daisetta sign. This is particularly important in dam design.
Reservoir, in Texas, USA, was lined with 32,000 m2 In 1972, the first high density polyethylene
of 2.25 mm thick butyl rubber liner. In 1963, a 16 m (HDPE) geomembrane was used in a reservoir in
deep existing concrete-lined water reservoir, Olinda Germany. Thanks to their excellent durability and
Reservoir, in Maui (Hawaii, USA), with 1V:1H side chemical resistance, HDPE geomembranes have ra-
slopes, was lined with a 1.5 mm thick butyl rubber pidly become the most widely used geomembranes
liner. A very large reservoir was built in 1969 in in waste disposal landfills worldwide. HDPE geo-
Molokai Island (Hawaii, USA): the Kualapuu Re- membranes are also extensively used in reservoirs
servoir for municipal and irrigation water. This 17 m for industrial liquids. As a result, many engineers are
deep reservoir was lined with 420,000 m2 of exposed familiar with HDPE geomembranes and are tempted
(i.e. unprotected) nylon-scrim reinforced butyl rub- to use them in hydraulic structures, including dams.
ber liner, 0.8 mm thick. The exposed butyl rubber However, the use of HDPE geomembranes in dams
liner was preferred to another design which con- has been limited due to their rigidity, which restricts
sisted of thinner LDPE or PVC liner covered with a their ability to adapt to large deformations of the
layer of protective soil. The Kualapuu Reservoir was supporting material caused by high hydrostatic pres-
for a long time the largest reservoir in the world with sures involved in dams.
a polymeric liner. However, the exposed portion of In the 1960s and 1970s, PVC liners were exten-
the liner, above the water level, was extensively sively used to line reservoirs in many countries. In
damaged by wind. The slopes above the water level many cases, thin and inexpensive PVC liners were
are now covered with a concrete liner on one part of used to line reservoirs for non-technical applications.
the perimeter and a geomattress (i.e. a geotextile- Such reservoirs had a limited service life, which led
formed concrete layer) in the other part of the peri- some to conclude that PVC liners should be reserved
meter. The butyl rubber liner, which is still believed to low-tech applications with limited service life.
to be more or less intact under the water level, is not Also, some engineers, unaware of the wide range of
connected to the concrete liners located above the durability of available PVC geomembranes, have se-
water level. Extensive leakage is taking place. This lected inadequate PVC geomembranes for technical
project is of the same magnitude as a large dam and applications where a high-performance PVC liner
its unsatisfactory performance illustrates the need should have been used. As a result, in the early
for careful design. Learning from failure, it should 1970s, it would have been difficult to predict that the
be remembered that it is important in design to iden- highest level of performance would be achieved in
tify and adequately evaluate the external actions to dams by PVC geomembranes.
which the geomembrane can be subjected during its The use of geomembranes in reservoirs has paved
service life. This is particularly important in dam de- the way for the use of geomembranes in dams. Suc-
sign. cessful reservoir projects have help build confidence
While improperly designed liners fail, properly in geomembranes. Lessons learned from problems
designed liners may have a long service life. This is and failures associated with reservoirs make it poss-
the case of the 10 m deep Pont-de-Claix Reservoir, ible to avoid the same problems or failures, which
constructed in 1974 with the first double geomem- could be catastrophic in the case of dams.
brane liner ever. The concept of a double liner, i.e.
two liners with a drainage layer in between to con- 2.2 Concept of using geomembranes in dams
trol leakage into the ground by ensuring extremely
low head on the secondary liner, had been presented While the concept of using geomembranes in dams
the preceding year (Giroud 1973). A double liner instead of conventional impervious materials such as
was selected to effectively control leakage from the clay, cement concrete (hereafter simply called con-
Pont-de-Claix Reservoir, because this reservoir is crete) or bituminous concrete, obviously derived,

116
among other considerations, from the successful use • The geomembrane barrier consisted of two lay-
of geomembranes in canals and reservoirs, the cre- ers of identical geomembranes placed on top of
dibility of synthetic materials in dams had been es- each other over the entire upstream face of the
tablished by the good performance of embedded dam. (It is important to note that two geomem-
PVC waterstops in a very large number of concrete branes (or two liners of any type) placed on top
dams worldwide. In those dams, waterstops play an of each other, without a drainage layer in be-
essential role by preventing water seepage through
tween, do not form a double liner.) A total of
joints that are indispensable to accommodate con-
3900 m2 of geomembrane were used on the 1900
crete expansion and contraction. A geomembrane
placed on the upstream face of a dam or inside a m2 upstream face. These two geomembrane lay-
dam can be considered, from a conceptual viewpoint, ers were glued to each other along the edges.
as one wide waterstop sealed at the abutments and • The lower geomembrane layer was glued using a
the bottom. bitumen adhesive on the 0.1 m thick supporting
The first applications of geomembranes in dams material made of porous concrete. The porous
took place in new embankment dams because many concrete rests on 0.25 m thick reinforced con-
of these dams, being too permeable, required a sepa- crete slabs, resting on the dry masonry.
rate element to provide imperviousness. In many • The geomembrane barrier was covered by un-
cases, it appeared that geosynthetic barrier systems reinforced 2 m × 2 m concrete slabs, 0.20 m
were more economical and easier to install than tra- thick, cast on site. The joints between adjacent
ditional impervious materials such as clay, concrete slabs were left open, 1 mm wide, and were not
or bituminous concrete.
filled by any porous material, to allow for free
Geomembranes were used in embankment dams
circulation of water and to provide some flexibil-
before they were used in concrete dams probably for
two reasons: (i) because geomembrane installation ity in case of settlement. There was a sheet of bi-
on the slope of an embankment dam is similar to in- tuminous paper-felt between the concrete slabs
stallation on the slopes of a pond, an application and the upper geomembrane layer to protect the
where geomembranes has been used since the late geomembrane during the casting of the concrete
1950s; and (2) because installation on a gentle slope slabs.
is less demanding than installation on a vertical face.

2.3 Early uses of geomembranes in dams

It is important to study the early uses of geomem-
branes in dams, because this provides an opportunity
to learn from successes and failures with the benefit
of hindsight, concerning in particular: geomembrane
selection, geomembrane thickness, geomembrane
durability, geomembrane protection, design concepts,
design details (which are so important in dams),
failure modes of geomembranes used in dams, and
geotechnical failure modes associated with geo-
membranes. Figure 1. General cross section of Contrada Sabetta Dam (mod-
Contrada Sabetta Dam, constructed in 1959 in Ita- ified after Cazzuffi 1987 and ICOLD 1991).
ly, is the first example of use of a geomembrane as
the only water barrier in a dam (Cazzuffi 1987). In 1960, a geomembrane was used at Dobsina
Contrada Sabetta Dam is a 32.5 m high rockfill dam Dam, a 10 m high earthfill dam in Slovakia with a
with a crest length of 155 m. It is a dam of a special crest length of 204 m. At Dobsina Dam, according to
type: rocks were arranged as dry masonry, which the scant information available, a 0.9 mm thick PVC
made it possible to achieve very steep slopes, 1V:1H geomembrane was placed on the 1V:2.5H upstream
upstream and 1V:1.4H downstream. The geomem- face. The geomembrane was then covered with pa-
brane used was 2.0 mm thick and made of polyiso- per and prefabricated concrete slabs. A total of 850
butylene, an elastomeric compound that is no longer m2 of geomembrane were used.
used as a geomembrane today, not because of any According to the information available from
performance problem, at least when it is covered, ICOLD, seven years elapsed before geomembranes
but essentially because modern geomembranes are were again used in dams, and again it was on em-
easier to seam. A general cross section of Contrada bankment dams. In 1967, Miel Dam was constructed
Sabetta Dam is shown in Figure 1 and a detailed in France. It is a 15 m high earthfill dam with a crest
cross section is shown in Figure 2. Special features length of 130 m. A 1 mm thick butyl rubber geo-
of Contrada Sabetta Dam included the following: membrane was placed on the 1V:2.5H upstream
slope. The geomembrane was covered with 0.20 m

117
of sand and gravel overlain by 0.70 m of rip rap. A scription of the geomembrane installation was pro-
total of 2700 m2 of geomembrane was installed in vided by Lacroix (1984).
that dam. Special features of Terzaghi Dam relevant to the
geomembrane application are the following:
• The water barrier in the dam was a 1.5 m thick
clay layer covered by 2 m of rubble fill.
• Large differential settlement was expected and
the clay layer was designed to be convex in order
to remain in compression when settlement oc-
curs.
• However, at the transition between the 15º slope
and the quasi-horizontal area near the toe of the
upstream face, the clay layer was necessarily
concave.
In this 10,000 m2 transition zone, a geomembrane
was used to prevent the clay from cracking. The
function of the geomembrane can be described as
follows. The geomembrane, placed on top of the
Figure 2. Detailed cross section of upstream toe of Contrada clay, ensures that a uniform pressure equal to the
Sabetta Dam (modified after Cazzuffi 1987 and ICOLD 1991): hydrostatic pressure is applied on the clay. The hy-
[1] 0.20 m thick concrete slabs, [2] one sheet of bituminous drostatic pressure being higher than the compressive
paper-felt + two sheets of polyisobutylene geomembrane (2.0 strength of the clay, clay cracking is prevented. Fur-
mm thick) + bituminous adhesive, [3] porous concrete (0.10 m thermore, if some cracks develop in spite of the
thick), [4] reinforced concrete slabs (0.25 m thick), [5] dry ma-
normal pressure applied by the geomembrane, water
sonry (thickness ranging from 2.00 to 3.00 m), [6] joint be-
does not penetrate into the cracks and, therefore, no
tween plinth and upstream facing, [7] plastic concrete diaph-
hydrostatic pressure is applied within the cracks.
ragm wall, [9] inspection and drainage gallery.
In contrast, without geomembrane, as cracks tend
In most of the early projects, the geomembrane to develop as a result of differential settlement, wa-
was installed during construction of the dam, on the ter would penetrate in the cracks. The hydrostatic
upstream slope and covered. The first exceptions pressure, acting on both sides of cracks, would open
were: (1) the first geomembrane used inside a dam the cracks and cause the cracks to propagate through
was a CPE geomembrane used in 1970 on a the entire thickness of the clay layer, thereby impair-
1V:0.67H slope (56º) inside a rockfill dam (Odiel ing the clay barrier function of the clay layer.
Dam in Spain) with upstream and downstream A PVC geomembrane was selected because of its
slopes of 1V:1.3H; (2) the first geomembrane used large elongation before rupture. The PVC geomem-
for repairing a dam was a 0.9 mm thick PVC geo- brane selected was 0.75 mm thick, which was consi-
membrane installed in 1971 at Obecnice Dam, an dered, particularly in North America, to be a thick
earthfill dam in the Czech Republic; and (3) the first PVC geomembrane at that time. It was smooth on
geomembrane used exposed on the face of an em- one side and embossed on the other side.
bankment dam was a 4 mm thick bituminous geo- Clearly, Terzaghi Dam is an interesting use of a
membrane installed in 1973 at Banegon Dam, a 17 geomembrane in a dam, which can provide an ex-
m high earthfill dam in France. It was also the first ample for some applications in the future. However,
use of a bituminous geomembrane in a dam. it cannot be considered as a precursor of modern ap-
plications of geomembranes in dams.
2.4 A famous but special case history
2.5 Types of geomembranes used in early dams
Mission Dam (now called Terzaghi Dam), a 55 m
high rockfill dam constructed in 1960 in Canada, is a In the pioneer applications of geomembranes in
special case for both historical and technical reasons. dams, different types of geomembranes available in
It is a special case for historical reasons because the market were used. The following geomembranes
Karl Terzaghi was the designer and because it was were used in early embankment dams:
one of the first dams including a geomembrane. It • Contrada Sabetta (1959), Italy, 32.5 m high, 155
was a special case for technical reasons because the m long, polyisobutylene, 2.0 mm, covered
geomembrane application was not typical. A de- • Dobsina (1960), Slovakia, 10 m high, 204 m
tailed description of the construction of the dam was long, PVC, 0.9 mm, covered.
provided by Terzaghi & Lacroix (1964) and a de- • Miel (1968), France, 15 m high, 130 m long,
butyl rubber, 1.0 mm, covered.

118
• Odiel (1970), Spain, 41 m high, length unknown, • Trnavka (1983), Czech Republic, 21 m high, 165
CPE, thickness unknown, inside the dam on a m long, polymeric made in situ, unknown thick-
56º slope. ness, covered.
• Obecnice (1971), Czech Republic, 16 m high, • Codole (1983), Corsica, France, 28 m high, 460
370 m long, constructed in 1966, and repaired in m long, PVC composite geomembrane, consist-
1971 with a PVC geomembrane, 0.9 mm, cov- ing of a 1.9 mm PVC geomembrane bonded to a
ered 400 g/m2 needle-punched nonwoven geotextile,
• Wenholthausen (1971), Germany, 17 m high, covered.
100 m long, PVC, unknown thickness, covered. • La Lande (1983), France, 17 m high, 80 m long,
• Neris (1972), France, 18 m high, 100 m long, bituminous, 4.8 mm, covered.
butyl rubber, 1.5 mm, covered. • Rouffiac (1983), France, 12.5 m high, 157 m
• Bitburg (1972), Germany, 13 m high, 95 m long, long, bituminous, 4.0 mm, covered in upper part
PVC, unknown thickness, covered (the geo- and exposed to water in the lower part.
membrane became brittle and was punctured by A number of lessons can be learned from these early
the edges of its protecting slabs; it was replaced dams:
by an HDPE geomembrane in 1978). • There has been a strong regional influence in the
• Landstein (1973), Czech Republic, 26.5 m high, choice of geomembrane, which confirms the
376 m long, PVC, 1.1 mm, covered. well-known fact that the engineers designing
• Banegon (1973), France, 17 m high, unknown dams are inspired by precedents. For example:
length, bituminous, 4 mm, exposed (in the lower approximately 1 mm thick PVC geomembranes
part of the dam face, where hydrostatic pressure used in Central Europe (Czech Republic, Slova-
is higher, the geomembrane was punctured by kia, Germany), with the replacement of a failed
stones from the supporting soil and defective PVC geomembrane by an HDPE geomembrane
seams opened; in this area, the geomembrane typical of the emergence of HDPE in the mid-
was replaced by the same geomembrane on a 1970s in Germany; butyl rubber, then bitumin-
needle-punched nonwoven geotextile). ous geomembranes in France. Another example
• Herbes Blanches (1975), Ile de la Reunion, of regional influence will be seen in Section 2.6
France, 13 m high, 85 m long, butyl rubber, 1.0 with the use of PVC geomembranes on concrete
mm, exposed (the geomembrane was torn and dams in the Italian Alps.
displaced by cyclone winds, and burst on cavi- • Failures have occurred for a variety of reasons:
ties at the toe of the dam shortly after construc- inadequate seams, puncture by stones, damage
tion; the geomembrane was replaced in 2003 by by wind in the case of an exposed geomembrane,
a PVC composite geomembrane consisting of a localized collapse of the supporting soil, and ag-
2.0 mm PVC geomembrane laminated with a ing of the geomembrane. It is important to note
800 g/m2 needle-punched nonwoven geotextile). the rapid aging of a PVC geomembrane in five
• Twrdosin, (1977), Slovakia, 16 m high, 307 m years (1972-1977) in one of the dams mentioned
long, PVC, 0.9 mm, covered. above: PVC is a rigid material that must be made
• L’Ospedale (1978), Corsica, France, 26 m high, flexible to be used as a geomembrane; depending
135 m long, bituminous, 4.8 mm, covered. on the method and products used to “plasticize”
• Avoriaz (1979), France, 11 m high, 135 m long, PVC, the durability of the geomembrane can
bituminous geomembrane, 4 mm, exposed (the vary from a few years to more than 50 years (see
geomembrane failed in the reservoir due to loca- Section 8.1). Therefore, it is of utmost impor-
lized collapse of the supporting soil and impro- tance to properly select a PVC geomembrane.
per seaming, and was replaced by 2.0 or 2.5 mm • Some types of geomembrane tend to become less
HDPE geomembrane in 1981). used such as the elastomeric geomembranes (po-
• Gorghiglio (1979), Italy, 12 m high, 125 m long, lyisobutylene, butyl rubber) in spite of their good
PVC, 2 mm, exposed on the slopes and covered mechanical properties and durability, but be-
on the bottom of the reservoir. cause they are difficult to seam.
• Mas d’Armand (1981), France, 21 m high, 403 • In most cases the geomembrane was covered for
m long, bituminous, 4.8 mm, covered. protection against a variety of external actions
such as: wind, waves, floating debris, ice, van-
• Kyiche (1983), Czech Republic, 17.5 m high,
dalism, temperature variations, UV radiation,
1660 m long, polymeric made in situ, unknown
etc. Today, still, the majority of geomembranes
thickness, covered.
used in embankment dams are covered.

119
2.6 From embankment dams to all types of dams UV rays, to freeze-thaw cycles, to extremely low
temperatures, and to high daily and seasonal temper-
ature excursions. For these reasons, relatively thick
2.6.1 Rehabilitation of old concrete dams PVC geomembranes were used, i.e. thicknesses of
In the 1970s, the use of geomembranes was ex- 2.0 and 2.5 mm, which contrasts with the thick-
tended to the rehabilitation of concrete dams. The nesses of 0.75 or 0.5 mm or less used in many ponds
first projects were made on dams situated at high as indicated in Section 2.1, particularly in North
elevation in the Italian Alps, where traditional fac- America, or even the 0.75 thickness used at Terzaghi
ings (shotcrete and concrete) were susceptible of Dam (see Section 2.4). Indeed, it was suspected that,
quick ageing caused by frequent freeze-thaw cycles, since one of the mechanisms of aging is the migra-
low temperatures and ice action. As previous expe- tion of some constituents of the polymeric com-
rience on embankment dams was satisfactory, geo- pound outside the geomembrane, durability might be
membranes technology had improved and confi- proportional to the square of thickness by analogy
dence in the materials had increased, it was with phenomena such as soil consolidation or heat
estimated that a robust geomembrane could sustain transfer.
such environment. The exposed position on quasi-vertical dam faces
The first application of a geomembrane on a con- required anchoring of the geomembrane to the dam
crete dam was made in 1971 at Lago Baitone Dam, against displacement of the geomembrane (by wind,
Italy, a 37 m high, 227 m long, concrete gravity dam waves etc.) and sagging of the geomembrane due to
constructed in 1930 at elevation 2280. The geo- gravity. At Lago Nero Dam, for the first time an an-
membrane was a 2.0 mm polyisobutylene and was chorage system was adopted that later became the
left exposed on the quasi-vertical face of the dam. most used one in the rehabilitation of concrete dams,
There was no system to prevent the ice from adher- as will be discussed in Section 4.4.
ing to the geomembrane. The geomembrane was The considerable experience gained in the rehabil-
damaged by ice and floating wood and was replaced itation of concrete dams in Italy had (and still has) a
in 1994 by a 2.0 mm PVC geomembrane laminated major influence on the use of geomembranes in
in factory to a needle-punched nonwoven geotextile dams, and not only concrete dams. For example,
providing protection and drainage. Codole Dam, a major rockfill dam built in France in
The first entirely successful applications of con- 1983, uses a composite geomembrane consisting of
crete dam rehabilitation were made in 1976 at Lago a 1.9 mm PVC geomembrane bonded to a needle-
Miller Dam, Italy, an 11 m high gravity dam con- punched nonwoven geotextile, i.e. a geomembrane
structed in 1926 at elevation 2170, where a 2.0 mm similar to those used in the rehabilitation of concrete
thick PVC geomembrane was adopted, and in 1980 dams in Italian Alps.
at Lago Nero Dam, Italy, a 45.5 m high gravity dam Another example is the use of the same technique
constructed in 1929 at elevation 2027, where a com- for waterproofing RCC dams (see Section 5). More
posite geomembrane consisting of a 2.0 mm thick generally, the quality of the geomembranes and the
PVC geomembrane laminated to a 200 g/m2 needle- quality of installation of these geomembranes for
punched nonwoven geotextile was adopted. The La- concrete dam rehabilitation have significantly con-
go Nero Dam represents the first use of this type of tributed to establishing the credibility of geomem-
composite geomembrane on a dam. This type of brane use in dams of all types.
geomembrane will then be used successfully on
many dams. 2.6.2 Waterproofing of RCC dams
All pioneering applications of PVC geomem- At the beginning of the 1980s the construction of
branes to rehabilitate concrete dams were located in roller compacted concrete (RCC) dams started.
the Italian Alps, at more than 2000 m elevation. In These dams use construction methods similar to
the 1970s and 1980s, a total of eight large dams those of embankment dams, and materials typical of
were thus rehabilitated, all in the Italian Alps. It is concrete dams.
interesting to note that that the age of the concrete As will be discussed in Section 5, using a geo-
dam, when rehabilitation was deemed necessary membrane can provide substantial practical and fi-
ranged from 15 to 60 years, with the most typical nancial benefits in RCC dam construction. Therefore,
values around 50 years. It will be seen in Section 8 as early as 1984, a geomembrane was adopted as
that the durability of well selected geomembranes water barrier for the construction of Carrol Ecton
can be superior to 50 years under the same exposure Dam (formerly Winchester Dam), a new RCC dam
conditions. In other words, well selected geomem- in the USA; and, in 2000, geomembranes started be-
branes are no less durable than traditional construc- ing used for the local repair of existing RCC dams
tion materials such as concrete. (failing joints, cracks). The association of RCC and
At all of these dams, the PVC geomembrane was geomembranes has been the most significant innova-
left exposed to the environment, which at such ele- tion in the art of constructed dams.
vation is quite demanding in terms of resistance to

120
2.6.3 Underwater installation 3 EMBANKMENT DAMS
Another milestone is the first underwater installation
of a geomembrane used for a dam carried out in
1997 at Lost Creek Dam, an arch dam in the USA. 3.1 General considerations
Underwater installation will be discussed in Sec-
tion 6.
3.1.1 Geomembranes and other barriers
2.6.4 Current situation Geomembranes have been used in 167 large em-
At present, geomembranes are adopted all over the bankment dams, according to the ICOLD database.
world to waterproof all types of dams, as well as all This is a remarkable success achieved over 50 years
types of hydraulic structures (reservoirs, ponds, can- since the first geomembrane was used in an em-
als, hydraulic tunnels, surge shafts, pumped storage bankment dam (see Section 2.3), and in fact mostly
reservoirs, forebay reservoirs, underground tanks, in the past three decades. In embankment dams,
etc.), with a total of several hundred millions of geomembranes are in competition with traditional
square meters installed. Geomembranes have been barriers such as: clay cores, upstream faces made of
perhaps the most innovative novelty in the field of concrete slabs or bituminous concrete layers, and
hydraulic structures in the past 50 years. vertical barriers made of made of concrete, bitumin-
According to the ICOLD database, geomembranes ous materials, or low-permeability slurry or cement-
are the only waterproofing element in almost all of bentonite.
the 280 dams compiled. There is no limit to the wa-
ter head they can withstand. Thus, the world records 3.1.2 Advantages of geomembranes
are at present: Geomembranes are increasingly used because they
have numerous advantages over traditional barrier
• 198 m for new embankment dams (Karahnjukar
materials: cost, imperviousness, construction, and
Dam, Iceland, 2006, toe wall and horizontal joint
practical considerations. These advantages are dis-
between Phase 1 and Phase 2 face slabs), cussed below.
• 188 m for new RCC dams (Miel I, Colombia, Geomembranes are significantly more impervious
2002), than all other barrier materials. This geomembrane
• 200 m for new concrete dams (Kolnbreinsperre, property is essential for the containment of liquids
Austria, 1985, partial application at heel), and that could contaminate the ground or the ground wa-
• 174 m for rehabilitation of concrete dams (Alpe ter, but typically is not considered essential in dams.
Gera, Italy, 1994). However, with the growing emphasis on water con-
servation, it is likely that the superior impervious-
2.7 The ICOLD bulletins ness of geomembranes will be considered to be a
significant asset of geomembranes in the future.
ICOLD, the International Commission on Large Some geomembranes can undergo large strains
Dams, has dedicated two theme bulletins to the use (e.g. 100% or more) without rupture. A geomem-
of geomembranes in dams, one in 1981 (Bulletin 38, brane with a high elongation capability will maintain
ICOLD 1981) and one in 1991 (Bulletin 78, ICOLD watertightness in presence of differential settlements
1991). and movements that could cause: (1) cracking of
Some concepts and conclusions of these two bul- concrete slabs in concrete face rockfill dams and, in
letins have been presented by Scuero & Vaschetti extreme cases, could cause failure of the waterstops;
(2006). Bulletin 135, the new theme bulletin on and (2) cause disruption in the connection of the bi-
geomembranes, is under editing and will be pub- tuminous facing to the concrete structures in the case
lished shortly. The scope and contents of Bulletin of bituminous concrete face rockfill dams. Concern-
135 have been discussed by Heibaum et al. (2006) ing dams with clay core, the imperviousness of the
and by Scuero & Vaschetti (2006). core heavily relies on construction quality (too often
Some information contained in this paper, includ- influenced by weather conditions) and on the skill of
ing tables, is based on the database prepared for Bul- the contractor. It can therefore be said that geomem-
letin 135 (ICOLD 2010). branes can improve safety of embankment dams be-
Since 2006, the database has undergone periodical cause they are engineered to maintain impervious-
updating and the number of dams has increased. It is ness in presence of events that could impair the
foreseen that ICOLD will make the updated database performance of other waterproofing systems.
available to the community of engineers and scien- Geomembrane waterproofing barriers can provide
tists involved. substantial advantages in the construction of em-
The authors hope that updating and availability of bankment dams as compared to traditional water-
the database will continue over the years, to provide proofing barriers, because they avoid problems such
valuable information to the worldwide engineering as lack of suitable materials and deterioration of wa-
community. terstops. Also, they simplify construction by elimi-

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nating the need for installing multiple lines of wa- • CSPE, 7 (6%)
terstops and by being easier to connect to ancillary • LLDPE, 6 (5%)
concrete structures than clay cores or bituminous • PP, 6 (5%)
concrete.
• Others, 2 (2%)
Construction times and constraints are reduced
when geomembrane barriers are used. With tradi- • In situ, 9 (7%)
tional barrier materials, the impact that the installa- Comparing the two above breakdowns, it appears
tion/construction of the face slabs, or the place- that thin LLDPE geomembranes are used in a num-
ment/compaction of the impervious core, can have ber of dams that probably do not meet the standards
on the overall construction schedule, and the com- for high quality dams.
plexity of the techniques needed to construct the wa-
terproofing system, must be taken into consideration 3.2 Design concepts for new dams
when evaluating times of completion. In dams with a Two important design concepts are discussed in Sec-
central core (made of clay or bituminous material), a tion 3.2: location of the geomembrane, and type of
crucial point is that, the construction of the dam liner system. These concepts apply only to new
body and the construction of the central core being dams. The case of dam rehabilitation is addressed in
related, the constraints imposed by the weather con- Section 3.6.
ditions, or any disruption in the placement of the fil-
ter material, will affect the rate of construction of the 3.2.1 Location of the waterproof barrier
entire dam body. On the contrary, installation of a In an embankment dam, two positions can be consi-
geomembrane barrier system can be scheduled in dered for the geomembrane barrier: (1) the geo-
function of the general schedule of construction, and membrane can be at the upstream slope, covered or
is not significantly affected by weather. not; or (2) the geomembrane can be internal, i.e. lo-
cated inside the dam body, either inclined inside the
3.1.3 Uses of geomembranes in embankment dams upstream zone of the dam, or vertical or quasi ver-
A variety of geomembranes are used in embankment tical, in a central position.
dams. As indicated in Section 3.1.1, based on the Based on the ICOLD database, in approximately
ICOLD database, geomembranes have been used in 90% of the dams where a geomembrane is used, it is
a total of 167 embankment dams. The breakdown at the upstream slope and in approximately 10% it is
per type of geomembrane is as follows: internal. Among the geomembranes used at the up-
• PVC, 76 (45%), stream slope: 70% are covered, and 30% are ex-
• LLDPE, 25 (15%) posed.
• Bituminous, 18 (11%) The advantages and drawbacks of upstream and
• HDPE, 13 (8%) internal geomembranes are discussed below.
• Butyl rubber and other elastomers, 11 (7%) A vertical geomembrane is significantly smaller
than a geomembrane installed on the upstream slope.
• CSPE, 7 (4%) For example, the size of a vertical geomembrane is
• PP, 6 (4%) half the size of a geomembrane installed on a
• Others, 2 (1%) 1V:1.7H upstream slope. However, this benefit is
• In situ, 9 (5%) lost in great part if the geomembrane is quasi-
It should be noted that this breakdown is only ap- vertical with an “accordion” (or “zigzag”) shape. Al-
proximate, because the ICOLD database includes a so, whether the geomembrane is vertical or quasi-
variety of applications of geomembranes in em- vertical, the increased installation cost may offset
bankment dams that could be considered of lesser the reduced purchase cost. Furthermore, both vertic-
importance, such as: geomembranes used in some al and quasi-vertical geomembranes have the follow-
small dams, geomembranes used over a height of ing drawback: the hydrostatic pressure from the im-
only a few meters to heighten existing dams, very pounded water is horizontal, which is much less
thin geomembranes (i.e. 0.7 mm or less), which favorable to the stability of the dam than the inclined
would not normally be used in permanent dams, etc. pressure applied in the case of a geomembrane lo-
If only geomembranes with a thickness greater than cated on the upstream slope. More precisely, calcu-
0.7 mm are considered, the total number of em- lations show that: (1) the horizontal component of
bankment dams with such geomembranes is 126, the force applied by water is the same regardless of
and the breakdown per geomembrane type is as fol- the position of the geomembrane; and (2) the vertic-
lows: al component deceases when the inclination increas-
• PVC, 54 (43%), es. Since the vertical component contributes to the
• Bituminous, 18 (14%) stability of the dam, the risk of horizontal sliding of
• HDPE, 13 (10%) the dam is greatest if the geomembrane is vertical or
• Butyl rubber and other elastomers, 11 (9%) quasi-vertical.

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 Two additional advantages, with respect to the 3.2.3 Composite liner for leakage control
stability of the dam, of a geomembrane along the The term “composite liner” could have several
upstream face are the following: (1) the entire meanings. It is generally used to designate a liner
weight of the dam contributes to stability; and (2) composed of a synthetic component and a mineral
there is no pore water pressure in the embankment. component. The most frequent type of composite
The construction of a dam with a vertical geo- liner consists of a geomembrane and a layer of com-
membrane or an accordion-shaped quasi-vertical pacted low-permeability soil such as clay. Compo-
geomembrane is generally more difficult than the site liners significantly reduce the rate of leakage
construction of a dam with an upstream geomem- through geomembrane defects compared to a geo-
brane. In particular, connections of an accordion- membrane alone (Giroud 1997; Giroud & Bonaparte
shaped geomembrane with ancillary structures are 1989; Touze-Foltz & Giroud 2003).
difficult. In cofferdams with no ancillary structures, It is important to note that a composite liner
an accordion-shaped quasi-vertical geomembrane should not be used on the upstream slope of an em-
can be a good solution. bankment dam. This is because during normal op-
It should be noted that, if the reservoir is lined, it eration, in case of a leak, even small, through the
is logical to place the geomembrane on the upstream geomembrane, water may accumulate in the space
slope. between the geomembrane and the soil component
Since it is generally not advantageous to select a of the composite liner. In case of rapid drawdown of
vertical (or quasi vertical geomembrane), this confi- the reservoir, the pressure of the water entrapped be-
guration is very rarely used. This configuration will tween the two components of the composite liner is
be discussed and examples will be presented in Sec- no longer balanced by the pressure of the water in
tion 3.5. the reservoir. Depending on the amount of water en-
When a geomembrane is used on the upstream trapped between the two components of the compo-
slope, it can be exposed or covered (i.e. “protected”) site liner, and the weight of material above the com-
by a layer of heavy material such as soil, concrete, posite liner, instability of the upstream slope may
etc. The case of exposed geomembranes will be dis- occur at the interface between the two components
cussed in Section 3.3 and the case of covered geo- of the composite liner. Even if instability does not
membranes will be discussed in Section 3.4. occur, the geomembrane and the materials above the
geomembrane may be uplifted, which may have de-
3.2.2 Liner system concept for leakage control trimental consequences such as permanent deforma-
The design of a dam with a liner (any type of liner) tions or cracking.
should be such that the seepage resulting from a ma- Therefore, if a composite liner is used in a dam,
jor breach in the liner should not cause the rupture or the weight of materials on top of the geomembrane
a major distress of the dam. Therefore, the various should be sufficient to exceed the pressure of the
zones that constitute a dam should comprise ade- water likely to be entrapped between the two com-
quate filters to prevent internal erosion of the dam. ponents of a composite liner. Furthermore, the nor-
This is particularly important when the liner is an mal stress applied by the materials located on top of
exposed geomembrane because geomembranes can the geomembrane, reduces the amount of water like-
be breached accidentally. Geomembranes are signif- ly to be entrapped under the geomembrane.
icantly more waterproof than concrete or clay, but The conclusion of this discussion is that a com-
they can be damaged by some mechanical actions. posite liner (or any two superposed liners) can be
If the dam does not meet the conditions indicated used in a dam only if sufficient load is placed on the
above and is sensitive to internal erosion in case of geomembrane. This conclusion applies to all cases
seepage, a possible solution consists in minimizing where a liner is placed on top of another liner (which
the rate of leakage through the liner system, even in should not be done, if possible). This conclusion
case of a breach in the geomembrane. Two possibili- even applies to cases where two low-permeability
ties for minimizing leakage are the use of a double layers are placed on each other. There is one possi-
liner; and or the use of a composite liner. ble exception to this conclusion: the use of discharge
However, if an embankment dam is properly de- valves is currently envisioned for a project to release
signed, it should not be sensitive to internal erosion. water that could accumulate beneath a geomembrane
Therefore, the need for strict leakage control (i.e. for liner. It will be interesting to observe the perfor-
a double liner or a composite liner) is rare in the case mance of this system.
of a dam. In contrast, in the case of a reservoir, the Geomembrane uplift by entrapped water occurred
need for strict leakage control is more frequent be- at Worster Dam. This took place at the first draw-
cause the natural ground beneath a reservoir is not down of the reservoir after geomembrane installa-
controlled by the design engineer and can be sensi- tion, in spite of the presence of a 0.3 m thick soil
tive to internal erosion. cover (see Section 3.4.6 (1)) (Johnson 2010).
Composite liners and double liners are discussed It should be noted that that this problem had been
in the next sections. identified as soon as composite liners were used. As

123
pointed by Giroud & Bonaparte (1989): “Composite maximum height of 21.7 m and 10 m, respectively.
liners must be used with caution in liquid contain- Due to the high permeability and the sensitivity to
ment facilities. If the geomembrane component of erosion of the terrains, the designer selected a double
the composite liner is directly in contact with the geomembrane liner system with a double drainage
contained liquid (in other words, if the geomem- system, to ensure that seepage through the primary
brane is not covered with a heavy material such as a geomembrane would be intercepted by the primary
layer of earth or concrete slabs), and if there is lea- drainage system, thereby reducing the risk of lea-
kage through the geomembrane, liquids will tend to kage into the ground, which could cause internal
accumulate between the low-permeability soil erosion. Indeed, it was important to take all precau-
(which is the lower component of the composite lin- tions to ensure the safety of this structure built im-
er) and the geomembrane, since the submerged por- mediately above populated residential areas.
tion of the geomembrane (whose specific gravity is
close to 1) is easily uplifted. Then, if the impound- (2) Alternative design
ment is rapidly emptied, the geomembrane will be To decrease construction time (i.e. to ensure that the
subjected to severe tensile stresses because the pres- liner system could be constructed in the two months
sure of the entrapped liquids is no longer balanced time allotted by extreme climatic conditions at the
by the pressure of the impounded liquid. Therefore, site even in summer) and to reduce costs, the water-
a composite liner should always be loaded, which is proofing contractor proposed to modify the original
automatically the case in a landfill or in a waste pile, design including two gravel drainage layers each
and which must be taken into account in the design 0.15 m thick, so as to adopt exclusively geosynthetic
of a liquid containment facility.” components. In total nine different types of geosyn-
Essentially, in new embankment dams, the layers thetics are used in the liner system, either indepen-
underlying the geomembrane liner should be suffi- dently or in combination to form geocomposites.
ciently permeable to avoid accumulation of water. In The cross section of the liner system used on the
contrast, in the rehabilitation of dams (of any type), slopes is shown in Figure 3.
it should be recognized that the layer on which the
geomembrane is to be installed often has a low per-
meability and, therefore, a drainage layer is needed
between the geomembrane and the supporting layer.
As a final note, it is important to remember that
the stability against gravity (and, in some areas,
against seismic forces) of any layer added to a dam Confinement and cover layers
should be checked. This implies an accurate mea- Protection geotextile
surement of interface shear strengths at all interfaces.

3.2.4 Double liner for leakage control Primary waterproofing geocomposite

As mentioned in Section 2.1, the concept of double Primary draining geocomposite
liner has been used successfully for reservoirs, and it
Secondary waterproofing geomembrane
is used routinely for waste disposal landfills. One
Secondary draining geocomposite
may wonder if this concept could, or should, be used
for dams. As explained in Section 2.1, the concept of Figure 3. Cross section of the double geomembrane liner sys-
a double liner is as follows: two liners with a drai- tem on the slopes of Les Arcs Dam.
nage layer in between to control leakage into the
ground by ensuring extremely low head on the sec- The geosynthetics that constitute the double liner
ondary liner. The extreme situations where a double system on the slopes are described below, from the
liner is needed are extremely rare for embankment upper to the lower component:
dams, but not for reservoirs, as indicated in Section • The primary liner is a composite geomembrane
3.2.2. An example is presented in Section 3.2.5 and that consists of a 2 mm thick PVC geomem-
is related to Les Arcs Reservoir. brane, laminated during fabrication to a 500 g/m2
geotextile that ensures adequate friction with the
3.2.5 Example of reservoir dam with double liner spikes of the underlying geonet. This geomem-
brane is approved for potable use in accordance
(1) The project with the French regulation.
A double geomembrane liner system has been used • The primary draining geocomposite, formed by a
in 2008 at Les Arcs Reservoir, France, a facility that spiked geonet having a geotextile on the bottom
comprises two embankment dams and a 400,000 m3 side in contact with the spiked secondary geo-
reservoir entirely lined. Used for the production of membrane, collects and monitors water that
artificial snow at an elevation of 2200 m, the reser- would leak through the primary liner.
voir is formed by two embankment dams having a

124
• The secondary liner is a 1.2 mm thick very low and from there to transverse drainage trenches con-
density polyethylene (VLDPE) geomembrane nected to the main drainage collector. The drainage
with spikes on both sides that provide high fric- system is divided into six separate compartments to
tion with the geotextiles below and above. It se- allow for an approximate location of leaks: right part
parates the primary drainage system (which of the main dam, left part of the main dam, left slope
drains leakage through the primary liner) from between the two dams, upstream dam, right slope
between the two dams, and bottom of reservoir.
the secondary drainage system (which drains
seepage from the ground).
(5) Construction
• The secondary draining geocomposite, formed Construction proceeded as follows:
by a high transmissivity geonet having on both • The excavations and the embankments were pre-
sides a geotextile that enhances friction, collects pared with the procedures established after the
water drained from the ground. trial embankments. In particular, surface prepa-
At the bottom of the reservoir, the liner system is al-
ration was finalized with power shovels
so a double liner, but the materials are slightly dif-
ferent, because high interface shear strength is not a equipped with long booms and aided with GPS.
requirement: • Anchor trenches were prepared at crest.
• The primary geomembrane is the same but with- • The secondary draining geocomposite was un-
out geotextile because high friction is not neces- rolled from the crest after having been tempora-
sary. rily ballasted in the top anchor trench. Adjacent
• The secondary geomembrane has the same rolls were placed so that the geotextile compo-
thickness and composition as the one on the nents overlap and there is no discontinuity in the
slopes but it has no spikes, again in consideration geonet components.
of friction. • The secondary VLDPE spiked geomembrane,
• The draining geosynthetics are slightly different supplied in 6 m wide rolled sheets, was then un-
because the only requirement is draining capaci- rolled from the crest and positioned on top of the
ty and not friction. secondary drainage layer (Figure 4).
• The installation of the primary draining geocom-
(3) Approval of the alternative design posite and of the primary waterproofing geo-
To obtain approval by the French Permanent Tech- membrane was carried out with methods similar
nical Committee of Dams and Hydraulic Structures to those of the secondary layers. The placement
under which jurisdiction the reservoir stands, due to of the primary geomembrane on the underlying
the potential impact of the reservoir on public safety, spiked geonet was difficult due to the high fric-
the drainage capability and the interface shear tion at the interface of the two materials.
strengths had to be validated by two laboratories in • A protection geotextile (Figure 5) was placed on
France and one in Italy (Delorme et al. 2009). The the primary geomembrane liner, to avoid damag-
whole system was then evaluated for feasibility and ing it during placement of the cover. In order to
reliability in a full scale trial on four test embank- prevent the development of tension along the
ments for the slopes, each about 60 m long and 4 to protection geotextile in case of sliding of the
6 m wide, and on two 10 m long and 6 m wide test cover layer due to dynamic stress, an expansion
areas for the bottom. The proposed alternative de-
loop was left free at its top.
sign was approved.
• To minimize outdoor exposure of the liner sys-
(4) Design details tem materials, the cover layer (Figure 5) was
The liner system was covered on the slopes and the placed immediately after placement of the vari-
bottom with a 700 g/m2 needle-punched nonwoven ous components of the liner system.
geotextile overlain by a 0.3 m layer of 0-30 mm gra-
vel, overlain by a 0.5 m layer of 0-400 mm rocks.
The geosynthetics composing the double liner sys-
tem and the protection geotextile are anchored at the
crest in a trench. At all concrete appurtenances (free
flow spillway, outlet) the geomembrane system is
anchored with the mechanical tie-down type anchor-
age typical of perimeter seals made on concrete (See
description of mechanical tie-down in Section 4.4.4).
Figure 4. At left, soil subgrade, white secondary draining geo-
Water that would leak through defects in the pri- composite, black VLDPE geomembrane, black primary drain-
mary geomembrane would flow in the primary ing geocomposite, and white PVC geomembrane. At right, the
draining geocomposite down to a longitudinal trench, geomembrane being unrolled down the slope.

125
 of embankment dams with a rigid surface (such as
concrete or bituminous concrete). However, they
could conceivably be used in the case of new dams
where the geomembrane is supported by a rigid
drainage system made of porous concrete or bitu-
minous concrete.
It is important to note that, with all the systems
discussed in subsequent sections, the wind can uplift
Figure 5. The cover layer placed on top of the geotextile at the
the geomembrane between the anchors. Assuming
right slope, and a general view of the site. that the geomembrane and the anchors have been
adequately selected and designed to withstand the
wind-generated tension, it is important that the geo-
3.3 Upstream exposed geomembranes membrane return to its original position after the
wind has ceased blowing. From this viewpoint, it is
important to remember an incident that happened
3.3.1 General discussion during construction at Figari Dam, a 35 m rockfill
Exposed geomembranes account for approximately dam constructed in Corsica, France, in 1991, with a
30% of the geomembranes used at the upstream 2 mm PVC geomembrane on its 1V:1.7H upstream
slope of embankment dams; and the geomembranes slope. Beneath the geomembrane, there was an inde-
used at the upstream slope of embankment dams are pendent geotextile. Two major problems occurred:
approximately 90% of the geomembranes used in • The geomembrane crept down the slope during
embankment dams. construction (by 4 m at the toe of the 70 m long
Geomembranes exposed on the upstream face of slope).
embankment dams are subjected to a variety of po-
tentially detrimental actions: • The geomembrane was uplifted by the wind with
• Mechanical damage by ice, floating debris, rocks no damage, but the geotextile was displaced.
As a result, after the wind had ceased to blow, the
falling from the sides, animals, vandals, and traf-
geomembrane rested on the displaced geotextile.
fic. The geomembrane had to be removed to reposition
• Degradation by exposure to environmental the geotextile, and in the process 50% of the geo-
agents (oxygen, UV, heat). membrane had to be discarded. Two lessons can be
• Displacement by wind, wave action, fluctuations learned:
of water level, and gravity (causing creep). • Non-reinforced PVC geomembranes should not
Geomembranes can be used exposed if they have be used on steep slopes.
appropriate strength and composition to resist me- • If geomembrane uplift by wind is likely to occur,
chanical damage and degradation. Precautions must the geotextile (if any) underlying the geomem-
be taken to prevent or reduce geomembrane dis-
brane should be: (1) bonded to the geomem-
placement by wind, waves and gravity. Generally,
brane; or (2) bonded to the underlying material
the main risk is displacement by wind. Therefore,
geomembranes must be anchored against wind uplift. (assuming this material is rigid); or (3) anchored
As shown by Giroud et al. (1995), the tension at multiple locations to prevent its displacement
generated by wind in the geomembrane is propor- by the wind.
tional to the square of wind velocity and to the dis- At Codole Dam, a 28 m rockfill dam with a 1V:1.7H
tance between anchors. Therefore, if the wind veloc- slope, built in 1983 in Corsica, France, with a com-
ity and the height of the dam are limited, it is posite geomembrane consisting of a 1.9 mm PVC
possible to rely only on anchorage at the periphery geomembrane bonded to a needle-punched nonwo-
of the upstream slope (including the crest). This case ven geotextile, portions of the geomembrane were
will be discussed in Section 3.3.2. uplifted by wind during construction. The composite
In other cases, exposed geomembranes are anc- geomembrane was repositioned, albeit with some ef-
hored with a face anchorage system in addition to fort due to the high interface friction angle between
the watertight peripheral anchorage that is present in the needle-punched nonwoven geotextile and the
all dams. A variety of face anchorage systems are underlying porous bituminous concrete. No material
discussed in the following sections: was lost.
• Anchorage by multiple trenches or beams (Sec-
tion 3.3.3). 3.3.2 Geomembrane anchored only at periphery
Geomembranes have been used exposed, with an-
• Anchorage by strips (Section 3.3.4).
chorage only at the periphery, in several relatively
• Anchorage by strips and curbs (Section 3.3.5). small dams. This is possible, because, as mentioned
Anchorage by gluing, nailing and profiles will be In Section 3.3.1, the tension generated by wind in
discussed in Section 3.6 related to the rehabilitation

126
the geomembrane is proportional to the distance be- geomembrane has been subjected to wind velocities
tween anchors. up to 160 km/h without damage.
The first such dam was Banegon Dam, a 17 m
high embankment dam in France, mentioned in Sec- 3.3.4 Anchorage using strips along the slope
tion 2.3, where the geomembrane was a 4 mm thick
bituminous geomembrane installed in 1973. At (1) Benefits of geomembrane deformability
Banegon Dam, to the best of our knowledge, the The face anchorage discussed in this chapter is a re-
geomembrane was not damaged by wind. It had oth- cently developed system, which benefits from the
er minor problems mentioned in Section 2.5. high elongation capability of the geomembranes
If the water level in the reservoir is not expected used. Both the impervious liner and its attachment
to be drawn down, the geomembrane can be left un- system are made of geomembranes with high elon-
covered below the water level. gation capability and are thus capable of following
Another example of a dam with an exposed geo- differential movements that can take place in the
membrane is Golden Camp Dam. It will be dis- dam during service.
cussed in Section 3.6.
The upstream geomembrane can be left exposed at (2) Description of a system of anchor strips
cofferdams considering their short service life. An In a patented system, the waterproofing liner and its
example is Locone Cofferdam in Italy. It was con- face anchorage system are made with the same ma-
structed in 1982 and was incorporated in the dam in terial, a composite geomembrane incorporating the
1986. The geomembrane was a 1.5 mm butyl rubber impervious element (a PVC geomembrane) and a
geomembrane. The exposed geomembrane suffered multi-function layer (a needle-punched nonwoven
some damage, but the cofferdam performed its func- geotextile, bonded to the geomembrane in the facto-
tion. ry). The cross section is as follows, from the upper
to the lower layer:
3.3.3 Anchorage by multiple trenches or beams • Waterproofing liner: the composite geomem-
Anchorage of the geomembrane on an upstream brane described above.
slope can be done using horizontal or quasi- • Base/anchorage layer: This single layer forms
horizontal anchor trenches or anchor beams. With
the transition between the dam body and the
the crest anchor trench, these anchor trenches or
geomembrane, incorporates the anchorage sys-
anchor beams form a set of parallel or quasi-parallel
anchors. The spacing between these anchors is cal- tem for the waterproofing liner, and can also
culated using the methodology published by Giroud work as drainage layer.
and coworkers (Giroud et al. 1995; Zornberg & Gi- • Drainage layer, as in other embankment dams
roud, 1997, Giroud et al. 1999; Giroud et al. 2006; but of reduced thickness.
Giroud 2009). Based on this methodology, the spac- • Dam body: zoning is not strictly required, and a
ing between parallel anchors should be less in the single fill material can be used.
upper part of a slope than in the lower part, because The face anchorage system is integrated in the dam
wind-generated suction is greater near the crest of a in the form of strips of composite geomembrane,
slope than near the toe. about 0.5 m wide, placed on the base/anchorage
An interesting application was made at Barlovento layer and anchored into it (Figure 6). Part of the
Reservoir in the Canary Islands, Spain. The Barlo- strips is left protruding from the upstream face of the
vento Reservoir is located in a volcano crater and it dam, so as to form continuous anchor strips running
has a circular shape. The depth of the reservoir is 27 along the upstream slope. Spacing between anchor
m: 20 m on the 1V:2.7H slopes and 7 m on the gent- strips depends on service loads, the most severe one
ly sloping bottom. The geomembrane installed in being generally that of wind.
1992 is a 1.5 mm PVC geomembrane reinforced 1
with a polyester scrim on the slopes and unrein-
forced at the bottom. There are several levels of an-
chorage on the slopes. The top level is the horizontal
crest anchor trench. The other anchorage levels are
elegantly achieved by a unique beam spiraling down,
on the slopes of the circular reservoir, from below 3

the crest to the bottom. The resulting anchor spacing

along the 58 m slope length is: 2 to 14 m for the up-
per spacing; 15 m for the next spacing downslope; 2

19 m for the next spacing downslope; and 10 to 22

m for the last spacing at the toe of the slope. The spi- Figure 6. Face anchorage by geomembrane strips.
raling anchor beam contributes to drainage. The 1. Base/anchorage layer 2. Plinth 3. Anchor strips

127
 The base layer for the waterproofing geocompo- of the anchor strips was calculated based on the up-
site can be gravel stabilized with lean concrete and lift that would be caused by the wind load, using the
compacted with a vibratory plate mounted on the methodology developed by Giroud and mentioned in
arm of an excavator, or it can be made by extruded Sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2. The calculated spacing of
concrete curbs. The extruded curbs will be discussed the trenches was 8 m on the slopes and 16 m on the
in Section 3.3.5. bottom.
The sheets of composite geomembrane are un- The exposed geomembrane liner was placed di-
rolled downslope over the base layer, and anchored rectly over the compacted fill that forms the 14 m
to the protruding portion of the anchor strips by heat high dams and the bottom, and the anchorage against
welding (Figure 7). Adjacent composite geomem- uplift was provided by welding the geomembrane
brane sheets are joined by watertight vertical welds, sheets to the anchor strips.
creating a continuous watertight liner over the entire
upstream face of the dam.
1 2

5
3

4
6
Figure 8. Kohrang Reservoir. The anchor strips embedded in
the trenches of the dams, and the geomembrane anchored by
Figure 7. Placement and anchorage of geomembrane. welding to the strips on dams and bottom.

1. Base/anchorage layer 2. Composite geomembrane sheet be- The entirely flexible system (geomembrane + an-
ing unrolled 3. Anchor strips 4. Concrete plinth 5. Compo- chorage system) proved to be capable of resisting,
site geomembrane sheets welded to anchor strips and recovering from, deformations and differential
6. Watertight perimeter seal movements between the deformable dam body and
the concrete appurtenances without failing: settle-
ments that had been foreseen during the design
At the periphery, the composite geomembrane is phase have occurred after impounding, with temper-
anchored by a watertight seal that on concrete is of atures down to –37ºC, and heavy snow and ice for-
the tie-down type described in Section 4.4.4, and on mation.
other types of subgrade is generally made by em- As a consequence of settlements, some cracking
bedment in a trench. Perimeter seals are designed to has occurred in the concrete appurtenances, but with
be able to accommodate the differential movements no damage to the exposed geomembrane. Additional
and settlements typical at these locations. advantages were related to times and costs: as re-
Being prefabricated in the controlled environment ported by the owner (Yosefi et al. 2005), using this
of a factory under ISO procedures, all components system “A saving of 60 percent was achieved in the
of the waterproofing system (composite geomem- volume of fill material, construction was faster and
brane, anchor strips, components of the perimeter easier, the volume of impounded water compared
seal) have pre-established and constant properties with the original design was increased by 25 percent,
that are checked upon delivery of materials at the which creates more energy generating capability,
site and are not altered by weather conditions during construction costs for the head pond could be de-
installation; joints and perimeter seals are verified creased by 50 percent”.
for watertightness with standard methods. Therefore,
the characteristics and the quality of the waterproof- 3.3.5 Anchorage using extruded curbs
ing system are pre-established and constant through-
out installation. (1) Principle of the facing using extruded curbs
The method described in this section consists of in-
(3) Example of use of anchor strips stalling a geomembrane in conjunction with ex-
The described system had its first full field applica- truded concrete curbs. The method which consists in
tion at Kohrang Reservoir, Iran, in 2004 (Figure 8). constructing a slope with extruded curbs is some-
The anchor strips were embedded in trenches run- times referred to as the “Itá method” because it was
ning along the slopes, and in trenches running along used at Itá Dam in Brazil (but with no geomembrane
the inclination of the reservoir bottom. The spacing in that dam). The extruded curbs have a trapezoid

128
cross section (Figure 9). They are extruded in conti- anchor strip that runs along the dam upstream slope.
nuum; therefore, they can be used in any length de- An anchor strip can be seen on the left of Figure 10.
pending on the project. The curbs interlock with The spacing of the anchor strips was calculated
each other to avoid that, while the embankment is based on the uplift that would be caused by the wind
being raised, they may be laterally displaced by the load, using the methodology developed by Giroud
pressure of the fill and by the horizontal stresses and mentioned in Sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2. The cal-
locked-in as result of compaction. The extruded culated spacing of the strips was 6 m.
curbs allow constructing in a short time a slope that
has the following characteristics: (1) it is fairly regu- Anchor strips w=0.50

lar; (2) it has constant characteristics; (3) it can be Anchor strip

PVC geocomposite
Sibelon CNT 4400

steep; (4) it has surficial stability; (5) it is not erodi-

ble by rainwater; (6) if the curbs are made with por- Interlock keys between curbs
4 m long centered between two

ous concrete, it has drainage capability; and (7) it .15

anchor strips.
Temporary ballast (concrete, gravel,
≅0
can be constructed rapidly. Porous concrete curb sand, steel bar, etc.)

The installation of the geomembrane in conjunc- m

0m eld
≥ 4 eat w
≅ 0.15

tion with the curbs is explained with the following

H

0.10
0.30

case history. This case history is that of a tailings

dam. However, the method could be used for dams
Figure 9. Extruded concrete curbs with one geomembrane anc-
retaining water. In the following case history, a PVC hor wing per curb.
geomembrane is used, but the curb facing method
has also been used with HDPE geomembrane at An- Since the waterproofing liner will be later covered
tamina Tailings Dam in Peru. by tailings, a robust geomembrane was used for the
liner and the anchor strips: a composite geomem-
(2) Example of geomembrane installation with curb brane consisting of a 3 mm thick PVC geomembrane
facing laminated during fabrication to a 500 g/m2 polyester
An example of use of curb facing was in 2008 at Sar geotextile.
Cheshmeh, Iran, for the heightening of an existing Installation of the waterproofing system was
75 m high tailings dam. The existing dam, designed staged to follow the construction of the dam, so that
and constructed in the late 1970s, has an impervious the waterproofing system could be completed practi-
clay core. The upgrading project includes streng- cally concurrent with completion of the civil works.
thening and raising the main embankment dam and a The geomembrane sheets, temporarily secured at the
saddle dam in four stages, for a total of 40 m of crest, were deployed over the curbs and then fas-
heightening. tened to the anchor strips by heat-welding (Figure
For the heightening, a rockfill dam with an up- 10). The high friction at the interface geotex-
stream exposed geomembrane was adopted instead tile/curbs facilitated placement of the composite
of a clay core, on the basis of it being a more stable, geomembrane and increased stability with respect to
efficient and buildable arrangement, and preferable sliding.
from a construction, performance and cost stand-
point.
The face of the new rockfill dam is formed by ex-
truded porous concrete curbs, a technique used for
concrete faced rockfill dams and described in item
(1) above. In the case a geomembrane is used in con-
junction with extruded curbs, the geomembrane is
anchored to all or some of the curbs. The system de-
scribed herein consists of using “anchor wings”
which are connected to form continuous “anchor
strips” that run along the upstream slope. The anchor Figure 10. Sar Cheshmeh, Iran 2008. Placement of composite
wings shown in Figure 9 are 1.6 m × 0.5 m rectangu- geomembrane sheets and welding to the anchor strips.
lar pieces of geomembrane. A given anchor wing
covers the sloping side, the top side and the vertical At the abutments, the composite geomembrane
side of the curb with extra horizontal length beyond was attached to the concrete plinth by a watertight
the vertical side for anchorage inside the dam body seal of the tie-down type (see description in Section
and extra length below the sloping side for welding 4.4.4).
to the lower anchor wing (Figure 9). Placement of The watertight connection of the geomembrane of
the anchor wings is carried out concurrent with con- Stage II B to the clay core of the existing dam was
struction of the curbs. The welding of all anchor made by a 10 m wide compacted clay zone in the
wings along the same slope line forms a continuous upper part of the existing core. This required the ex-
cavation of 60,000 m3 of material from the down-

129
stream half of the existing embankment crest, the 3.4 Upstream covered geomembranes
majority of which was reconditioned and reused in
the core transition construction. The geomembrane
was placed over the clay, and covered with com- 3.4.1 General discussion
pacted clay. If a geomembrane is left exposed on the face of an
Installation of the waterproofing system of Stage embankment dam, it is subjected to a number of ac-
II B took seven weeks for a height of 10 m. The top tions that could damage it. The reasons for geomem-
anchorage of Stage II B, at elevation 2185 m, was brane protection by a cover layer are:
made with a flat stainless steel batten strip. Con- • Protection of the geomembrane against mechani-
struction of Stage II C (Figure 11) that followed cal damage (by ice, floating debris, rock falling
Sage II B took six weeks for a height of 9 m be- from the sides, animals, vandals, traffic).
tween elevations 2185 m and 2194 m. The water- • Elimination of exposure to environmental agents
proofing system of Stage II C is identical to the one (oxygen, UV, heat) that could cause degradation
of Stage II B. The lower end of the geomembrane of of the geomembrane.
Stage II C overlaps the top anchorage of the geo- • Prevention of geomembrane displacement by
membrane of Stage II B and is watertight connected wind, wave action, gravity (causing creep).
to it by welding; the junction was further water- Protection of geomembranes on slopes is typically
proofed with a PVC cover strip. ensured by covering the geomembrane with a layer
of heavy material such as concrete or soil. Consider-
ing all of the potentially detrimental actions, a ma-
jority (70%) of the geomembranes used at the up-
stream slopes of embankment dams are covered
based on the ICOLD database.
Several systems have been used, or could be used,
to cover geomembranes:
• Interlocking concrete blocks (see Section 3.4.2).
Figure 11. Sar Cheshmeh, Iran 2008. Placement of the geo-
membrane of Stage II C, and Stage II C completed. • Articulated concrete blocks (see Section 3.4.2).
• Concrete slabs (see Section 3.4.3).
The total length of Stage II C was 1000 m and the • Shotcrete on geotextile (see Section 3.4.4).
total installed geomembrane was 20,500 m2 for • Geocells or geomattresses filled with concrete
Stage II B and 18,000 m2 for Stage II C. The 2008 (see Section 3.4.5).
raisings will be followed in 2010 by more raisings • Soil and rock protection (see Section 3.4.6).
for a total height of raisings of 40 m.
It is important to note that improperly designed or
As reported by the designer of the dam (Noske
constructed cover layers can damage a geomem-
2009) “From the perspective of both the designer
brane during construction or operation. Therefore a
and the owner, the selected GSS [liner system] re-
thick needle-punched nonwoven geotextile is gener-
sulted in an efficient and economic waterproofing
ally used between the geomembrane and the cover
solution for the tailings storage raise. The extruded
material.
curbs have proven to be an effective construction
The placement of the cover layer is possibly the
method, whilst the anchor strip installation was a
most critical part of construction of a covered geo-
simple, routine process. Combined, these features
membrane system. Construction quality assurance
greatly facilitated the installation of the PVC geo-
activities should not stop after placement of the
composite. The installation was fast, with each stage
geomembrane. It should continue during the place-
installed within a four week mobilization, commenc-
ment of a geotextile protection layer on the geo-
ing immediately upon completion of the earthworks.
membrane and, then, during placement of the cover
The overall construction period was also significant-
layer.
ly reduced, given that the earthworks contractor was
The important role of the geotextile during opera-
able to produce and place rockfill and concrete curbs
tion is illustrated by the fact that the geomembrane
at a greater rate than would have been achieved if
was not damaged in spite of extensive displacement
the design had specified a moisture conditioned and
of concrete blocks at L’Ospedale Dam (see Section
compacted clay core [ . . . ] the geocomposite faced
3.4.2). It is also illustrated by the fact that the geo-
rockfill approach is a viable, effective means of tail-
membrane was punctured by the edges of its “pro-
ings dam construction where water retention in the
tecting” concrete slabs at Bitburg Dam where no
vicinity of the embankment is necessary, and where
geotextile was used (see Section 2.5).
natural materials are either not available, or are una-
ble to be used from a technical perspective.”

130
3.4.2 Example of cover made by concrete blocks • Mas d’Armand Dam, France (1981), a rockfill
dam, 21 m, 1V:1.6H, where the 4.8 mm bitu-
(1) Interlocking concrete blocks minous geomembrane is covered with 0.08 m
At L’Ospedale Dam, a 26 m high, 135 m long, rock- thick concrete blocks are glued on, and sup-
fill dam built in 1978 in Corsica, France, the 4.8 mm ported by, a geotextile anchored at the crest; and
bituminous geomembrane is covered by interlocking • Mauriac Dam, France (1989), a rockfill dam,
blocks placed by hand. Such blocks are typically 14.5 m, 1V:1.7H, where the 3.9 mm bituminous
used for driveway pavement (hence the name “paver geomembrane is covered with 0.12 m thick con-
blocks”). The blocks are 0.08 m thick and approx- crete blocks connected with steel cables anc-
imately 0.20 m × 0.12 m (they are not rectangular). hored at the crest.
These blocks were placed on the needle-punched
nonwoven geotextile overlying the bituminous geo- 3.4.3 Examples of cover made by concrete slabs
membrane on the 1V:1.7H slope. The geotextile is
independent of both the geomembrane and the (1) General information
blocks. Its functions are: (1) to protect the geomem- Cast-in-place concrete slabs are the most typical
brane during placement of the blocks and during op- cover for geomembranes used in embankment dams.
eration in case of movement of the blocks; and (2) to Joints are needed between slabs to release water
allow free movement of the blocks with respect to pressure in case of reservoir drawdown. Joints also
the geomembrane. The stability of the blocks against provide flexibility to the concrete slab system, which
gravity was ensured by the fact that the blocks were makes it possible to withstand settlement without
buttressed at the toe against the concrete plinth. cracking.
The blocks were too light to withstand wave ac- Steel reinforcement of the concrete slabs is not
tion; also, as understood later (and discussed below) recommended as it may damage the geomembrane
some of the blocks were not properly interlocked during construction. It is recommended to use con-
due to misalignment at installation and thermal ex- crete slabs with no reinforcement or with polypropy-
pansion-contraction. Four years after installation, lene fiber reinforcement.
when the reservoir was almost full, a storm removed A list of typical embankment dams with geomem-
a few thousand blocks at or near the water surface. brane covered by cast-in-place concrete slabs is be-
The geotextile was displaced in a part of the area low:
where the blocks had been removed, and was in • Contrada Sabetta (1959), unreinforced 2 m × 2 m
place in the rest of the area. The geomembrane was concrete slabs, 0.20 m thick. The joints between
not damaged, which indicates that the geotextile per- adjacent slabs were left open, 1 mm wide, and
formed its function even in areas where it had been were not filled by any porous material; there was
displaced. a sheet of bituminous paper-felt between the
Repair was done by replacing the missing blocks concrete slabs and the geomembrane.
by identical blocks. A small amount of concrete was • Codole (1983), Corsica, France, 28 m, 1V:1.7H,
used to secure the blocks that appeared to be loose concrete slabs, 4 m wide and continuous along
or not properly interlocked with adjacent blocks. the slope, 0.14 m thick, reinforced with steel
Protection using concrete blocks may not be a bad bars; joints along slope, 20 mm wide filled with
solution if the blocks are sufficiently heavy and if polystyrene foam; independent nonwoven geo-
they are properly interlocked. textile between the geomembrane and the con-
From the experience gained at L’Ospedale Dam it
crete.
appears that it is difficult to align and tightly inter-
lock paver blocks over a large area on a steep slope. • Jibiya (1989), Nigeria, 23.5 m, 1V:3.0H, con-
Also dilatation-contraction phenomena during ser- crete slabs, 2m × 4m, 0.08 m thick unreinforced;
vice disturb the interlocking between blocks all the 300 g/m2 needle-punched nonwoven geotextile
more so that the dam face is large. Therefore, the between the geomembrane and the concrete.
paver block solution may be best for small dams. • Figari (1993), Corsica, France, 35 m, 1V:1.7H,
concrete slabs 0.14 m thick, reinforced PP fibers;
(2) Articulated concrete blocks independent nonwoven geotextile between the
Articulated concrete blocks anchored from the crest geomembrane and the concrete.
anchor trench are an interesting solution in dams • Bovilla (1996), Albania, 91 m, 1V:1.6H, con-
where the geomembrane needs to be covered only in crete slabs, 6 m along slope and 3 m horizontal,
the upper part of the slope. It should be noted that 0.20 m thick (in upper part) 0.30 m thick (in
this is also the case of geomembrane cover by geo- lower part); joints filled with PP needle-punched
cells (see Section 3.4.5).
nonwoven geotextile; 800 g/m2 PP needle-
Two examples of articulated concrete blocks are:

131
 punched nonwoven geotextile between the geo- tential for future cracking; and (2) need to reduce
membrane and concrete. construction time and costs as the project was be-
• Ortolo (2000), Corsica, France, 37 m, 1V:1.7H, hind schedule (Sembenelli et al. 1998).
concrete slabs 0.14 m thick, reinforced with PP
fibers.
• La Galaube (2000), France, 43 m, 1V:2.0H, con-
crete slabs 0.10 m thick, reinforced with PP fi-
bers; 400 g/m2 PP needle-punched nonwoven
geotextile between the geomembrane and con-
crete.
It appears that a typical cover would be with a 0.15
m thick slab made of concrete either unreinforced or
reinforced with PP fibers. A greater thickness would
be justified in special cases, as in the upper part of
the slope at Bovilla dam, because of the risk of rocks
falling from the sides, or, as in the lower part of the
slope at Bovilla dam, because this lower part acts as Figure 12. Main cross section at Bovilla Dam.
a buttress to ensure the stability of the upper part.
The upstream composite geomembrane installed
(2) Example of concrete slab at Codole Dam in 1996 is the only element providing watertightness
At Codole Dam, a cost analysis at the design stage to the dam. It consists of a 3 mm thick PVC geo-
showed that the solution adopted was cost-effective membrane laminated to a 700 g/m2 polyester geotex-
compared to other solutions even if the geomem- tile. It was placed directly over the transition layer,
brane and the overlying concrete slabs had to be re- gravel stabilized with cement slurry. The geomem-
placed after 25 years of service. Codole Dam was brane covers the entire upstream slope, from the
built 27 years ago and is still in service. crest to the massive toe block, i.e. over a difference
At Codole Dam, the concrete slabs were rein- in elevation of 54 m. The upstream slope is
forced with traditional steel bars. This proved to be a 1V:1.55H in the upper 40% and 1V:1.6H in the low-
potential problem. Great precautions had to be taken er 60%.
during construction to avoid damaging the geomem- The geomembrane was covered with unreinforced
brane with the reinforcing bars, in spite of the pres- concrete slabs that were placed on an 800 g/m2 geo-
ence of a geotextile above the geomembrane. textile (Figure 13). The slabs are 6 m long in the
slope direction and 3 m horizontally. The slabs are
(3) Example of concrete slab at Jibiya Dam 0.20 m thick except near the bottom where they are
Jibiya Dam, Nigeria, 1989, is a 23.5 m high dam, 0.3 m thick as they serve of buttress to the slabs. The
lined with a 2.1 mm PVC geomembrane reinforced geotextile had a double function: providing anti-
with a 50 g/m2 glass fiber nonwoven fleece and puncture protection to the geomembrane against
bonded to a 400 g/m2 polyester staple fiber needle- casting of the slabs, and act as a light reinforcement
punched nonwoven geotextile. The geomembrane is for the slabs themselves.
covered by 2 m × 4m, 0.08 m thick, concrete slabs
with a 300 g/m2 needle-punched nonwoven geotex- 4
tile between the geomembrane and the concrete. 3
2
An interesting feature of Jibiya dam is the hori- 1

zontal placement of the geomembrane (rather than

placement by unrolling along the slope). This made
it possible to place the geomembrane and construct
the concrete protection almost simultaneously. Hori-
zontal placement of the geomembrane was possible
thanks to the gentle slope: 1V:3.0H.

(4) Example of concrete slab at Bovilla Dam

Bovilla Dam, Albania, is a 91 m high rockfill dam
for water supply, flood mitigation and hydropower
(Figure 12). 1. Gravel stabilized with cement slurry 2. Geomembrane
The original design of a concrete face rockfill dam 3. Anti-puncture PP geotextile, 800 g/m2 4. Unreinforced
concrete slab
was changed to a geomembrane face rockfill dam
for the following reasons: (1) concerns about the fi- Figure 13. Bovilla Dam facing system.
nal quality of the reinforced concrete face and its po-

132
 The decision to adopt cast in place concrete slabs
rather than prefabricated concrete blocks was taken Geotextile
because casting slabs was considered less aggressive Concrete slab
on the PVC geomembrane than the placement of Bituminous geomembrane
prefabricated concrete elements, and also consider- Cold asphalt mix
ing the problems with concrete blocks at L’Ospedale
Non bounded gravel
Dam (see Section 3.4.2 (1)).
+ bitumen impregnation
At Bovilla Dam, the bottom seal of the geomem-
brane on the toe block was designed to be able to ac-
cept differential movements and settlements one or-
der of magnitude larger than the estimated ones
(Figure 14). Extra material and protec-
tion/decoupling layers were placed for this purpose Figure 15. Typical cross section at La Galaube Dam (after
over the geomembrane at the seal. Gautier, 2003).

Stainless steel
Expandable
Weld
Weld

Concrete
plinth Primer

Figure 16. Typical cross section at La Galaube Dam (after

Gautier, 2003).

Figure 14. Bottom seal at Bovilla Dam.

3.4.4 Examples of cover made by shotcrete
When only a light cover is needed, a simple and ef-
The bottom seal, of the tie-down type (see the de-
fective low cost configuration consists of 50 to 70
finition in Section 4.4.4), was made by stainless steel
mm of shotcrete reinforced with a PP geogrid. A
batten strips that compress the geomembrane on the
needle-punched nonwoven geotextile protection is
concrete of the toe block. To achieve even compres-
needed between the geomembrane and the shotcrete.
sion, the concrete surface was leveled out with wa-
This cover system has sufficient flexibility to with-
tertight resin; and rubber gaskets and splice plates
stand the settlements of the fill. The shotcrete may
were used for stress distribution. The watertightness
crack, but without significant alteration of its ballast-
of the seal is verified by checking that all anchor
ing/protective function. Thanks to the needle-
bolts that compress the batten strips are tightened to
punched nonwoven geotextile, the system is free
a specified torque.
draining at the back, thereby relieving backpressure.
This type of cover has been used adopted at Mu-
(5) Example of concrete slab at La Galaube Dam cone Dam in Italy, 1986, 7 m high, 880 m long. The
La Galaube Dam, 43 m high, a rockfill dam in 1.5 mm PVC geomembrane is covered by 0.06 m of
France, is the highest dam waterproofed with a bi- shotcrete reinforced with a PP geogrid on a 500 g/m2
tuminous geomembrane (Gautier 2002). The bitu- PP needle-punched nonwoven geotextile between
minous geomembrane, 5 mm thick, has been laid on the geomembrane and the shotcrete (Figure 17).
a 0.10 m thick cold asphalt mix placed over a layer
of non-bounded gravel impregnated with bitumen on
the 1V:2.0H slope. The cover layer is a 0.10 m thick
concrete slab reinforced with polypropylene fibers
(Figure 15).
The bottom anchorage (Figure 16) is made on the
concrete plinth and is of the tie-down type (see Sec-
tion 4.4.4). Installation of 22,000 m2 of bituminous
geomembrane was completed in 2000. Figure 17. Mucone Dam. Cover by shotcrete reinforced with a
PP geogrid, placed over a geotextile

133
 If the part of the upstream face being covered is • 0.5 m rockfill 100-300 mm
such that the total weight of the cover does not gen- • 0.2 m gravel 0-25 mm
erate excessive tension in the geosynthetics, the en- • needle-punched nonwoven geotextile (500 g/m2)
tire protection is anchored at crest. Otherwise it can
• 1.2 mm PVC geomembrane
be supported by an H steel beam placed horizontally
at any given elevation, and anchored to the crest by • needle-punched nonwoven geotextile (500 g/m2)
steel cables. • 0.2 m drainage layer, gravel 0-25 mm
During construction, a slide of the soil cover oc-
3.4.5 Examples of cover made by geocells curred over 1000 m2 at the interface between the
At Mud Lake Dam, Nevada, USA, a 17 m high, 365 PVC geomembrane and the underlying geotextile.
m long, dam built in 1900, the 1.14 mm reinforced This cover slide on a 22° slope was unexpected
PP geomembrane installed in 2000 on a 1V:2.0H because the following values of the interface friction
slope is covered with a geocell filled with concrete. angle had been measured: 34° using a shear box
The construction sequence was as follows: (high normal stress) and 28° using inclined plane
• A 540 g/m2 polypropylene needle-punched non- (low normal stress), which is more appropriate con-
woven geotextile was placed on the polypropy- sidering the depth of material on top of the interface.
However, further investigations have shown that the
lene geomembrane and temporarily secured in
interface friction angle could be reduced by 3° by a
the crest anchor trench. moist interface and 3° by vibrations (like vibrations
• A 75 mm deep geocell was deployed on the potentially caused by construction equipment).
slope. This case history illustrates that the measurement
• Tendons made of polyester or polyaramide of interface shear strength is extremely delicate.
(“Kevlar”) passing through holes in the walls of
the geocells, and attached to the geocell at all le-
vels along the slope, were used to anchor the 3.5 Dams with internal geomembranes
geocell at the crest of the dam. The tendons are
attached to a bar embedded in the anchor trench. 3.5.1 General discussion
• The geocell was filled with concrete. Internal geomembranes (inclined, vertical, or quasi-
Geomattresses (i.e. geotextile forms filled with vertical in “accordion” or “zigzag” shape) have the
grout or mortar) can also be used. following advantages:
• They can be associated with a layer of low-
3.4.6 Examples of cover made by using soil layer permeability soil (compacted clay or silt), there-
by forming a composite liner, which reduces the
(1) General discussion seepage in case of defect in the geomembrane.
Geomembrane covers using a soil layer cannot be
used on the steep slopes typical of rockfill dams be- • The geomembrane is well protected (assuming
cause they would not be stable. Soil layers should that the materials adjacent to the geomembrane
only be used on slopes less steep than 1V:2.0H, pre- have been placed carefully, without damaging
ferably on 1V: 2.5H slopes and less steep. It is es- the geomembrane, and assuming that these mate-
sential to check the stability of the soil cover under rials do not contain elements likely to damage
rapid drawdown conditions, the worst conditions for the geomembrane in service).
static stability. In relevant areas, the seismic stability • Uplift of the geomembrane by wind is obviously
should also be checked. prevented.
At Worster Dam, Colorado, USA, 22 m high, 215 • Uplift of the geomembrane by water in case of
m long, lined with a 1.5 mm textured HDPE geo- rapid drawdown of the reservoir is prevented if
membrane, the 0.3 m thick soil cover bulged at the the soil pressure on the geomembrane is suffi-
toe of the 1V:3.0H slope at the first drawdown of the cient, which is always the case with vertical or
reservoir, as it was uplifted by water entrapped be- quasi-vertical geomembranes and should be
tween the geomembrane and an old concrete slab lo-
checked in the case of inclined geomembranes.
cated a few meters behind the geomembrane.
An example of soil cover was already presented in • The costs involved are smaller because the area
Section 3.2.5: Les Arcs Dams and Reservoir, with a of geomembrane is smaller.
1V:3.0H slope. Additional examples are presented • If the geomembrane has a zigzag shape, is it is
below. less sensitive to settlements, unless it is con-
nected to a rigid structure.
(2) Example of soil cover: Aubrac Dam On the other hand, internal geomembranes have
Aubrac dam, France (1986), 15 m, 1V:2.5H has the drawbacks: (1) internal geomembranes are generally
following cross section from the upper layer to the not justified when the reservoir is lined (which is not
lower layer: frequent); (2) they are generally difficult to con-

134
struct; and (3) they require coordination between • Wangfuzhu Dam (1999), 13 m high, 1251 m
earthworks and geomembrane installation. For these long, 0.5 mm PVC geomembrane in a central
reasons, internal geomembranes are rarely used. In- position with a zigzag configuration, and a 200
ternal geomembranes account for only 10% of the g/m2 geotextile, with no more details available.
total of geomembranes used in embankment dams. • Shirensigou Dam (2002), 41 m high, 94 m long,
Examples of embankment dams with internal geo-
0.8 mm PVC geomembrane in a central position,
membranes are presented in the following sections.
with a 300 g/m2 geotextile, and no more details
3.5.2 Dams with inclined internal geomembrane available.
As indicated in Section 2.3, the first embankment It appears that very thin geomembranes are used
dam with an internal geomembrane was Odiel dam in internal position in permanent embankment dams
in Spain constructed in 1970 with a CPE geomem- in China.
brane.
An inclined internal geomembrane was used at (2) Gibe III Cofferdam, Ethiopia
Valence d’Albi, France, 16 m high, constructed in At Gibe III Cofferdam, in contrast with several dams
1988. The geomembrane is a 4 mm thick bituminous in China, the central geomembrane has a thickness
geomembrane. It was installed on a 1V:2.0H slope similar to the thickness of upstream geomembranes.
and was covered with a zone of soil having a final Gibe III Cofferdam is a 50 m high rockfill cofferdam
slope of 1V:2.5 h in the top third and 1V:3.0H in the for the main 240 m high RCC dam of Gibe III Hy-
lower two thirds (Girard et al. 1990; Alonso et al. droelectric Project. The geomembrane is in a central
1990; Giroud 1991). The geomembrane is in contact position with an accordion shape (Figure 18).
with the compacted soil (a medium-permeability According to the designer (Pietrangeli et al. 2009)
schist); as a result, the seepage rate in case of a de- “a central geomembrane core was adopted at Gibe
fect in the geomembrane would be significantly less III because of:
than it would be if the geomembrane had been in • Timing: it would allow completing the construc-
contact with a drainage material. tion within the very short construction period.
The bituminous geomembrane used at Valence • Simplicity: it would allow the realization of an
d’Albi Dam (and at other dams) comprises on one of embankment of homogeneous rockfill, with op-
its faces (normally placed in contact with the sup- timization in construction times and costs.
porting soil) a high-puncture resistance thin polyest- • No clay: lack of availability in the zone of ma-
er film intended to prevent the growth of vegetation terial suitable for an impervious core.
when the bituminous geomembrane is exposed. This • Safety: with such layout the impervious layer is
film is rather smooth. During construction, this film embedded in the embankment, safer than any
was burnt with a flame to increase the interface fric-
impervious layer (rockfill dams with concrete or
tion angle with the adjacent material.
bituminous concrete face).
3.5.3 Examples of dams with central geomembrane • Settlement is not a problem.
• Permeability tests done during construction pro-
(1) Examples of central geomembranes in China vide a guarantee unusual for this kind of struc-
According to the ICOLD database, among the 43 ture.”
embankment dams with a geomembrane constructed The impervious core consists of a 3.5 mm thick
in China, six have the geomembrane in an internal PVC geomembrane “sandwiched” between two
position. Information available on these dams is li- thick 1200 g/m2 needle-punched nonwoven geotex-
tiles acting as anti-puncture layers that protect the
mited.
geomembrane against possible damage by the con-
In all of these dams, the geomembrane used was a
struction materials and equipment (Figure 19). Fur-
PVC geomembrane. In two of the six dams, the
thermore, two 50 mm thick sand filter layers are
geomembrane was used to repair an existing dam.
placed respectively at the upstream and downstream
For one of them, there is no detailed information.
side of the geotextile-geomembrane-geotextile
The other dam, Zhuwei Dam will be discussed in
“sandwich”.
Section 3.6.
The geomembrane has been installed from the
One of the four remaining dams is a 10 m high
bottom cut-off up to the crest, in a zigzag pattern so
cofferdam built in 1995 with a 1.5 mm thick PVC
as to follow the step by step construction of the em-
geomembrane in central position. The three remain-
bankment and to be more flexible against possible
ing dams are:
settlements of the embankment. The waterproofing
• Heihe Dam (1999), 18.6 m high, 220 m long, 0.3 system thus creates a continuous impervious barrier
mm PVC geomembrane in a central position, running all along the longitudinal axis of the dam
with no more details available. from the bottom cut-off up to the crest. The first
constructed section of the cofferdam body was on

135
the downstream side with a height of 6 m. The next The alternate upstream-downstream phased em-
sections follow one upstream and one downstream bankment construction, with geomembrane seaming
and have each a constant height of 12 m. at the end of each phase is consistent with the strate-
C gy described by Giroud (1990, 1991). It has been
Cofferdam
used for the heightening of Middle Creek Dam in
2
sel B
1992 with a CSPE geomembrane.
sel B 2
The anchorage at the bottom boundaries is made
Pre-Cofferdam B/T
d/s toe
by embedding the geomembrane in the 6 to 8 m
sel B
deep clay cut-off and by backfilling with the same
clay (Figure 21). At the two abutments, due to the
GW
0.5 ~1
~1.5 3

difficulty of excavating the cut-off with the same

1.5
SW-CL SW-CL

C depth because of the presence of surfacing rocks in

the river bed, the geometry was slightly modified
Figure 18. Typical cross section of Gibe III Cofferdam. during construction by adapting the thickness of the
clay layer below and above the geomembrane.
In the flat area at the crest of each section, the
geomembrane lining the lower section is overlapped
by the geomembrane lining the section above it, for
a width of about 2 m, where the two geomembranes
are connected by a double track automatic seam.
Quality control of the seams was done with air pres-
sure test using the air channel between the two
tracks of the seam.

Detail "c" Figure 21. Gibe III Cofferdam. Anchorage of the impervious
geomembrane core in the clay cut-off trench.

Top anchorage of the geomembrane is made with

steel anchor and plates fixed to the reinforced con-
crete crest wall. Final stages of construction are
shown in Figure 22.

Figure 19. Detail of the impervious core of Gibe III Cofferdam.

The execution of this horizontal longitudinal con-

nection seam, parallel to the axis of the dam, is made
at the same time of installation of the PVC geomem-
brane sheets over the inclined slope of the upper sec-
tion (Figure 20). Before the execution of this seam
the protection placed to avoid damages on the geo- Figure 22. Gibe III Cofferdam. Placement and compaction of
membrane is removed, the area is cleaned, the inte- the fill for the fourth Section of the cofferdam, and the 50 m
high cofferdam nearing completion.
grity of the geomembrane is checked and, if needed,
damages are repaired.
(3) Signal Buttes Flood Retention Structure
Signal Buttes Flood Retention Structure is a 14 m
high, 2,100 m long, dam near Phoenix, Arizona
USA, constructed in 1988. This dam controls floods
. that are relatively rare but could threaten populated
areas. Due to the extremely dry climate, the reser-
voir of this dam is generally empty. The geomem-
brane central position was selected to ensure that the
geomembrane would always be protected by suffi-
Figure 20. Gibe III Cofferdam. Placement of the geomembrane cient soil even in case of intensive erosion. The
on the first section of the fill (left) and welding the geomem- geomembrane selected was an HDPE geomembrane,
brane of the bottom section to the geomembrane of the upper
section.
in part because HDPE was becoming a dominant
geomembrane material in the early 1980s in the

136
USA when Signal Buttes dam was designed and in 3.6.1 Rehabilitation of earth dams
part because it was reportedly believed by the design
engineer that HDPE geomembranes have high punc- (1) A typical example, Gold Camp Dam
ture resistance and could deform to follow potential Gold Camp Dam is a 265 m long earthfill dam with
large deformations of the embankment and its foun- a total height of 30 m (but a face height of 20 m),
dation. The 2.5 mm thickness was selected to in- built in 1954, in Colorado, USA, at elevation 1985
crease the puncture resistance and resistance to m. Three years after construction, a major leak emp-
stresses due to construction. tied the reservoir. Grouting reduced the leakage rate,
The geomembrane was installed with an accor- but for safety reasons, the dam was operated with re-
dion shape. However, contrary to the case of Gibe servoir at low level. In 1983, the dam was rehabili-
III Cofferdam discussed above, no horizontal seams tated using a 1.5 mm CSPE geomembrane placed on
were planned. According to the design and the con- the entire 1V:3.5H upstream slope and anchored at
struction plan, the HDPE geomembrane was to be the crest and the periphery in an anchor trench.
installed as a continuous sheet from the bottom of The geomembrane has been left exposed in spite
the cutoff trench to the crest of the dam. At each of the large upstream face area. Air vents in the up-
stage of the alternate downstream-upstream em- per part of the geomembrane contribute to the stabi-
bankment construction (similar to that of Gibe III lization of the geomembrane in the case on wind. It
Cofferdam), the extra length of geomembrane had to should be noted that the wind-generated suction is
be stored at the crest of the constructed embankment less effective at high elevation.
section, waiting for the next embankment section to The solution which consists in lining the upstream
be constructed on the other side. The geomembrane face with a geomembrane was preferred to the fol-
was thus exposed to construction activities and sub- lowing solutions: (1) Adding a downstream zone of
jected to temperature variations causing wrinkles. compacted soil and a toe drain; (2) Installing pres-
Handling the enormous weight of the geomembrane sure relief wells from the crest; and (3) Adding a
was a challenge for the contractor. Furthermore the clay liner on the upstream slope. The rehabilitation
dam was not straight but had a U shape. This further has been successful and the seepage has been practi-
complicated the handling of the geomembrane. Also, cally eliminated.
connecting the accordion-shaped geomembrane to a
vertical concrete structure was extremely difficult. (2) Rehabilitation of flood retention structures
In spite of these problems, the construction of In western states of the USA, there are kilometers of
Signal Buttes Flood Retention Structure was com- flood retention structures that need to be repaired.
pleted. According to local engineers knowledgeable They are relatively low dams, typically 10 m high,
in flood retention structures, Signal Buttes Flood Re- constructed in desert areas to control floods, which
tention Structure Signal Buttes Flood Retention are rare but very dangerous, and increasingly dan-
Structure is now considered to be in better condition gerous with the development of populated areas.
than conventional homogeneous flood retention These dams are earth dams constructed in the 1950s
structures in the same desert area, which are general- and 1960s, and they are severely cracked because of
ly deeply cracked and could be unsafe in case of ma- the following reasons: (1) the extremely dry climate;
jor flood. Using a geomembrane is clearly the best (2) the fact that the reservoir of these dams is gener-
solution for earth dikes that are susceptible to crack- ally empty; and (3) the differential settlements due
ing because they are not exposed to water most of to subsidence caused by excessive pumping of
the time and because of ground subsidence. ground water.
Construction of the Signal Buttes Dam would Cracks cannot be fixed. Therefore, using a geo-
have been much easier if geomembrane panels had membrane on the upstream slope is an obvious solu-
been welded at each embankment construction stage, tion for the rehabilitation of cracked embankment
rather than trying to install a geomembrane conti- dams. Studies undertaken for the selection of geo-
nuous from bottom to top. Also, a more flexible membrane to be used on the upstream slope of a
geomembrane would have made construction much cracked embankment dams have concluded that the
easier. The difficulty of installing a geomembrane geomembrane should be able to withstand the
with an accordion shape without seaming at the end stresses caused by:
of each embankment construction stage was men- • The opening of a crack in the soil supporting the
tioned by Giroud (1990, 1991). geomembrane after geomembrane installation;
and
3.6 Rehabilitation of embankment dams
• Water pressure on the geomembrane bridging
Geomembranes have been used for the rehabilitation open cracks in case of sudden filling of the re-
or repair of all types of embankment dams: earth servoir by a flood, a situation which is known to
dams; concrete face rockfill dams and bituminous happen periodically.
concrete face rockfill dams.

137
3.6.2 Rehabilitation of concrete or bituminous con- berry Concrete Face Rockfill Dam). These specific
crete face rockfill dams cases are discussed in the following sections.
In the rehabilitation of concrete face rockfill dam
dams and bituminous concrete face rockfill dams, 3.6.3 Repair of concrete face rockfill dams
the concept is similar to what will be discussed for
concrete dams. Both are hard surfaces to which (1) Complete rehabilitation
geomembranes can be attached. However, the an- Salt Springs Dam, 101 m high, is an interesting ex-
chorage system of the geomembrane to the dam face ample of repair of a concrete face rockfill dam be-
is designed depending on the type and strength of cause the installation of the geomembrane was car-
the existing facing (concrete or bituminous concrete). ried out in two subsequent years and it was possible
Therefore, the geomembrane is typically left ex- in the second year to inspect the geomembrane sys-
posed, and maintained to the dam face by face an- tem installed in the first year.
chorage and perimeter anchorage. Constructed from 1928 to 1931, Salt Springs is the
Face anchorage can be made by gluing or by me- 5th oldest concrete face rockfill dam in the world
chanical fixations. and the first concrete face rockfill dam to reach 100
Gluing has been done in the case of in situ geo- meters in height. The initial construction procedure
membranes. In a number of these applications, consisted of placing dumped rock in a lift approx-
gluing has resulted in failure, such as at Paradela imately 50 m high at its maximum up to about eleva-
Dam, Arcizans Dam, and Rouchain Dam. These tion 1158 m, about 50 m below final crest elevation.
failures can be attributed to the nature of the in-situ Because of the large lift and rock placement tech-
geomembranes. But, they may also be due to a fun- niques, the materials tended to segregate, with larger
damental conceptual mistake. As indicated in Sec- boulders (about 45 t) generally at the bottom and
tion 3.2.3, two liners should not be located directly smaller boulders (about 3 t) on top. This resulted in
on top of each other, unless there is a sufficient load poor consolidation that was soon evidenced by the
on them to counteract water pressure. Of course, large settlements measured during the first year of
there is no load on a geomembrane glued on a rigid construction. In 1930, the dam construction was
support. Therefore, Consistent with the recommen- halted. The rock placement that followed in the re-
dations made in Section 3. 2.3, the ICOLD Bulletin maining two years (1930 and 1931) of construction
135 recommends that gluing “should not be conti- was changed. Lifts were reduced to about 23 m in
nuous over the entire face to allow drainage behind height and significantly more water was used for
the geomembrane and release of vapor pressure sluicing the materials to achieve better consolidation.
which would result in uplift pressure which could As a result, a weak zone was created in the dam at
detach and ultimately damage the geomembrane or the transition zone (Larson et al. 2005).
the supporting layer. [ . . . ] Rehabilitation of con- The upstream face of Salt Springs Dam consists of
crete or bituminous concrete facings with a geo- reinforced concrete slabs, from 0.30 m thick at the
membrane glued on the entire surface is not recom- crest to 0.90 m thick at bottom. Each slab has an ap-
mended.” In fact, gluing has been abandoned since proximate surface area of 18 m2, on an average slope
the 1980s. of 1V:1.3H. The initial rock placement procedures
A simple mechanical fixation consists of nailing left the dam with an inherent settlement problem that
the geomembrane to the supporting layer. This has caused repeated cracks to the upstream face. Repairs
been done for the partial repair of Heimbach Dam, a to the concrete face slab have been reported in 19
concrete dam. This application will be discussed in separate years from 1958 to 1995, with concrete
Section 4.3. Conceivably, a nailed geomembrane (or patching, concrete overlay, joint repairs, and/or joint
a geomembrane with other types of punctual anc- sealant. The continued attempt to use a rigid material
hors) could be used for the repair or rehabilitation of (concrete) unable to accommodate continued move-
concrete face or bituminous concrete face rockfill ment and settlement of the dam, especially in the
dams. Only the currently used mechanical fixations transition zone at elevation 1158 m, did not provide
are discussed hereafter. a long-term repair solution. As in other concrete face
Mechanical fixations are bolted to the dam with rockfill dams having problems with the cracking of
different methods depending on the characteristics the slabs, a flexible liner was more adequate to pro-
of the face (concrete or bituminous concrete face). vide the desired leakage control and also accommo-
Mechanical fixations have the additional advantage date any future settlement of the dam. In fact, the
of allowing a drainage system behind the geomem- leakage rate per unit area was of the order of 100 li-
brane. ters/hr/m2, which is two orders of magnitude above
Rehabilitation can be performed on the entire fac- the leakage rate that can be expected with a geo-
ing (Salt Springs Concrete Face Rockfill Dam, Mo- membrane. Clearly a geomembrane had to be used.
ravka Bituminous Face Rockfill Dam), as well as The new liner is a composite geomembrane con-
only on failing joints between concrete slabs (Straw- sisting of a 2.5 mm thick PVC geomembrane, lami-
nated during fabrication to a 500 g/m2 needle-

138
punched nonwoven geotextile. Due to the extreme Strawberry dam is the second oldest concrete face
roughness of the facing, a 2000 g/m2 needle- rockfill dam in the world. Located in California it is
punched nonwoven geotextile was placed directly on owned and operated by Pacific Gas and Electric
the deteriorated concrete to smooth irregularities of Company (PG&E). The dam, constructed from 1913
dam face and decrease surface preparation costs. through 1916, is 43 m high. The nine vertical expan-
The composite geomembrane, as it practically is al- sion joints have no waterstops. Each winter the face
ways the case in dam rehabilitation, was left exposed. is fully exposed, leading to deterioration of the con-
Face anchorage and perimeter seals are the same crete for freeze/thaw. Leakage went up by 1998 to
that are generally used on concrete and as such dis- 595 l/s. In the spring of 1999, the California Divi-
cussed in Section 4. sion of Safety of Dams requested that PG&E take
Not to impact on operation of the dam, which is remediation measures to reduce the leakage. Tempo-
used for hydropower, the installation of the geo- rary repairs using polyurethane caulking in the
membrane system was scheduled in two years. As dam’s nine joints reduced leakage to a maximum of
described by Larson et al. (2005), a seepage evalua- just under 566 l/s.
tion analysis was performed to define the optimum Alternatives considered by PG & E for permanent
area to be waterproof to provide the best benefit/cost joint repair were mastic, asphalt, concrete, or a syn-
ratio. thetic liner. The acceptance criteria were a minimum
The geomembrane installation was carried out in reduction of 75 percent (for 100% coverage of all 9
that area in February-March 2004. After summer joints) below leakage rates of 1998.
filling, the reservoir was dewatered for the second The synthetic liner option (exposed waterstop)
waterproofing campaign and the geomembrane in- was selected based on performance, on compatibility
stalled in 2004 could be inspected. Observations of installation with climatic conditions during win-
showed that the geomembrane had imprinted on the tertime, and on costs.
rough subgrade under the 60 m water head, accom- The work began in January 2002, with concrete
modating the big holes and irregularities with no surface preparation of the nine vertical joints. The
damage. Figure 23 shows the remarkable deforma- liner system consisted of four layers, 3 for support
tion of the geomembrane on the large cavities of the and one for waterproofing.
subgrade, with no rupture. The figure also shows The first support layer, anchored on one side by
how the surface preparation was limited, as signifi- impact anchors into the new shotcrete or existing
cant voids did not have to be completely backfilled, sound concrete, is a geocomposite (2.5 mm thick
but rather just smoothed with concrete and extra lay- PVC geomembrane coupled to a 500 g/m² geotex-
ers of geosynthetics. tile). This layer is 0.70 m wide to completely cover
the joint. The layer was affixed to the face using
drilled impact anchors to hold the geocomposite in
place.
The second support layer is the same, 0.70 m wide
and anchored by impact anchors installed on the op-
posite side.
The third support layer is a thick non-woven geo-
textile (1000 g/m²), installed over the two support
geocomposites and anchored along its vertical edges.
Figure 23. Salt Springs dam, a 101 m high concrete face rock- The geotextile provides cushioning for the final
fill dam, USA: after repeated ineffective repairs with shotcrete
and concrete, permanent repair was made with an exposed
composite geomembrane.
PVC geocomposite, installed in two phases to minimize impact The waterproofing geomembrane is a composite
on operation. At left, typical section of the concrete face after geomembrane made of the same material as used in
70 years of service and 19 repairs, with the shotcrete overlay the first two support layers.
repairs in the background. At right, the PVC geocomposite in- The waterproofing geomembrane is anchored
stalled in Phase 1 after exposure for one full season. Under the around the entire perimeter with a stainless steel bat-
60 m water head, the PVC geocomposite conformed without ten strip, fastened to the concrete by anchor bolts at
ruptures to the rough surface, which needed only minimum about 0.15 m spacing. The completed “external wa-
smoothening works. After installation, seepage has been re-
duced below the required acceptable level.
terstop” system is about 1.0 m wide (Figure 24).
In May 2002, when 6 out of 9 joints had been re-
paired with the external waterstop system as sche-
duled, the reservoir filled in for the season. The rec-
(2) Repair in a limited area
orded leakage has been about 85 percent below the
Repair can also be made only at critical areas. A pa-
1998 leakage rates, more than adequately meeting
tented external waterstop system has been success-
the acceptance criteria and well below the historic
fully used for this purpose at Strawberry Concrete
levels. Consequently, PG&E proposed to the author-
Face Rockfill Dam in USA (Scuero et al. 2005).
ities that the completion of remaining 3 joints be de-

139
ferred until the seepage reached a predetermined upstream face (geomembrane system); the secondary
level. This proposal was accepted and the work to seal confines the drainage system for water coming
complete the waterproofing of the joints was put on from foundation/abutments/failing joints in the con-
indefinite hold. PG&E will continue to measure the crete. The two drainage systems discharge in the gal-
leakage; and, if it increases, installation of the exter- lery with separate discharge pipes to allow monitor-
nal waterstop system on the remaining joints will be ing the system (Figure 25).
implemented.

Figure 24. Strawberry Concrete Face Rockfill Dam, USA: the

second support layer is applied to the joint. Six joints out of a
total of nine were waterproofed, reducing leakage below the
target.

3.6.4 Repair of bituminous concrete face rockfill

dams
If a geomembrane is used to repair dams having a Figure 25. Moravka Bituminous Concrete Face Rockfill Dam,
bituminous concrete face, the anchorage system is Czech Republic: the two bottom seals.
designed in function of the particular characteristics
of the subgrade, which being not a rigid material like The secondary seal made on concrete is of the tie-
concrete does not always allow using the type of down type (see Section 4.4.4). The primary seal
anchors used on concrete. made on bituminous concrete is of the insert type
For anchoring the profiles or batten strips that (Figure 26); the watertight resin making the seal al-
provide face anchorage, typically field testing is lowed maintaining watertightness at the fissures in-
made to verify if chemical phials or grouted anchors tercepted by the seal.
or deep anchors must be adopted. Chemical phials
require a stronger and not very viscous subgrade.
Grouted anchors and deep anchors (Duckbill/Manta
Ray type) can be used in alternative.
At Moravka, a 39 meter high earthfill dam in the
Czech Republic used for hydropower, potable water
supply, and flood control, an exposed PVC compo-
site geomembrane was placed on the bituminous
concrete facing that despite several repairs, includ-
ing a new bituminous concrete layer, continued to
exhibit leakage. An asset of geomembrane systems
in this type of dams is that they do not require mil-
ling of the deteriorated bituminous concrete, which
on the contrary is necessary if a new bituminous
concrete layer is installed.
Pull out field testing was carried out at several lo-
cations of the facing to ascertain if chemical anchors PVC geomembrane (2.5 mm)
could be used to fix the tensioning profiles for face
anchorage. The tests were successful, but since the
resistance of the bituminous concrete could vary
Figure 26. Moravka Dam: the insert type bottom seal on bitu-
over the year depending on atmospheric temperature, minous concrete
the conventional chemical anchors were modified to
ensure stability. The exposed geomembrane system was released
Two bottom perimeter seals were installed at the in 2009 from the ten years warranty. The geomem-
concrete block where the drainage gallery is located. brane has resisted ice impact (Figure 27).
The primary seal confines the drainage system of the

140
 described in Sections 3.2.2, 3.23 and 3.2.4 should be
taken.
It is important to monitor and maintain dams. De-
fects, if any, in geomembranes generally have no de-
trimental consequences, because a geomembrane
with a small number of small punctures is still less
pervious than other liners. Significant defects in
geomembranes, due to the exceptional causes men-
tioned above, should be repaired if they are likely to
have detrimental consequences. Fortunately, it is
generally easy to repair geomembranes. Damage re-
pair, at least for geomembranes having suitable cha-
racteristics, is feasible by simple patching if in the
dry, or by underwater installation. This is possible
Figure 27. Moravka Dam: heavy ice impact did not damage the for exposed geomembranes, and even, if necessary,
exposed PVC geomembrane. for covered geomembranes.
In the case of internal geomembranes, the only
3.7 Performance of embankment dams with cause of significant damage to the geomembrane
geomembrane could be a major earthquake. It is important, in
A typical rate of leakage per unit area observed in seismic areas, to design the dam structure according-
the case of large earth and rockfill dams constructed ly and to use a geomembrane with high elongation
with a geomembrane liner on the upstream face and capability and high puncture resistance since the
covered is of the order of 1 liter/hr/m2 (assuming geomembrane could come in contact with rocks in
that monitoring is accurate, which is not guaranteed) case of malfunctioning of the protective layers. An
for the best cases and up to 10 liter/hr/m2 for dams internal geomembrane with high elongation capabili-
that do not have the best performance. For the sake ty is probably the safest possible liner in case of
of comparison, one defect per 1000 m2 with a di- earthquake.
ameter of 2 mm gives a calculated leakage rate of In conclusion, with appropriate dam design, and
the order of 0.1 liter/hr/m2 with a typical water head. proper geomembrane selection, the geomembrane
It is possible that leakage at peripheral connections liners are very safe.
may explain the difference.
However, in the case of geomembranes anchored
on a concrete face rockfill dam, the rate of leakage is 4 CONCRETE AND MASONRY DAMS
of the order of 0.1 liter/hr/m2 for the best cases. It
appears that the typical leakage rate in the case of
geomembranes anchored on a concrete face rockfill 4.1 Importance of imperviousness for concrete and
dam is an order of magnitude times less than the typ- masonry dams
ical rate of leakage through geomembranes installed Maintaining imperviousness is critical for concrete
conventionally in embankment dams. This may be dams, because water infiltration modifies the uplift
due to better installation on rigid surface. pressure that was taken into account when designing
the dam. A typical design approach in new conven-
3.8 Safety in case of geomembrane failure tional concrete dams, based on considering a rela-
Exposed geomembranes can be damaged by acci- tively tight upstream face, is to assume a 50% uplift
dental exceptional events (vandalism, terrorism) or pressure reduction immediately behind the upstream
by repeated or occasional aggression from the ser- face, and then a linear reduction to a zero pressure
vice environment (animals, ageing). Upstream geo- (or to the pressure due to the tailwater when present)
membranes, exposed or covered, can be damaged by at the downstream face, with a reduction of uplift at
extraordinary events such as earthquakes or falling any line of drilled or formed internal drains, whose
aircrafts. extent varies depending on the rules or standards in
As indicated in Section 3.2.2, the design of a dam each country, but is approximately of the order of
with a liner (any type of liner) should be such that 2/3.
the seepage resulting from a major breach in the lin- During the service life of the dam, the imper-
er should not cause the rupture or a major distress of viousness of the upstream concrete generally de-
the dam. Therefore, when a geomembrane liner is creases. Infiltrated water may wash the content of
considered for an embankment dam, it is essential to fines and of lime, reducing the strength of the con-
check that the appropriate design precautions have crete, clogging the drains, thereby reducing their ef-
been taken. If it appears that the dam may be sensi- fectiveness in providing the uplift reduction that was
tive to internal erosion, the leakage control measures taken into account at design stage.

141
 Even when seepage does not reduce the stability As Table 1 shows, the geomembrane is almost al-
and safety of the dam to critical values, still another ways exposed. The only cases of covered geomem-
detrimental aspect is the appearance of seepage at brane on concrete or masonry dams for which we
the downstream face, which may be interpreted by have some data are two partial applications (joint at
the public as a sign of poor construction and poor heel) on high arch dams in Austria.
maintenance, inducing a general feeling of lack of Dams of remarkable height have been water-
safety, which does not necessarily correspond to re- proofed using a geomembrane, such as Kölnbreins-
ality. perre Dam, an arch dam in Austria, 200 m, and Alpe
Gera Dam in Italy, 174 m. In both dams, the geo-
4.2 Use of geomembranes in new concrete and membrane was installed in the lowest part of the
masonry dams dam face, sustaining the highest water head.
Geomembrane placement is generally carried out
Considering the impressive success of geomem- in the dry, after emptying all or part of the reservoir.
branes in the rehabilitation of old concrete and ma- Underwater repair has also been made and is dis-
sonry dams (see Sections 4.3 to 4.7), geomembranes cussed hereafter in Section 6.
could conceivably be used for the construction of One original case is that of Heimbach Dam in
new concrete and masonry dams. However, to the Germany. This concrete gravity dam, built in 1937,
best of our knowledge, geomembranes have only is 12 m high and 105 m long. A 500 m2 area of the
been used during construction at three concrete dams vertical face was repaired in 1974 using a 3 mm
for a minor application. In these three dams, the thick PVC geomembrane nailed to the face with one
geomembrane has been installed at the heel, to act as nail per m2.
elastic waterstop at the peripheral joint between the
upstream face and the plinth. (The plinth is the con- 4.4 The state-of-the-art design
crete beam located at the periphery of the upstream
face to ensure proper connection between the face
and the surrounding terrain. The plinth is often used 4.4.1 Overview
as the starting point for grouting the dam founda- Since, in 87% of all cases of exposed geomembranes
tion.) on concrete or masonry dams, the same system has
The rest of Section 4 is devoted to the rehabilita- been adopted, this system can be considered to be
tion or repair of existing concrete and masonry dams. the state-of-the-art design. The state of the art is cha-
racterized by the type of geomembrane used, the an-
4.3 Use of geomembranes in the rehabilitation of chorage system, the peripheral seal, and the drainage
concrete and masonry dams behind the geomembrane. These four features are
discussed in the following sections.
Extensive application of geomembranes on concrete
and masonry dams was carried out initially in Eu- 4.4.2 The geomembrane used
rope, at the beginning of the 1970s. In almost all The geomembrane used comprises two components:
cases, the geomembrane is installed on the entire up- a geomembrane and a nonwoven geotextile. These
stream face to restore imperviousness to the deteri- two components are heat-bonded together at the
orated facing. To the best of our knowledge, there manufacturing stage, thereby forming a composite
are only two concrete and masonry dams on which a geomembrane.
geomembrane was installed locally to repair a joint The geomembrane component is a high-stability
or a crack. PVC geomembrane. Its thickness is typically 2 to 3
In rehabilitation of concrete and masonry dams, mm. The geotextile component is a needle-punched
only PVC, LLDPE, CSPE and CPE-R geomem- nonwoven geotextile made of polypropylene or po-
branes have been used, as listed in Table 1. Neither lyester, with a mass per unit area typically 200 to
bituminous nor HDPE geomembranes were used. 700 g/m2 depending on the conditions of the sub-
Table 1. Geomembranes (GM) in concrete dams.
grade and the water head; polypropylene is generally
Dam type GM PVC LLDPE CSPE CPE-R used when contact with fresh concrete is foreseen,
Expos. 31 0 0 0 such as in case a new concrete or shotcrete layer is
Gravity Cover. 1 0 0 0 placed on the dam to increase its stability. While the
Buttress
Exp. 3 0 0 0 geomembrane performs the waterproofing function,
Cov. 0 0 0 0 the geotextile performs several functions: it rein-
Exp. 3 0 1 0 forces the geomembrane, thereby reducing sagging
Arch Cov. 0 2 1 1
Exp. 9 0 0 0
of the vertical geomembrane; it protects the geo-
Multiple
Cov. 0 0 0 0 membrane against mechanical damage by irregulari-
arch
Exp. 46 0 1 0
ties of the supporting medium; and it contributes to
Total Cov 1 2 1 1 drainage behind the geomembrane.

142
4.4.3 Anchorage 4.4.4 Peripheral seal
A face anchorage system keeps the geomembrane at- A peripheral seal impedes water infiltration behind
tached to the upstream face avoiding displacement the geomembrane. The seal is of the tie-down type,
of the geomembrane by wind and waves, and pre- that is to say a mechanical seal made by compress-
venting sagging of the geomembrane due to creep. ing the geomembrane on the concrete by stainless
Anchorage is always mechanical, with only one steel batten strips and appropriate gaskets and splice
exception, Zolezzi Dam in Italy, 1992, where an- plates. It is designed to be watertight against the wa-
chorage was made by gluing (Cazzuffi & Sembenelli ter pressure where the seal is positioned, i.e. rain and
1994). Face anchorage is almost always made with a snowmelt at crest, and maximum water head at sub-
well known patented anchoring and tensioning sys- mersible boundaries.
tem (ICOLD 1991). The tensioning system consists
of two stainless steel ribs (generally referred to as 4.4.5 Drainage
“profiles”), the first one, a U shaped internal profile, There is always a drainage system between the dam
fastened to the dam upstream face, and the second face and the geomembrane. The drainage system is
one, an omega shaped external profile, installed over composed of: (1) the geotextile component of the
the composite geomembrane (Figure 28). The geo- composite geomembrane: (2) a “face drainage layer”,
metry of the two profiles is such that, when they are i.e. the gap created by the tensioning system be-
tightly connected, they secure the composite geo- tween the composite geomembrane and the face of
membrane to the upstream face and they pre-tension the dam; (3) when more flow capacity is needed, an
it. Pre-tensioning prevents the composite geomem- additional layer of transmissive geosynthetic (such
brane from becoming loosened or wrinkled during as a geonet); (4) the drainage collection conduits
service. Tensioning is preferable (ICOLD 2010) for formed by the vertical tensioning profiles; (5) a bot-
the safety and durability of the system. If the com- tom collector; and (6) one or more discharge pipes.
posite geomembrane is not adequately tensioned, the Discharge is made in the gallery or downstream.
repeated loads to which it will be subjected during Discharge inside the reservoir would also be possi-
its service life (waves and wind, varying water levels, ble, using one-way patented discharge valves as
etc.) will over time cause formation of slack areas adopted in canals and pressure tunnels; however, to
and folds, which are places for potential concentra- the best of our knowledge, this has not been done.
tion of stresses that can lead to faster ageing of the The drainage system performs three functions: (1)
geomembrane. In cold climates, tensioning prevents control seepage flow from the reservoir (“infiltration
ice from sticking to the geomembrane and dragging water”); (2) drain water from the dam (“saturation
down the composite geomembrane. water”); and (3) monitor the performance of the
The spacing between the vertical profiles is dic- geomembrane. These three functions are discussed
tated by the load conditions and the width of the below.
composite geomembrane rolls or geomembrane pa- The imperviousness of the geomembrane and the
nels (sometimes two or more 2.10 m wide rolls are associated drainage system provide an effective con-
joined to form larger panels and expedite construc- trol of seepage flow from the reservoir through the
tion). Typical spacing is 1.80 m, 3.7 m or 5.7 m. upstream face of the dam.
In addition to anchoring and tensioning the com- Over the years prior to the rehabilitation of the
posite geomembrane, the vertical profiles create ver- dam using a geomembrane, water has progressively
tical channels that contribute to the drainage capaci- saturated the dam. The drainage system performs
ty of the system (see Section 4.4.4). progressive dehydration of the dam. The mechanism
is the following: water present in the dam migrates
through the concrete towards the warmer upstream
face of the dam, especially when the reservoir is
empty and under the action of solar radiation. The
impervious geomembrane stops the migration; the
drainage layer intercepts the water behind the geo-
membrane, and conveys the water by gravity to bot-
tom collection and discharge. Thus, the dam is pro-
gressively dehydrated of saturation water. As a
result, pore pressure is reduced, the risk of clogging
of drilled drains is reduced, and the phenomenon of
concrete swelling due to alkali-aggregate reaction
(AAR) is slowed down (Scuero & Vaschetti 2008).
The presence of a drainage system is of particular
Figure 28. Cross section of the patented anchoring and tension-
advantage in concrete dams affected by AAR, as it
ing system used for concrete dam rehabilitation.
can deprive the dam of some of the water feeding
the reaction. Also, drainage prevents water from ap-

143
plying pressure in existing cracks and causing uplift. When increased drainage capability is required, a
At Pracana Dam, a 65 m high buttress dam in Por- drainage geonet is placed under the composite geo-
tugal, affected by AAR, an exposed drained compo- membrane. A cross section and a typical example
site geomembrane system was installed in 1992. The are shown in Figure 30.
drainage layer is a geonet located on the entire up-
stream face underneath the composite geomembrane. Composite geomembrane
Monitoring the behavior of the drained waterproof-
ing system has demonstrated its capability of dehy-
drating the dam. After 11 years of service of the dam,
PVC
the owner reported “the dam waterproofing may be geomembrane Geonet
assumed to contribute for the reduction of the swel-
ling process” (Liberal et al. 2003).
To monitor the performance of the geomembrane, Geotextile Concrete

the drainage system along the face of the dam is

sometimes divided in sections. This makes it possi-
ble to locate a leak in the geomembrane.
Figure 30. At Waldeck gravity dam in Germany, 2008, the
4.5 Rehabilitation of dams with concrete or
composite geomembrane is placed on a drainage geonet.
shotcrete facing
In dams with concrete or shotcrete facing, the com- Installation is made horizontally (Figure 31) if the
posite geomembrane consists typically of a 2.5 mm geometry of the dam so requires, such as in multiple
thick PVC geomembrane coupled during fabrication arch dams, because horizontal installation allows for
to a 500 g/m2 needle-punched nonwoven geotextile. better adapting the geomembrane sheets to the sur-
The composite geomembrane is generally installed face. A flexible geomembrane and good craftsman-
over the deteriorated face, after hydroblasting to re- ship are crucial. Particular operational needs, such as
move unstable parts, and removal of foreign material. at pumped storage schemes, may require installing
Excessively aggressive surfaces and deep voids may the geomembrane system horizontally and in sepa-
require patching with mortar, or using additional rate campaigns.
layers of supporting geosynthetics. Excessively
damaged shotcrete layers may require total removal
due to the instability of the shotcrete. In a few cases
when additional weight was required for stability of
the dam, the old shotcrete was removed, a new shot-
crete layer was placed, and the composite geomem-
brane was installed over it not only to provide im-
perviousness, but also to protect the shotcrete from Figure 31. Examples of horizontal placement. At left La Gi-
freeze-thaw deterioration. rotte Dam, France, a multiple arch dam with a complex geome-
In gravity and arch concrete dams, the composite try; at right, Scais Dam, Italy, a buttress dam, for a pumped sto-
geomembrane rolls, manufactured in adequate rage station.
length to avoid transverse joining, are deployed ver-
tically from the crest, and are secured to the dam by 4.6 Rehabilitation of dams with masonry facing
vertical parallel lines of anchoring and tensioning
profiles (Figure 29). In dams with masonry face, the significant rough-
ness of the dam face generally requires installing an
additional anti-puncture layer underneath the com-
posite geomembrane. Thick needle-punched nonwo-
ven geotextiles (mass per unit area typically ranging
from 1000 to 2000 g/m2) or geonets are used, de-
pending on the sharpness of the masonry. A remark-
able example is Kadamparai Dam, a 67 m high, 478
m long, gravity dam in India. The dam is used as a
forebay reservoir to the Kadamparai Pumped Sto-
Figure 29. Old and recent examples of drained tensioned ex- rage Hydro Electric Project.
posed PVC geomembrane on concrete dams. At left, Lago Ne-
The waterproofing system installed on the gravity
ro gravity dam, Italy, waterproofed in 1980 and pictured in
2003, where the exposed geomembrane was installed on the section is the same patented tensioning system de-
new shotcrete, In 2010, it is in still service. At right, Saint Marc scribed previously. A 2000 g/m2 polyester needle-
gravity dam, France, rehabilitated in 2008. punched nonwoven geotextile was placed on the
very sharp stone masonry, to protect the PVC com-
posite geomembrane against puncturing.

144
 The geomembrane system is integrated with a voir and repair the geomembrane, unless repair can
dedicated leak detection system, the Optical Fiber be done under water, as discussed in Section 6.
Cable system developed by the Technical University
of Munich, Germany. The system can detect the area
of a leak in the geomembrane, based on the differ- 5 ROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE DAMS
ence in temperature that is caused by leaking water
and is signaled by the optical fiber cable. The system
has been adopted at other dams, such as Brändbach 5.1 Overview of uses of geomembranes in RCC
Dam and Waldeck Dam in Germany and Winscar dams
Dam in UK.
Waterproofing works at Kadamparai Dam (Figure A summary of uses of geomembranes in roller com-
32) involved installation of more than 17,300 m2 of pacted concrete (RCC) dams is presented in Table 2.
composite geomembrane and were completed in In RCC dams, geomembrane systems have been
three months, i.e. six weeks ahead of schedule, al- used mostly in new construction. In the case of new
lowing generating power earlier than expected. At construction, the geomembrane has mostly been
full supply level, seepage that before installing the used to waterproof the entire upstream face, and on-
geomembrane was of the order of 3 × 104 l/min, has ly three cases of waterproofing of joints are reported.
been reduced to around 1 × 102 l/min after installing So far, to the best of our knowledge, geomembranes
the geomembrane. As reported by Sadagopan & Ko- have been used only in three cases for the repair of
lappan (2005): “The installation of the exposed PVC existing RCC dams initially constructed without
geocomposite mechanically anchored and drained, geomembrane. This may be due to the fact that RCC
has more than confirmed the expectations of TNEB dams are relatively recent.
[the owner] when it selected the system as rehabili- The geomembrane can be left exposed or be cov-
tation measure that could provide efficient seepage ered, as discussed in subsequent sections. With the
control.” possible exception of one RCC dam for which the
geomembrane type is not known to us, all RCC
dams where the geomembrane is exposed use a PVC
geomembrane. With the exception of two of the 19
RCC dams where the geomembrane is covered, a
PVC geomembrane is used.

Table 2. Geomembranes (GM) in RCC dams.

GM location GM PVC LLDPE HDPE
Exposed 15 0 0
Entire face
Figure 32. At left, the face of Kadamparai Dam, a stone maso- Covered 19 1 1
nry dam, India, before waterproofing. At right, the completed Exposed 3 0 0
Joints
works at Kadamparai Dam, 2005. Covered 0 0 0
Exposed 3 0 0
Cracks
Covered 0 0 0
4.7 Safety in case of geomembrane failure
It is important in dam design to evaluate the conse- 5.2 Liner system concept in RCC dams
quences of a failure of the waterproofing element. In
It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss all the
the case of concrete and masonry dams rehabilitated
methods for controlling seepage through RCC dams.
using the drained geomembrane system described in
Herein, only one approach is discussed. It is an ap-
the preceding sections, the drainage system is de-
proach that separates the static function and the wa-
signed so as to ensure that water seeping through de-
terproofing function: the RCC mass provides the
fects in the geomembrane or at its peripheral con-
stability of the dam, and an upstream geomembrane
nections is captured by the drainage system and
provides the watertightness.
removed before it can percolate into the dam. In the
In RCC dams, the watertightness provided by an
extreme case of a large breach in the geomembrane,
upstream geomembrane has numerous beneficial ef-
the leakage rate may exceed the capacity of the drai-
fects, as discussed below.
nage system (especially if there is no geosynthetic
In RCC dams the presence of an upstream geo-
drain such as a geonet behind the composite geo-
membrane allows a conservative 50% reduction of
membrane). However, the resulting water pressure
the design uplift pressure at the upstream face. If
on the dam cannot exceed the water pressure that ex-
there is a face drainage system behind the geomem-
isted before installation of the geomembrane when
brane, the reduction in uplift within the dam body
the dam reservoir was full. Therefore, even a total
occurs at the upstream face and is theoretically
rupture of the geomembrane has no impact of safety.
100% (Scuero & Vaschetti 2005). Clearly, reduction
The only consequence would be to empty the reser-
of the design uplift is one of the advantages that a
drained geomembrane system can provide.

145
 Another benefit from the watertightness provided
by geomembranes at the upstream face is the pre-
vention of preferential seepage along compaction
lifts. RCC dams are constructed by spreading and
compacting the concrete in 0.30 m high lifts. The
numerous (1 joint every 0.30 m) horizontal lift joints,
if not perfectly treated, may create leakage paths.
Only one seeping lift joint is enough to affect uplift
and stability, especially in case of seismic events
when water seepage can hydro-jack the lift.
Thermal cracking is a critical issue in RCC dams,
especially in case of RCC mix having high cement
content. The deterioration mechanism described for
concrete dams can be expected to develop over time
also in RCC dams. Constant seepage can lead to the
deterioration of the RCC by leaching out of cement.
This can affect stability in the long term, especially
in case of a seismic event.
In summary, an upstream drained geomembrane
prevents seepage in lift joints, allows a reduction of
the design uplift, prevents intrusion of water in
cracks that could form due to thermal constraints,
thereby avoiding the risk of internal water pressure, Figure 33. Concept of the exposed geomembrane system in
and avoids future concerns about the watertightness RCC dams.
of the upstream face, including contraction joints
and joints between RCC and conventional concrete. The face anchorage system uses the concept
The numerous design and construction constraints adopted for the rehabilitation of concrete dams: an-
that can be significantly reduced thanks to the use of chorage by vertical lines, with a tensioning system
an upstream geomembrane in RCC dams have been consisting of two stainless steel profiles, the first one,
widely discussed in the literature (Herweynen 2006). U shaped, fastened to the dam upstream face, and
There are two options: exposed geomembrane and the second one, omega shaped, installed over the
covered geomembrane. These two options are dis- composite geomembrane.
cussed in subsequent sections. In RCC dams the tensioning system can be in-
stalled in two possible configurations: the U profile
5.3 RCC dams with exposed geomembrane system can be embedded into the dam during construction
(“embedded profile”, Figure 34), or it can be in-
stalled after the dam is completed, on the finished
5.3.1 The system surface (“external profile”), and, in such a case, the
The exposed geomembrane system for RCC dams is configuration is identical to the one described for the
illustrated in Figure 33. Out of 21 dams lined by an rehabilitation of concrete dams (see Figure 28).
exposed PVC upstream geomembrane system, 3 are
in China and the others have adopted the same pa-
tented system. The exposed system has been applied
in very different climates, ranging from humid equa-
torial climates (Colombia), to hot desert climates
(Jordan), to very cold climates with temperatures
down to -50°C and large temperature excursion
(Mongolia).
The composite geomembrane consists of a 2.5
mm or 3.0 mm thick high performance PVC geo-
membrane, laminated during manufacturing to a
needle-punched nonwoven geotextile. The compo- Figure 34. The tensioning system with embedded “U” profile.
site geomembrane is placed against the completed
RCC lifts, covering the upstream face including all
The two options are technically equivalent. While
joints, from crest down to the heel. The composite
in the external configuration the time for installing
geomembrane is fastened by a face anchorage sys-
the external U profiles is under the full control and
tem and by perimeter sealing.
responsibility of the waterproofing contractor, in the
embedded configuration the time for embedding the
U profiles is under the responsibility of the main

146
contractor and is subject to uncertainties: if the main was changed to a drained exposed PVC composite
contractor embeds the profiles in the proper way geomembrane system, placed on a 0.4 m wide zone
while placing the RCC, the total time for installation of grout-enriched vibrated RCC. This double water
of the entire waterproofing system may be lower; shield was considered necessary due to the height of
but if, on the contrary, the profiles are not embedded the dam (Marulanda et. al. 2002). The use of grout
in the proper way, the main contractor must make enriched RCC allowed applying good compaction of
the necessary corrective actions to comply with spe- RCC mix at the dam face, thereby ensuring a good
cifications, which may entail significant additional finishing of the upstream concrete surface. The RCC
construction time (and costs). A further advantage of mix has a cement content of 85 to 160 kg/m3; the
the external configuration is that it is less dependent contraction joints (which are vertical) are placed
on the skills and production rate of the main contrac- every 18.5 m.
tor and it requires less quality control on the civil The waterproofing liner is a composite geomem-
works. brane, consisting of a PVC geomembrane laminated
The profiles are placed vertically at regular spac- to a 500 g/m2 polypropylene nonwoven needle-
ing, typically 3.7 or 5.7 m depending on the design punched geotextile in the factory. In the lower 62 m
loads. Since they keep the liner fastened but not in- of the dam, from elevation 268 m to elevation 330 m,
timately adherent to the dam face, as discussed for the PVC geomembrane is 3 mm thick, and in the up-
the rehabilitation of concrete dams, the profiles al- per 120 m, from elevation 330 m to elevation 450 m,
low the formation of a “face drainage layer” behind it is 2.5 mm thick. The entire upstream face has a
the composite geomembrane. The face drainage surface area of 31,500 m2.
layer, and the vertical conduits formed by the ten- The attachment system for the composite geo-
sioning profiles, facilitate the flow of drainage water membrane on the dam face is made by parallel ver-
by gravity to the drainage collection and discharge tical anchoring and tensioning profiles, placed at
system at the bottom of the upstream face of the dam. 3.70 m spacing. The first component of the tension-
If it is necessary to increase the flow capacity, a geo- ing profile assembly was attached to the formworks,
synthetic drain can be used between the RCC and and embedded in the 0.3 m high RCC lifts (Figures
the composite geomembrane. The geosynthetic drain 35 and 36).
can be a geonet. The drainage system is ventilated,
to prevent the development of suction behind the
composite geomembrane.
The composite geomembrane is anchored along
its periphery by a perimeter seal, which prevents wa-
ter from infiltrating behind it, as discussed for the
rehabilitation of concrete dams.
The rolls of composite geomembrane cover the
full height of the dam face, without horizontal joints
unless required by site-specific reasons (e. g. in case
of very high dams or in case of installation carried
out in separate horizontal sections). Adjacent rolls
are vertically joined by watertight welds. The rolls
of composite geomembrane are placed directly over
the upstream face, or over a layer of drainage geo-
synthetic. In front of the contraction joints of the
dam, one or more layers of geosynthetics are placed
behind the composite geomembrane, to support it Figure 35. Embedded tensioning profile at Miel I RCC Dam.
over the joint. The number and type of these layers
depend on the anticipated width of opening of the
joint, rotation of blocks, and hydrostatic pressure,
and depend on the factor of safety, etc.
Miel I RCC Dam and Boussiaba RCC Dam are
examples of the two systems.

5.3.2 Examples of RCC dams with embedded pro-

files
At 188 m, Miel I is the world’s highest RCC dam at Figure 36. Miel I RCC Dam, Colombia 2002. At left and mid-
dle, the U profiles and drainage collector attached to the form-
present in full operation. It is a straight gravity dam works are embedded in the RCC. At right, the U profiles after
constructed in a narrow gorge in Colombia. To meet embedment appear as vertical grooves in the face of the dam.
contractual schedule, the original design of an up-
stream face made of slip formed reinforced concrete

147
 The integrated face drainage system behind the waterproofing the upstream face by a mechanical
composite geomembrane consists of seal. The seal achieves watertightness by compress-
• the face drainage layer created by the gap be- ing the PVC geocomposite with 80 × 8 mm stainless
tween the liner and the dam face, and by the geo- steel batten strips on the concrete of the plinth le-
textile laminated to the PVC geomembrane; veled out with epoxy resin; rubber gaskets, and
• the vertical conduits formed by the tensioning splice plates placed at abutting batten strips to en-
profiles; sure that compression is evenly distributed. This
type of seal, tested at 2.4 MPa, is placed also at crest
• a peripheral collector embedded in the RCC and
to resist water overtopping.
the transverse discharge pipes discharging into The second component of the tensioning profile
the gallery; and assembly, i.e. the omega-shaped profile placed over
• a ventilation pipe assuring water flow at ambient the installed composite geomembrane and connected
pressure. to the first component (i.e. the U-shaped profile), se-
The drainage system is divided into four horizon- cures and tensions the composite geomembrane liner
tal sections, each discharging in the gallery located on the upstream face. Where the water head is high-
at its bottom. Each horizontal section is in turn di- er, from elevation 268 m to 358 m, the profiles have
vided into vertical compartments with separate dis- a central reinforcement. The profiles are water-
charge. In total there are 45 separate compartments, proofed with PVC cover strips (Figure 38).
achieving very accurate monitoring of the behavior
of the waterproofing system.
In front of the contraction joints, the composite
geomembrane is supported by two layers of the
same composite material. The PVC composite geo-
membrane was installed in six sections, to allow ear-
ly impounding while the dam was still under con-
struction, and to follow at best the division of the
drainage system into horizontal sections. A movable Figure 38. Miel I RCC Dam, Colombia 2002. At left, the stain-
railing system was used to install the composite less steel profiles are waterproofed with PVC cover strips. At
geomembrane concurrent and independent of RCC right, the composite geomembrane already installed in the low-
er sections allowed impounding the reservoir while RCC
activities (Figure 37). The railing system was at- placement and waterproofing works were ongoing above.
tached to the dam face at first at approximately 90 m
above foundation, and then moved to approximately The construction of the dam started in April 2000
140 m above foundation. The travelling platforms, and ended in June 2002, hence a total of 26 months.
from which all activities were carried out, were sus- The change in design allowed meeting the schedule,
pended from the railing system. and saved several tens of millions US$, because of
reduced cement content, faster completion, and ear-
lier power generation.
Olivenhain Dam in California is an example of the
same exposed system adopted at Miel I Dam, but
with a geonet placed between the dam face and the
PVC composite geomembrane to increase the drai-
nage capacity. The dam, 788 m long and 97 m high,
at present the highest RCC dam in the USA, is a key
Figure 37. Miel I RCC Dam, Colombia 2002. At left, the com-
element of the Emergency Storage Project of the San
posite geomembrane installation almost completed in the lower Diego County Water Authority, owner of the dam.
section, and starting in the section above, where placement of About 90% of water is brought to San Diego from
the support geocomposite on the contraction joints is being per- hundreds of kilometers away, and the aqueducts
formed from the travelling platform. At right, installation of the cross several large active faults, including the San
composite geomembrane with travelling platforms suspended Andreas Fault. The reservoir will provide water to
at a movable railing system placed at elevation 407 m, while the San Diego region in case of an interruption in
RCC placement is ongoing above the railing system.
water delivery due to an earthquake or a drought.
Evaluation of the alternatives for the upstream
Construction of the grouting plinth at the heel of face, considering the magnitude of the design earth-
the upstream face took place after the placement of quake and the critical function of the dam to provide
the RCC. A PVC composite geomembrane, placed water during an emergency, placed emphasis on
against the completed RCC lifts and over the natural seismic stability and seepage control. In a range of 1
excavation rock, waterproofs the plinth. The compo- to 3, these features were assigned the maximum
site geomembrane waterproofing the plinth is water- weighting factor of 3 (Kline et al. 2002). Special
tightly connected to the composite geomembrane consideration was also given to construction se-

148
quence because the dam had to be fully operational to the geomembrane. The peripheral seals are of the
within a certain date. type adopted at Miel I Dam.
In the stability analysis, the exposed geomem- Waterproofing works were completed in five
brane liner and its face drainage system received the months; the cost of the exposed geosynthetic system
highest score among the 11 considered alternatives. was about 5% of the US$124,959,204 contract for
Shaping blocks and plinth are waterproofed with the construction of the dam. The reservoir started
the same composite geomembrane used for the up- filling on 7 August 2003 (Figure 40).
stream face, watertightly connected to the composite
geomembrane of the upstream face with the same
seal as used at Miel I Dam.
The face drainage system is similar to the one
adopted at Miel I Dam, with the addition of a drai-
nage geonet installed against the RCC (Figure 39),
which will enhance discharge capabilities should ac-
cidental damage occur to the impervious geomem-
brane. Under the hydrostatic pressure of the reser- Figure 40. Olivenhain RCC dam at completion of waterproof-
voir water, the geonet will maintain high ing system and at first filling on 7 August 2003.
transmissivity, thereby preventing water from mi-
grating through lift joints in the body of the dam. As On 16 June 2004, with reservoir almost full (Fig-
a result, saturation levels and pore pressures in the ure 41), a 5.5 Richter scale earthquake occurred at
dam will be lowered, with beneficial effects on the about 100 km from the dam. The blocks of the dam
stability safety factors, and on appearance at the shook and moved, but no damage has been reported
downstream face. and watertightness of the dam has been totally main-
tained, fully meeting the design and safety require-
ments.

Figure 39. Olivenhain RCC dam, USA 2003. At left, the black
drainage geonet is placed on the RCC to enhance drainage col-
lection and discharge; at right, the composite geomembrane is
Figure 41. Olivenhain RCC dam and reservoir, USA.
placed over the geonet.

The composite geomembrane, consisting of a 2.5

mm thick PVC geomembrane coupled to a 500 g/m2 5.3.3 Example of RCC dam with external profiles
needled-punched nonwoven polypropylene geotex- Boussiaba Dam, an RCC dam in Algeria, provides
tile, is fastened by vertical tensioning profiles at 3.70 an example of the use of external U profiles. Com-
m spacing. The embedded profiles have been de- pleted in the summer of 2009, it is part of the Beni
signed larger than standard, to create larger vertical Haroun-Boussiaba system and is located about 400
conduits and further enhance drainage transmission. km east of Algiers. The dam will form a reservoir
Stainless steel plates, 60 × 6 mm, placed every 0.40 having a capacity of 120 million m3, and a regulat-
m inside the profiles, avoid that the profiles deform ing volume of 80 million m3. The regulating volume
under the hydrostatic pressure. Each line of profiles will be used to increase the capacity of the Beni Ha-
discharges separately into the gallery, and can be in- roun Transfer Station and the supply of water to the
dividually monitored. Theoretically each line of pro- people of the region (Cazzuffi et al. 2009).
files should intercept water of its area of influence The dam is approximately 51 m high and 310 m
and thus constitute a compartment that can be moni- long, with a 100 m long spillway section, a concrete
tored separately from the adjacent compartments. In intake tower at the right abutment, and a grouting
reality, there is no certainty that water in between plinth along the bottom perimeter. The exposed
two lines of profiles will flow half in one profile and drained geomembrane system covers the entire up-
half in the next one. A watertight seal is necessary to stream face, with the exclusion of the concrete in-
separate compartments. The upstream face of Oli- take tower, from crest down to the plinth.
venhain Dam has been divided into 12 compart- The waterproofing system has the same compo-
ments, separated by a vertical watertight seal, to al- nents as adopted at Olivenhain Dam, but the U pro-
low defining the area of the leak in case of damage files have been installed over the completed dam

149
body (external configuration) (Figure 42) instead of 5.4 The covered geomembrane system
being embedded in the dam as it was done at Miel I
Dam and Olivenhain Dam. Additionally, the drai-
nage bottom collector has been modified: instead of 5.4.1 The system
the embedded box drain planned in the original de- The covered system is also known as Winchester
sign, a 1m high strip of drainage geonet, of the same system, from the original name of the dam in the
type as the one constituting the drainage layer, has USA where it was first adopted (see Section 2.6.2).
been placed as bottom collector along the bottom pe- The concept is illustrated in Figure 44. The water-
rimeter of the waterproofing system (Figure 42). proofing geomembrane is attached to the prefabri-
This modification simplified construction because cated concrete panels that are used as the permanent
the only embedment required was that of the trans- formworks for construction of the RCC dam. The
verse discharge pipes of the five drainage compart- panels are placed so that their concrete layer faces
ments. the reservoir, and their geomembrane layer faces the
RCC lifts. When construction is completed, the
geomembrane is thus embedded between the con-
crete face and the RCC body.

Figure 42. Boussiaba RCC Dam, Algeria 2009. At left, the U

profiles installed external to the dam, on the completed RCC
lifts. At right, detail of the drainage geonet placed on the up-
stream face, and of the drainage geonet band placed as longitu-
dinal drainage collector at heel.

The waterproofing system was installed starting at

the left abutment and installation proceeded accord-
ing to the section of the dam completed by the main
contractor (Figure 43). Installation of the geosyn-
thetic system started on 24 January 2009 and was
completed on 22 May 2009 on schedule, notwith-
standing interruptions caused by more than 20%
days of bad weather. Figure 44. Concept of the covered geomembrane system in
The use of geosynthetics, as adopted in the final RCC dams.
design, achieved the objectives of simplifying the
construction of the dam and of its waterproofing sys- The concrete panels are anchored to the body of
tem. The external U profiles configuration made it the dam using anchor bars (Figure 44) that are
possible to carry out the waterproofing works with- placed between lifts of RCC.
out affecting the construction works that were ongo- Embedment in the concrete provides permanent
ing at the spillway, thereby reducing construction protection of the geomembrane from all environ-
constraints and quality control, and kept installation mental aggressions: mechanical actions (transported
times and costs within those announced. floating material, ice, rocks, vandalism), or chemical
and climatic aggressions, do not directly affect the
geomembrane. On the other hand, a crucial aspect of
the covered system is that strict quality control must
be implemented to ensure that the geomembrane is
not damaged during construction activities related to
placement of RCC.
The waterproofing material generally used is a
PVC geomembrane, typically 2 mm thick, attached
to the concrete of the panels during prefabrication.
Figure 43. Boussiaba RCC Dam, Algeria 2009. At left, installa- Originally, geomembranes were equipped with PVC
tion starting at the spillway section on 30 March 2009; at right, ribs (ribbed geomembranes) to provide attachment
a view of the dam at crews’ demobilization on 28 May 2009. to the concrete of the panels. Most recent projects
starting from 1998 (Penn Forest Dam, Buckhorn

150
Dam, Hughes River dam, Hunting Run Dam, Bla- and the RCC, to which it does not stick, on the other
lock Dam, Hickory Log Dam and Elkwater Fork side.
Dam in the USA, and Paradise Dam in Australia) Construction is illustrated in Figure 45. Construc-
have substituted the PVC ribs with a geotextile tion of the covered geomembrane system started
coupled to the geomembrane during fabrication as with preparation for the perimeter seal at the heel of
detailed below. the dam. A PVC geomembrane sheet was embedded
in the conventional concrete at the foundation, with
5.4.2 Example of covered geomembrane on RCC an extra width that extends horizontally in the body
dam of the dam, to constitute a horizontal barrier to up-
An example of application of the covered system on ward migration of water seeping from the foundation.
a RCC dam is Paradise Dam (aka Burnett River The first rows of panels were then set in place, with
Dam), an RCC dam, built in Australia in 2004. The the geomembrane side facing the dam body and the
dam, 35 m high and used for water supply, is owned concrete side facing the reservoir. The panels were
by the government of Queensland and is Australia’s shaped to allow easy placement and interlocking.
largest volume RCC dam. Innovation was a key as- After panels had been placed, adjoining panels were
pect for the design and construction of Paradise Dam. connected along their entire perimeter by PVC geo-
The alliance among the owner, the designer and the membrane strips heat-welded on the geomembrane
contractors produced several innovative approaches, of the panels.
including the use of a 2 mm thick PVC geomem- The panels were then attached with watertight fit-
brane that was incorporated in the upstream facing tings to the steel bars that anchor them to the dam,
system. The designer (Herweynen 2006) reports that and placement of RCC started. As the RCC lifts
“by adopting an upstream membrane we could guar- were being placed, the anchor bars were embedded
antee watertightness and we could fundamentally within them, thus securing the panels to the dam
change the design requirements for the RCC mix de- body. Construction proceeded with placement of
sign. As the membrane provides the watertight func- subsequent rows of panels, repeating the sequential
tion, the concrete provides the stability function.” steps described for the first row, until the dam body
The RCC mix design consists of a lean mix with a was completed and the construction of traditional
final cement content of only 65 kg/m3. No fly ash is concrete appurtenances could start.
used in the mix, because “the fly ash does essentially
nothing except add cost and require additional ma-
terial to deliver, control and mix” (Herweynen 2006).
At Paradise Dam, the following patented system
for attaching the PVC geomembrane to the concrete
panels was used: the PVC geomembrane is lami-
nated during fabrication to a 200 g/m2 polypropylene
needled-punched nonwoven geotextile, thereby
forming a composite geomembrane that is deployed Figure 45. Paradise RCC Dam, Australia 2004. Erection of
over the fresh concrete of the panels. The fresh con- precast panels, and view from the upstream side.
crete impregnates the geotextile, providing the tem-
porary attachment needed before placement of the The designer reports a total estimated seepage at
panels. 65% impoundment to be less than 2 l/s, and consid-
The fastening system by geotextile laminated to ers that a majority of this seepage is coming through
the geomembrane allows large displacement of the the foundation rather than the geomembrane.
panels that would not be possible with the rigid
blocking typical of ribbed geomembranes that were 5.5 Geomembranes used as external waterstops in
adopted in former projects. When, during service, RCC dams
the dam body and the panels are subjected to relative
movements, excessive shear stresses may develop at
the concrete-composite geomembrane interface. The 5.5.1 The system
geotextile component of the composite geomem- Another application of geomembranes in construc-
brane will detach from the PVC geomembrane com- tion of RCC dams is the use of geomembrane strips
ponent to an extent that is function of the magnitude as external waterstops on the vertical contraction
of the shear stress. Ultimately, the PVC geomem- joints. A geomembrane strip (Figure 46) is installed
brane could be attached to the panels only at the lo- on the completed RCC, and is supported over the
cation of the anchor bars, and, for the rest of its sur- joint by a support structure, which prevents the
face, would be totally independent from the panels. geomembrane strip from intruding in the active joint.
As a result, the PVC geomembrane will be "sand- The support structure must be effective at maximum
wiched" between two protective and independent opening of a joint under the maximum hydrostatic
concrete layers: the concrete+geotextile on one side, pressure from the water in the reservoir. The support

151
structure is generally composed of several indepen- lowing sliding of the plates. The flexible part
dent layers, whose configuration is a function of the consists of one layer of 2000 g/m² polyester
water pressure and of the anticipated movements of needle-punched nonwoven geotextile, anchored
the joint. along one edge and providing anti-puncture pro-
tection against the sliding edges of the steel
plates, and one layer of composite geomembrane
anchored along one edge.
• Waterproofing liner. Composite geomembrane,
consisting of a 3.5 mm thick PVC geomembrane
heat-coupled during extrusion to a 500 g/m2 po-
lyester needle-punched nonwoven geotextile.
The composite geomembrane is centered on the
joint, covering it for a total width of about 0.40
m. The composite geomembrane is watertightly
Figure 46. Schematic view of external waterstop. anchored at the periphery by flat stainless steel
batten strips compressing it against the curbs, lo-
Different from conventional embedded waterstops, cally leveled out by trimming the offsets and by
which allow deformation only in the central portion applying a layer of epoxy resin. Synthetic
of their bulb, the external waterstop can exhibit large gaskets distribute stress to achieve even com-
deformation (typically 0.40 to 0.60 m). Therefore, it pression. The composite geomembrane is ex-
is capable of accommodating significant movements posed. At plinth level, the composite geomem-
that may occur in the joint, which would cause fail-
brane waterproofing the vertical joints is
ure of conventional embedded waterstops.
When required, a protective layer (anti-puncture connected directly against the rock.
layer) and/or a drainage layer can be incorporated in
the system (Figure 46). Also, if required, a protec-
tive layer can be installed over the geomembrane.
Those additional layers have no impact on the effec-
tiveness of the waterproofing system.

5.5.2 Example of use of external waterstop on an

RCC dam
External waterstops were used at Porce II Dam, a
118 m high RCC dam constructed in 2000 in Co-
lombia (Figure 47). The upstream face is formed by
curb extruder (see Section 3.3.5). The contraction Figure 47. Detailed view of external waterstop at Porce II RCC
joints, at average spacing of 35 m, were water- Dam contraction joints, and general view of the dam.
proofed with the external patented waterstop system.
The final design of the waterstop was verified in 5.6 Repair of RCC dams
full scale testing in a pressure vessel under the si- In RCC dams, repair has been so far carried out on
multaneous conditions of a hydrostatic head of 2.4 cracks, using the external waterstop system de-
MPa and an opening of the joint of 35 mm. Ismes, a scribed in the preceding section for use in new con-
major engineering institute in Italy, supervised and struction. As for total rehabilitation of dams, repairs
approved the system (Scuero & Vaschetti 2006). can be and have been made in the dry or underwater.
In detail, the system adopted at Porce II Dam con- Dona Francisca Dam (Figure 48) is an example of
sists of: repair in the dry. It is a 50 m high RCC dam with a
• Support structure. Proceeding from the dam 0.5 m thick impervious concrete facing. At the end
body towards the reservoir, support is provided of concrete pouring, before the dam was impounded,
by a rigid part impeding intrusion of the water- cracks appeared in the RCC. Two major cracks de-
proofing liner into the active joint, and by a flex- veloped through almost the whole height of the dam;
ible part providing extra support and low fric- other three or four cracks were of smaller length.
tion, so that the movements of the joint can take The two major cracks and one of the smaller
place without affecting the waterproofing com- cracks were essentially vertical and seemed to be of
posite geomembrane. The rigid part consists of thermal shrinkage origin. However, the temperatures
two stainless steel plates, each anchored along measured in the dam were lower than the design lim-
one edge, and of a strip of Teflon to decrease it values. The other cracks were inclined and seemed
friction in the area of overlapping, thereby al- to be of foundation settlement origin. Since the

152
cracks cause was ultimately not well defined, a In the extreme case of a large breach in the geo-
geomembrane system was selected because it would membrane, the leakage rate may exceed the capacity
have the capability of bridging also future increase of the drainage system (especially if there is no geo-
in the cracks opening. synthetic drain such as a geonet behind the geo-
The external waterstop was placed on the large membrane). In this case, some water may percolate
and small cracks for a total length of approximately through the RCC dam. However, this will not pose a
150 m. Both the support layer and the waterproofing stability problem. Therefore, even a total rupture of
layer are of the same material, a 2.5 mm thick PVC the geomembrane has no impact of safety. The only
geomembrane heat-coupled during extrusion to a consequence would be to empty the reservoir and
500 g/m2 polyester geotextile. repair the geomembrane, unless repair can be done
under water, as discussed in Section 6.

6 UNDERWATER REPAIR OF DAMS

6.1 The concept of underwater repair

The underwater installation of a geomembrane sys-
tem, unlike underwater construction with concrete,
Figure 48. Dona Francisca RCC dam, Brazil, 2000: the external does not require a complicated site organization and
waterstop was installed on the cracks in the dry, before the dam the use of heavy equipment that may cause signifi-
was impounded.
cant environmental impact.
The technology for underwater installation has
been developed based on experience accumulated by
An example of underwater repair of RCC dams is the main specialist contractor in the field of dam wa-
discussed in Section 6. terproofing, and through a research program carried
out jointly by this contractor and the US Army
5.7 Performance of RCC dams with geomembrane Corps of Engineers. This research program is dis-
RCC dams lined with PVC geomembranes typically cussed in Section 7.2.2.
show insignificant seepage as compared to RCC Underwater repair can be, and has been, made to
dams with conventional concrete facing. At Miel I restore watertightness to the entire upstream face (as
dam (Marulanda et al. 2003), total leakage from the at Lost Creek Arch Dam), to repair cracks (as at Pla-
dam body at fully impounded reservoir is less than tanovryssi RCC Dam), and to repair most critical
2.5 l/s; the surface area of the Miel Dam face being areas of the upstream face (as at Turimiquire Con-
31,453 m2, even if we presume that all leakage crete Face Rockfill Dam).
comes through the geomembrane, and not as it is
generally the case also from the abutments or foun-
dations, the average leakage rate per unit area is less 6.2 Examples of underwater repair
than 0.3 l/hr/m2. At Balambano Dam, a 95 m high
RCC dam, Indonesia, the exposed PVC composite 6.2.1 Example of underwater repair of the entire
geomembrane installed in 1999, has a total water face
flow for all six box drains of the upstream face vary- Lost Creek Dam is a 36 m high arch dam, with a
ing from 0.012 l/s to a maximum of 0.965 l/s at full crest length of 134 meters, constructed in 1924, and
supply level; the surface area of the dam face being owned by Oroville-Wyandotte Irrigation District in
15,490 m2, the average leakage rate per unit area is USA. The deterioration of the dam due to
about 0.22 l/hr/m2. freeze/thaw cycles had resulted in loss of more than
0.30 m of depth of concrete at the downstream side.
5.8 Safety in case of geomembrane failure The upstream tensioned geomembrane option was
As indicated in Section 4.7, it is important in dam selected out of evaluation of seven repair options,
design to evaluate the consequences of a failure of restricted to three because of environmental con-
the waterproofing element. In the case of RCC dams cerns related to the reservoir level. The three options
constructed using the drained geomembrane system, considered were a downstream drainage system cov-
the drainage system is designed so as to ensure that ered with shotcrete, an RCC buttress, and an up-
water seeping through defects in the geomembrane stream exposed geomembrane. The geomembrane
or at its peripheral connections is captured by the system had the lowest cost acquisition price. Key to
drainage system and removed before it can percolate the decision was the projected service life of the
into the RCC dam. geomembrane (more than 50 years, a durability that
was also estimated for the RCC buttress,) and the

153
lack of maintenance required for the geomembrane, the external waterstop system described in Section
which resulted in a much lower yearly amortization 5.5.2.
cost. The only ongoing cost with the geomembrane On first filling, seepage started increasing, then
system is to take readings of the water level behind decreased, and then again increased, attaining a
the membrane and the water discharge from the maximum of 30.56 l/s on 10 October 2000. The
drainage system. The owner projected to save more cause of the seepage was an approximately 20 m
than $2.8 million over the minimum predicted ser- long, 25 mm wide crack, extending from the up-
vice life by selecting the geomembrane option (Scu- stream to the downstream face. Due to an unusually
ero et al. 2005). dry season, the owner could not afford to lose the
Since heat-welding cannot be made underwater, volume of the water already stored in the reservoir,
joining of adjacent composite geomembrane sheets and, therefore, could not empty the reservoir in order
was mechanical, with the patented drained system to work in dry conditions.
presented in Section 4.4.5, slightly modified to adapt In addition to that restriction, when Platanovryssi
it to underwater installation. The underwater work- Reservoir is empty, the pumped storage scheme of
ing environment also required modifying some mi- Thissavros cannot operate, which has serious impli-
nor components of the fastening system. cations to the production system. It was considerably
The geomembrane installation was scheduled to more cost effective to do the work underwater. Re-
coincide with the rewinding of the generator at the pair works were scheduled for the spring of 2002.
powerhouse. This timing allowed a significant The system selected by the owner for the under-
drawdown of the reservoir without suffering an addi- water installation on the crack in 2002 is the same
tional loss of energy production. Drawdown of the conceptual system that had been selected and in-
reservoir meant the dive depths were reduced for the stalled on the vertical contraction joints during con-
underwater installation, allowing longer time un- struction of the dam in 1998; however, the materials
derwater per dive and achieving significant economy. have lower thickness due to the lower hydrostatic
The reservoir was lowered to about half the maxi- pressure at the crack. The repair concept is illu-
mum water depth at the dam (Figure 49). strated in Figure 50. The waterproofing system was
The geomembrane system was installed in 1997. installed in the dry from crest level at 227.50 m to
Piezometer readings have consistently indicated that elevation 225 m, and underwater from elevation 225
there is no water standing in the geonet drain. The m down to elevation 208 m. To facilitate underwater
downstream face of the dam appears dry. The owner works, a special steel frame was constructed and lo-
reports (Harlan & Onken 2003) that leakage “is only wered into the reservoir to serve as template for
2.3 liters per minute with the reservoir at spillway placement of the perimeter seal, which is the same
crest”. The total surface area of the dam face being as installed at Miel I Dam. Works started on 22
2,800 m2, the average leakage rate per unit area is April 2002 and were completed on 23 May 2002.
0.05 l/hr/m2, which is very low compared to other The repair work has been extremely successful: the
measured leakage rates. leak through the dam has been fully stopped and the
downstream face (Figure 50) dried out a few hours
after installation of the geomembrane system (Papa-
dopoulos 2002).

Figure 49. PVC geomembrane panels under installation at Lost

Creek Dam, USA, in 1997. In 2003 (right), the dam in service. Figure 50. At left artist’s impression of the repair of the crack
executed underwater at Platanovryssi RCC Dam, Greece 2002.
At right, the downstream appearance of the crack before and a
6.2.2 Example of underwater repair of a crack few hours after installation of the external waterstop: the lea-
Platanovryssi Dam, Greece, is an example of under- kage stopped and the crack dried out.
water repair of a crack. At 95 m, it is the highest
RCC dam in Europe. The dam, of the high cement
content type, was designed to be impermeable in its 6.2.3 Example of underwater repair of critical
whole RCC mass. The vertical contraction joints, areas
placed at variable spacing not superior to 30 m, were Turimiquire Dam is an example of underwater repair
waterproofed during construction of the dam with carried out in crucial areas of the upstream face. De-
signed by Barry Cooke and built from 1976 to 1980,

154
Turimiquire Dam is a 113 m high concrete face 7 GEOSYNTHETIC BARRIER MATERIAL
rockfill dam located in Venezuela and used for pota- SELECTION
ble water supply.
Due to interruption of works, delays, and modifi-
cations of parts of the original design, the dam since 7.1 Geomembrane selection criteria
impounding in 1988 suffered severe leakage that
was not stopped by the repeated repair measures car- Geomembranes used in dams must be designed and
ried out over the years and consisting basically in produced adequately. Modern high-performance
backfilling the cracks and cavities of the upstream geomembranes are produced with sophisticated de-
face with various types of materials. sign and high-quality components; the manufactur-
In 2008, when leakage had attained 9,800 l/s, the ing and quality control procedures and the installa-
owner decided to adopt a geomembrane system to tion technology are sophisticated; and a much longer
repair the most deteriorated part of the upstream face durability is expected if compared to the durability
(Figure 51), on a surface of about 14,500 m2. (The of old geomembranes.
total surface area of the concrete face being about Of the two main “families” of geomembranes, po-
55,000 m2.) lymeric geomembranes and bituminous geomem-
branes, polymeric geomembranes are by far the most
widely used in hydraulic applications worldwide. In
particular on dams, polymeric geomembranes ac-
count for approximately 91% of the total, while bi-
tuminous geomembranes (used mainly in France and
in some French-speaking countries) account for ap-
proximately 9%, according to the ICOLD data base.
A detailed discussion of the chemical composition
and properties of polymeric geomembranes is
beyond the scope of this paper. According to the
ICOLD database, thermoplastic geomembranes are
by far (about 85%) more used than thermoset geo-
membranes, and, more than 70% of the thermoplas-
tic geomembranes are the most flexible ones. Thus,
Figure 51. Turimiquire Dam: the critical areas to be water- PVC geomembranes, which are very flexible, ac-
proofed with the exposed PVC geomembrane system. count for more than 60% of the total of dams lined
with a geomembrane.
A general view can be seen on Figure 52. Installa- One of the key points in designing a geosynthetic
tion will be made with the reservoir in operation, barrier system is the selection of the geomembrane.
partly in the dry and partly underwater. The water- In the first pioneer applications in the 50s, 60s and
proofing system used for the dry and the underwater 70s, a wide variety of geomembranes were used.
parts is similar to the ones already discussed in the Then, based on experience acquired in early applica-
previous case histories. The diving depth at Turimi- tions, and developments in research, testing and
quire Dam will however be much superior, attaining manufacturing, geomembranes with lower perfor-
more than 50 meters. Divers will carry out works as mance have been gradually abandoned in favor of
the water level varies depending on operation needs. more performing ones.
Works have started in the fall of 2009 with cleaning From the viewpoint of imperviousness, all geo-
of the slabs, removal of the sediments and placement membranes are extremely effective compared to
of the face anchorage profiles (Figure 52). conventional liners, as clay, cement concrete or bi-
tuminous concrete. The criteria for selection are dif-
ferent depending on the type of structure to be wa-
terproofed. Hydraulic structures, and dams in
particular, require materials more performing than
the ones that can be used for example in roofing be-
cause hydraulic structures face more demanding ser-
vice conditions.
Design of the geomembrane shall be made taking
into consideration the environmental factors in-
volved such as extreme temperatures and exposition
Figure 52. At left, upstream slope of Turimiquire Dam; at right,
(the ageing of geomembranes being generally quick-
the anchorage profiles being lowered into the water at Turimi-
quire Dam. er in areas facing South in the northern hemisphere
and North in the southern hemisphere), and the loads
exerted on the geomembrane during service, such as:

155
 • hydrostatic pressure due to water in the reser- against rupture in tension were obtained: 1.4 for 1.5
voir; backpressure due to water table in some mm LLDPE, 1.6 for both 1.5 mm HDPE and 4 mm
cases; impact by floating debris, ice, boats etc.; bituminous geomembrane, and 5.8 for a composite
action of waves and wind; geomembrane consisting of a 2 mm PVC geomem-
• concentrated stresses, often related to the applied brane bonded to a 500 g/m2 polyester needle-
punched nonwoven geotextile. This study confirms
hydrostatic pressure, causing puncture and burst
that the best performance is achieved with a combi-
over irregular subgrade; tensile stresses due to nation of strength and elongation; the analysis also
differential settlements in embankments and at shows that the mechanical behavior of an LLDPE
connections between deformable embankments geomembrane is not better than, and in fact is infe-
and rigid structures; active joints and localized rior to, the mechanical behavior of an HDPE geo-
differential deformation that may occur in con- membrane, contrary to a widespread belief; the
crete and RCC dams in case of weakness of study finally shows that a variety of geomembranes
foundation or in case of seismic events; etc.; and can be used depending on the required factor of safe-
• water chemistry, in some cases. ty.
In general, these loads require geomembranes The behavior of geomembranes in real scale per-
with high performance with respect to elongation, formance testing for adaptation to the subgrade and
flexibility, and resistance to puncture and burst. resistance to puncture is quite different from one
Good elongation properties in 3-dimensional loading type of geomembrane to another. Since experience
and, preferably, no yield on the geomembrane ten- has shown that an inadequate geomembrane may
sion-strain curve are important properties to ensure exhibit premature ageing, and possibly cause failure
that the geomembrane is capable of accommodating of the waterproofing system, several agencies and
high deformations of the subgrade, and repeated research centers have in the last decade conducted
stresses exerted for example by waves and wind. research and issued recommendations on selection
The presence of a yield point on the geomembrane of geomembranes for rehabilitation and new con-
tension-strain curve, even if the geomembrane has struction of hydraulic structures. The following sec-
high elongation at failure, may be crucial in hydrau- tion summarizes some significant findings.
lic applications. High flexibility and elongation ca-
pability contribute to high resistance to puncture: the 7.2 Research programs
more a geomembrane can adapt to the subgrade, the
more the load exerted by water is distributed, thus
7.2.1 Research program on geomembranes for
reducing the risk of damage by puncture due to con-
centrated loads at protrusions. concrete dams in cold climates
To better bridge cavities (i.e. to decrease the risk IREQ is the Research Institute of Hydro Québec, the
of rupture by burst) and to better resist rupture in largest dam owner in Canada. The extremely cold
case of concentrated differential movements such as climate in some parts of Canada, in particular fre-
the connections between compressible embankment quent wetting-dehydrating and freeze-thaw cycles,
and rigid structure, a geomembrane should have an high daily and seasonal variations of temperature
optimum combination of strength and deformation and of reservoir water level, action of ice, of debris
capability. This combination is expressed by the co- and of acid rains, can heavily deteriorate concrete
energy of the geomembrane tension-strain curve dams. Since repair with new concrete sooner or later
(Giroud & Soderman 1995; Giroud 2005). From this entails facing the same problems, IREQ dedicated
viewpoint, an excellent tension-strain curve is that of intensive research to investigate alternative repair
a composite geomembrane that consists of a geo- methods and evaluate which are the most dependa-
membrane with high elongation capability and no ble ones for concrete dams experiencing extremely
yield point bonded to a needle-punched nonwoven severe climatic conditions.
geotextile that provides strength without significant- The one-year-long study, presented in a 200-page
ly reducing elongation. An analysis has been done Final Report (Durand et al. 1995), was executed for
for the design of a dam where it was assumed that the Department for Maintenance of Equipments and
cracks could develop after geomembrane installation Safety of Dams of Hydro-Québec, and was carried
(Giroud, to be published). Extensive theoretical de- out in the laboratories of the Department of Mate-
velopments were required due to the different ten- rials’ Technology and of the Structural Department
sion-strain curves considered: linear, bi-linear, and of the Ecole Polytechnique de Montréal.
parabolic. The analysis showed that the geomem- The characteristics estimated by IREQ as manda-
brane performance was governed by its co-energy. tory for waterproofing liners in cold climates were:
Four geomembranes were compared in the analysis. • be waterproof;
Numerical calculations were conducted assuming a • recover from deformations induced by thermal
crack width of 50 mm, based on the geotechnical gradients and hydrostatic heads;
study of the site. The following factors of safety

156
 • resist tearing and abrasion due to ice and debris In the first experimental phase (Task 2), samples
action; of each geomembrane were exposed, for a pre-
• be resistant to UV and ozone; determined period of time, to what were considered
• if glued, perfectly adhere to the substrate (ce- the most severe types of exposure, namely:
ment concrete); • freeze and thaw cycles;
• stretch and recover the initial shape if cracks ap- • ultraviolet radiations; and
pear in the concrete behind the liner (crack • low temperatures.
bridging); and At the end of the exposure periods, samples were
tested to ascertain how exposure had affected the
• have realistic and economical installation re-
following main properties:
quirements.
• tensile strength;
The study was structured into three tasks: Task 1,
review of literature on existing liners; Task 2, a first • puncture strength; and
experimental phase including standardized tests to • tear strength.
check the impact of different environmental condi- Results of the tests showed that freeze-thaw cycles
tions on mechanical properties of the materials; and did not significantly affect most prefabricated geo-
Task 3, a second experimental phase consisting of membranes. However, HDPE, Polyurethane-B and,
specially designed tests simulating the ice action to a greater degree, Neoprene showed slight de-
(adherence) on the geomembranes, and evaluating crease in tensile strength, Consequently, Neoprene
the shear strengths of the materials selected after the was judged unsuitable for practical applications.
tests of the first experimental phase. Freeze-thaw cycles on the contrary greatly affected
The review of existing liners included several ri- the adherence of sprayed or glued products, whose
gid conventional liners: shotcrete, metal sheets and tear strength was significantly reduced. UV exposure
bituminous concrete. Although these liners were did not cause significant variations in the behavior
theoretically deemed valuable, work done under of geomembranes after different exposure times: the
Task 1 pointed out some drawbacks of these rigid conclusions drawn were that the treatment applied to
liners, mainly that they are difficult to install, their geomembranes to prevent UV deterioration had been
cost is high, and the resistance of some of them to effective.
cold climates is disputable. The research team there- Low temperatures had a different impact on dif-
fore focused on less conventional solutions, basical- ferent geomembranes. Details can be found in the
ly geomembranes (prefabricated or sprayed). Due to Final Report of the study (Durand et al. 1995), and
the large variety of products, it was decided to focus in an abridged English version that has been pub-
on geomembranes which had already a proven lished under the aegis of ICOLD (Durand et al.
record of satisfactory performance, while being rea- 1998).
dily available on the market, namely PVC, HDPE, The first testing phase indicated that the four best
CSPE, CPE, butyl rubber, Styrene-Butadiene- performing products to be selected for the second
Styrene (SBS) rubber, bituminous geomembranes, testing phase (Task 3) were: PVC-B, Polyurethane-
and sprayed materials, which, although not to strictly A, Polyurethane-B, and Methacrylate (this last prod-
belonging to the family of geomembranes, had uct was not tested in Task 3 because the manufactur-
found some applications in the past. er failed to deliver samples on time). A test assem-
Further investigation showed that bitumen-based bly was designed and constructed to simulate ice
geomembranes were subject to non-negligible dete- action, more specifically to ascertain adherence of
rioration in the long term. Based on the report, the ice on the geomembranes and to determine the shear
formation of small cracks and the growing of bacte- strength. At the end, the PVC-B (i.e. PVC geomem-
ria affect the permeability and resistance of these brane with backing geotextile) and Polyurethane-A
geomembranes. Following the investigations con- (a sprayed material) geomembranes showed the best
ducted under Task 1 and discussions with manufac- properties.
turers or suppliers, eight products were selected for IREQ then evaluated two further aspects consi-
the two experimental phases of the study: dered crucial for application on dams: the possibility
• four prefabricated geomembranes: PVC-A (un- of having a drainage layer behind the geomembrane,
supported plain PVC geomembrane), PVC-B and previous successful experience. Based on these
(PVC geomembrane laminated to a nonwoven crucial aspects, geomembrane PVC-B was finally
deemed by IREQ more adequate than Polyurethane-
geotextile), HDPE, SBS; and
A, because it could fulfill both requirements, while
• four sprayed geomembranes, mixed and sprayed Polyurethane-A could not.
by the manufacturers concerned and then sup-
plied in form of a sheet: Polyurethane-A, Polyu-
rethane-B, Methacrylate and Neoprene.

157
7.2.2 Research program on geomembranes for hy-
draulic structures
The US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) oper-
ates and maintains a large number of dams and ma-
jor hydraulic structures, often made of concrete. The
USACE is constantly searching for new concepts in
maintenance and repair of concrete structures, since
traditional repair materials such as cement concrete,
shotcrete, bituminous concrete, resins, and steel
plates have presented many limitations, especially
when underwater installation is at stake. Figure 53. Real scale testing for puncture and burst resistance
carried out by the US Army Corps of Engineers on 21 geo-
With an approach similar to that of IREQ (see membranes confirmed the excellent performance of PVC in re-
Section 7.2.1), a two-phase research program was spect to all other types of geomembranes. PVC composite
carried out by the Army Corps of Engineers Water- geomembrane (2.5 mm thickness, upper photo) conformed to
ways Experiment Station in Vicksburg, USA, in the substrate and resisted to repeated cycles of loading-
1995 and 1996. downloading at 1 MPa (100 m). HDPE (2.5 mm thickness,
The first part of the research carried out in 1995 lower photo) did not conform and ruptured at 0.35 MPa at the
focused on geomembrane liners. The characteristics first loading (Courtesy of the US Army Corps of Engineers –
Waterways Experiment Station).
that the Corps deemed crucial for a reliable geo-
membrane liner were, in order of decreasing impor-
tance:
Results of the puncture test (Figure 53) showed
• very low permeability;
that
• high resistance to tensile stress, pressure, punc-
• PVC geomembranes, having a low modulus of
ture;
elasticity, were flexible and elastic, better con-
• elastic behavior, with high-percentage elastic formed to the substrate, and resisted repeated
elongation; loading cycles at water heads superior to 1 MPa
• high resistance to the service environment; (100 m);
• ease of junctions; • HDPE geomembranes, having a high modulus of
• satisfactory performance in previous applica- elasticity, were rigid, did not conform to the sub-
tions; strate, and broke at low water heads, in the 0.15
• repairability; to 0.35 MPa (15 to 35 m) range; and
• acceptable cost; and • PP geomembranes, having medium to high mod-
• availability. ulus of elasticity, failed at 1 MPa, showing ex-
Since successful previous application was one of cessive permanent deformation.
the requirements, the Corps considered only the A test for resistance to burst (Figure 54) was a de-
geomembranes that had already proven to be suita- structive test intended to assess the elongation at
ble for hydraulic structures, namely PVC, PVC-R break and the mode of failure. Results of this test
(with backing reinforcement), CSPE-S (with scrim showed that:
reinforcement), CSPE, PP, PP-R (with backing rein- • PVC geomembranes are capable to deform more,
forcement), EPDM, and HDPE. A total of 21 of which reduces stresses in the geomembrane, and
these geomembranes having various thicknesses break in a star-like mode, which indicates that
were tested under two types of tests: standardized
the geomembrane is isotropic, i.e. with no prefe-
uni-axial tests on small specimens, and large scale,
non-standardized multi-axial tests. These latter tests, rential failure direction;
internationally considered more adequate to better • HDPE geomembranes deform less, and, as a re-
evaluate resistance and flexibility characteristics, fo- sult, stresses are higher; furthermore, the geo-
cused on resistance to puncture and burst, on homo- membrane breaks in a linear mode, indicating
geneity and isotropy of the material (necessary to that the geomembrane has a preferential failure
ensure that the geomembrane will not fail on irregu- direction; and
larities of the substrate under the hydraulic head), on • PP geomembranes are more capable to deform
capability to conform to the substrate and on elastic than HDPE, but deformation is not isotropic, in-
recovery (essential to reduce the stresses on the an- dicating a potentially weaker direction.
chorage system). The results are listed in the Tech-
nical Report REMR-CS-50 (Christensen et al. 1995).

158
 perience in exposed applications (first installation in
1960). In addition, they are easy to install, in par-
ticular due to their flexibility. On the contrary, geo-
membranes with a high modulus of elasticity are
stiff and less performing in the field with respect to
puncture and burst by irregular rough substrates.
This is confirmed by the statistics on the use of dif-
ferent types of geomembranes in dams. The follow-
Figure 54. Testing burst resistance. A composite geomembrane ing table lists geomembranes in dams by type of
(3 mm PVC geomembrane bonded to a 700 g/m2 geotextile, geomembrane, and if exposed or covered, according
left) resisted 160 kPa, with a 271 % surface elongation (i.e. in- to the ICOLD database.
crease in surface area). An HDPE geomembrane (right) failed
at lower elongation, along a line indicating a zone of lower
Table 3. Geomembranes (GM) in dams.
strength, and a preferential path for propagation of tear (Cour-
tesy of the US Army Corps of Engineers – Waterways Experi-
ment Station). GM PVC LLDPE Bituminous HDPE
Expos. 92 0 7 3
Cover. 77 29 11 12
Table 3 in the USACE report summarizes the test
Elastom. CSPE PP CPE-R Other
results and the evaluation of the 21 geomembranes Exp. 5 2 3 0 0
after testing for puncture and burst. Testing eva- Cov. 5 5 3 3 3
luated the conformability to substrate, failures at
protrusions and depressions, elastic recovery, homo- Composite geomembranes, which consist of a
geneity and isotropy, and capability to deform. The geomembrane and of a geotextile coupled to it dur-
maximum total available score was 35. Some of the ing fabrication, are the most widely adopted type of
typical scores obtained were as follows: geomembrane in dams. The geomembrane compo-
• PVC geomembrane: 34 nent provides imperviousness; the geotextile com-
• Composite geomembrane (PVC bonded to ponent provides anti-puncture protection reducing
needle-punched nonwoven geotextile): 35 the need for surface preparation, higher dimensional
• EPDM geomembrane: 32 stability, higher friction angle allowing self-stability
• CSPE geomembrane (scrim reinforced): 28 on inclined surfaces, and some drainage capacity. A
• PP geomembrane: 22 composite geomembrane is more performing than a
geomembrane with a separate geotextile, because it
• HDPE geomembrane: 6 has higher friction angle and it better transfers the
To complete the evaluation, all other relevant cha- stresses to the anchoring system and substrate.
racteristics of the geomembranes (imperviousness, The thickness of a geomembrane to be used in a
tear resistance, dimensional stability, seamability, project is selected depending on the water head, the
etc.), as well as other parameters considered impor- roughness of the subgrade, the extent of exposure to
tant by the Corps to select an adequate material UV, the required service life, the survivability at in-
(constructability, previous applications, durability, stallation, etc. The ICOLD database reports typical
availability, repairability, and costs) were investi- thickness varying for bituminous geomembranes
gated. The following list, derived from Table 4 in from 4 to 5 mm, and for polymeric geomembranes
the USACE report, presents the main results of the from 1 to 3 mm, exceptionally 3.5 mm (HDPE) and
overall geomembrane’ evaluation where the maxi- 4 mm (CSPE). In a non negligible number (60) of
mum possible score was 260: dams, the geomembrane thickness is inferior to 1
• PVC geomembrane: 235 mm (some in the range of 0.25-0.35 mm): these cas-
• PVC composite geomembrane: 256 es refer mostly to small dams, or to old dams, or to
• CSPE geomembrane (scrim reinforced): 220 dams constructed in areas where performance crite-
• EPDM geomembrane: 209 ria are different from the criteria used in industrial
• PP geomembrane: 189 and populated areas.
• HDPE geomembrane: 140. In practice however, in modern dam projects the
Field evidence confirms laboratory results. PVC recommended minimum thickness values, for exam-
geomembranes have been successfully used in a ple for a PVC geomembrane, are generally 2 to 2.5
very large number of dams and hydraulic structures mm. The choice of using a thicker geomembrane is
where their performance benefits from their proper- based on requirements about durability, which for an
ties. Their low modulus of elasticity, hence their exposed geomembrane is related to its thickness.
high flexibility, makes them more performing with Testing has shown that, for the same formulation of
respect to puncture and burst. Furthermore, the wea- a PVC geomembrane, doubling the thickness in-
thering resistance of properly formulated PVC geo- creases the expected lifetime by a factor of approx-
membranes has been proven by decades of field ex- imately four. In dam projects, the cost of supply of
the geomembrane is normally only 10 to 20 % of the

159
cost of the entire waterproofing system, which is 8 BEHAVIOR OF GEOMEMBRANES AS A
normally only 3 to 5 % of the cost of the entire dam FUNCTION OF TIME
project. Thus, it is financially prudent to increase the
thickness of the geomembrane, because the cost in-
crease due to a thicker geomembrane is a very small 8.1 Durability of geomembranes in dams
portion of the project cost, and the service life is sig-
nificantly increased. Durability is based on the weathering properties, and
on the resistance of the geomembrane to specific
7.3 Selection criteria for the associated loads during service (extreme temperatures, frost,
geosynthetics freeze/thaw, ice, impacts by floating debris and
boats, wind and waves, fauna and flora, vandalism
The design of the use of the various geosynthetics etc.).
associated with geomembranes in the applications Taken for granted that not all geomembranes have
described in this paper would require another paper the same behavior due to their chemistry, basic in-
as long as this one. Only some general comments are gredients and manufacturing process, it is important
made in this section. for dam projects to select an existing geomembrane
The geosynthetics associated to the geomembrane or to design a new geomembrane that can best per-
in a geosynthetic barrier system are selected based form according to the type of environment in which
on the function to be provided. Numerous design it will be used, and that can provide adequate dura-
methods are available in the geosynthetic literature bility for the required application.
for a number of applications relevant to liner sys- Standard accelerated ageing tests are available and
tems such as: drainage design, cavity bridging de- are being used all over the world to predict the be-
sign, stability of liner systems on slopes, uplift of havior of geomembranes in service. These tests, al-
geomembrane by wind, geotextile filter criteria, de- though accelerated, would however require too long
sign of geotextile as protective layer, etc. In all cases, a time to give indication of long term behavior.
it is important to obtain adequate property values The most practical way to ascertain if a geomem-
from the manufacturers. Some comments on geosyn- brane will be resistant in the long term to the envi-
thetic selection are made below. ronmental loading expected in a dam project, is to
When the subgrade presents large/deep cavities, exhume samples of the same geomembrane that
like in dams with masonry facings or in concrete have already been in service, in a similar environ-
face rockfill dams that have undergone large settle- ment and project, for a period of time that should be
ments or deterioration, geogrids can be used to sup- as long as possible, ideally as long as the required
port the impervious liner. service life of the geomembrane in the considered
Geonets are used when an additional drainage dam, and perform tests to determine to which extent
layer is required. If the surface being lined is con- their properties have changed. Testing of the physi-
crete, the geonet is placed directly over it; if the sur- cal and mechanical properties of the exhumed sam-
face is soil or in general loose material, a drainage ples indicates if the geomembrane properties are at
geocomposite (geonet bonded to geotextile) is used, the time of the test are within acceptable limits, and
to prevent the loose particles of the subgrade from extrapolation allows the determination of the ex-
clogging the geonet. Drainage materials consisting pected remaining service life.
of coarse filaments or cuspated or otherwise de- This approach has been adopted in Italy (Cazzuffi
formed plastic plates are generally not recommended 1987 and 1996), using data from several dams reha-
because their compressive strength is often low and, bilitated with exposed PVC composite geomem-
as a result, their hydraulic transmissivity can be sig- brane. The oldest reported application of exposed
nificantly reduced by the high hydrostatic pressures PVC geomembranes on dams dates back to the mid
that exist in most dams. 1970s, and since then many dams have been rehabi-
Geotextiles used either as a separate anti-puncture litated with exposed geomembranes of the same type,
layer under the geomembrane, or associated to the which makes it possible to obtain dependable results.
geomembrane, are typically made of polyester or po- Furthermore, many of these dams are at high eleva-
lypropylene fibers. Polyester has high strength, but it tion (typically greater than 2000 m) where UV radia-
deteriorates in alkaline environment. Therefore, po- tion is intensive and the weather conditions are harsh.
lypropylene must be used when contact with fresh From this database, it has been concluded that the
concrete is foreseen, as in construction of new RCC service life of PVC composite geomembranes in
dams, or when shotcrete is used. The same applies to such harsh environment is superior to 50 years
geotextiles used as a protection when a cover layer is (Hsuan et al. 2008). It should be noted that geo-
placed over a geomembrane: the geotextile must be membranes of the same type installed today are of
made of polypropylene fibers when the cover layer better quality than the geomembranes installed 30
is cast-in-place concrete. years ago and included in the data base used to pre-
dict durability. Therefore, the durability of PVC

160
composite geomembranes installed today may be Design and installation systems of the various
even greater than the predicted durability of at least components of geomembrane systems according to
50 years. the type of application have been discussed in this
The approach just described for PVC geomem- paper.
branes should be used with other geomembranes to Geomembrane selection and behavior of geo-
evaluate if they have the appropriate durability for membrane systems vs. time have been investigated
use in dams. based on various research projects, and on results
from laboratory tests and tests on exhumed samples.
8.2 Leakage rates Data on the performance of dams constructed or
rehabilitated using geomembranes have been pro-
Typically, leakage from a geomembrane system on a vided. These data show the excellent performance of
dam is very low, in the order of a few l/s for surfaces geomembranes in dams of all types.
in the range of 10,000 to 30,000 m2. Figure 55 com- This paper shows clearly that the use of geomem-
pares leakage from roller compacted concrete dams branes in dams is now a well established technique.
with (the line just above zero) and without upstream
geomembrane (the five lines on top of the bottom
one). From Figure 55, it is clear that the rate of see-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
page is significantly less through RCC dams with
geomembrane than without geomembrane.
The authors wish to thank owners, organizations and
designers that have authorized publication of data in
this paper.

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