Components of Decision Making System
Understanding the Learning Process, Kolb’s Learning Styles, Assessing and Interpreting.
learning is defined as a process of behaviour modification through experiences, exercise and
efforts. Before discussing further, let us have a look at the definitions of learning given by
various psychologists/educationists: Hurlock (1942) : Learning is development that comes
from exercise and effort. Through learning, children acquire competence in using their
hereditary resources. Hilgard, Atkinson and Atkinson (1979): Learning may be defined as a
relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as the result of prior experience.
Murphy (1968) : The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet
environmental requirements. Woodworth (1945) : Any activity can be called learning so far
as it develops the individual (in any respect, good or bad) and makes him alter behaviour
and experiences different from what they would otherwise have been.
According to Smith (1962),‘learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening
or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience’.
There are six interactive components of the learning process: attention, memory, language,
processing and organizing, graphomotor (writing) and higher order thinking. These
processes interact not only with each other, but also with emotions, classroom climate,
behavior, social skills, teachers and family.
Attention
Paying attention is the first step in learning anything. It is easy for most of us to pay
attention to things that are interesting or exciting to us.
Memory
Memory is the complex process that uses three systems to help a person receive, use, store,
and retrieve information. The three memory systems are (1) short-term memory (e.g.,
remembering a phone number you got from information just long enough to dial it), (2)
working memory (e.g., keeping the necessary information “files” out on the mind’s
“desktop” while performing a task such as writing a paragraph or working a long division
problem), and (3) long-term memory (a mind’s ever expanding file cabinet for important
information we want to retrieve over time).
Language
Language is the primary means by which we give and receive information in school. The two
language processing systems are expressive and receptive. We use expressive language
when we speak and write, and we use receptive language when we read and listen.
Students with good language processing skills usually do well in school. Problems with
language, on the other hand, can affect a student’s ability to communicate effectively,
understand and store verbal and written information, understand what others say, and
maintain relationships with others.
Organization
We process and organize information in two main ways: simultaneous (spatial)
and successive (sequential). Simultaneous processing is the process we use to order or
organize information in space. Having a good sense of direction and being able to “see” how
puzzle pieces fit together are two examples of simultaneous processing. Successive
processing is what we use to order or organize information in time and sequence. Concepts
of time, dates, and order – yesterday, today, and tomorrow, months of the year,
mathematical procedures such as division and multiplication, word order in sentences, and
sentence order in paragraphs are examples of sequential processing. Students who are good
at successive organization usually have little or no trouble with time management and
usually find it easy to organize an essay in a sequence that is logical.
Graphomotor
The writing process requires neural, visual, and muscular coordination to produce written
work. It is not an act of will but rather an act of coordination among those functions. Often
the student who seems unmotivated to complete written work is the student whose writing
coordination is klutzy. We have long accepted that students may fall on a continuum from
very athletic to clumsy when it comes to sports, but we have not known until recently that
some students are writing “athletes” while others writing klutzes. Just as practice, practice,
practice will not make a football all-star out of an absolute klutz, practice and acts of will not
make a writing all-star out of someone whose neurological wiring does not allow her to be a
high performing graphomotor athlete.
Higher Order Thinking
Higher order thinking (HOT) is more than memorizing facts or relating information in exactly
the same words as the teacher or book expresses it. Higher order thinking requires that we
do something with the facts. We must understand and manipulate the information.
HOT includes concept formation; concept connection; problem solving; grasping the “big
picture”; visualizing; creativity; questioning; inferring; creative, analytical and practical
thinking; and metacognition. Metacognition is thinking about thinking, knowing about
knowing, and knowing how you think, process information, and learn.
Emotions
Emotions control the on-off switch to learning. When we are relaxed and calm, our learning
processes have a green light. When we are uptight, anxious, or afraid, our learning
processes have a red light. In the classroom, tension slams the steel door of the mind shut.
Creating a non-threatening classroom environment or climate where mistakes are
welcomed as learning opportunities reduces tension, opens the mind and increases the
opportunity for learning.
Motivation
It is every teacher’s job to motivate every student. Learning more about the brain and the
development of the mind, studying new information on learning, making learning
meaningful and learning about learning, watching the learning process, monitoring closely
for breakdowns, and celebrating the successes of every student – these are our challenges
as we create schools that honor diversity – the schools all children deserve.
Kolb’s Learning Styles
David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984, from which he developed his
learning style inventory. Kolb’s experiential learning theory works on two levels: a four-
stage cycle of learning and four separate learning styles. Much of Kolb’s theory is concerned
with the learner’s internal cognitive processes.
The Experiential Learning Cycle
Kolb’s experiential learning style theory is typically represented by a four-stage learning
cycle in which the learner “touches all the bases”:
1. Concrete Experience – the learner encounters a concrete experience. This might be
a new experience or situation, or a reinterpretation of existing experience in the light
of new concepts.
2. Reflective Observation of the New Experience – the learner reflects on the new
experience in the light of their existing knowledge. Of particular importance are any
inconsistencies between experience and understanding.
3. Abstract Conceptualization – reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of
an existing abstract concept (the person has learned from their experience).
4. Active Experimentation – the newly created or modified concepts give rise to
experimentation. The learner applies their idea(s) to the world around them to see
what happens.
Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages: of (1)
having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and reflection on that
experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and
generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used to test a hypothesis in future
situations, resulting in new
experiences
Kolb (1984) views learning as an integrated process, with each stage mutually supporting
and feeding into the next. It is possible to enter the cycle at any stage and follow it through
its logical sequence.
However, effective learning only occurs when a learner can execute all four stages of the
model. Therefore, no one stage of the cycle is effective as a learning procedure on its own.
The process of going through the cycle results in the formation of increasingly complex and
abstract ‘mental models’ of whatever the learner is learning about.
Kolb’s Reflective Cycle
Kolb’s learning theory (1984) sets out four distinct learning styles, which are based on a
four-stage learning cycle (see above). Kolb explains that different people naturally prefer a
certain single different learning style.
Various factors influence a person’s preferred style. For example, social environment,
educational experiences, or the basic cognitive structure of the individual.
Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style preference itself is actually the
product of two pairs of variables, or two separate “choices” that we make, which Kolb
presented as lines of an axis, each with “conflicting” modes at either end.
A typical presentation of Kolb’s two continuums is that the east-west axis is called the
Processing Continuum (how we approach a task), and the north-south axis is called the
Perception Continuum (our emotional response, or how we think or feel about it).
Kolb believed that we cannot perform both variables on a single axis at
the same time (e.g., think and feel). Our learning style is a product of
these two choice decisions.
It’s often easier to see the construction of Kolb’s learning styles in terms
of a two-by-two matrix. Each learning style represents a combination of
two preferred styles.
The matrix also highlights Kolb’s terminology for the four learning styles;
diverging, assimilating, and converging, accommodating:
Active Reflective
Experimentation Observation
(Doing) (Watching)
Concrete Experience Accommodating Diverging (CE/RO)
Active Reflective
Experimentation Observation
(Doing) (Watching)
(Feeling) (CE/AE)
Abstract
Conceptualization Converging (AC/AE) Assimilating (AC/RO)
(Thinking)
Learning Styles Descriptions
Knowing a person’s (and your own) learning style enables learning to be orientated
according to the preferred method.
That said, everyone responds to and needs the stimulus of all types of learning styles to one
extent or another – it’s a matter of using emphasis that fits best with the given situation and
a person’s learning style preferences.
Diverging (feeling and watching – CE/RO)
These people are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are sensitive. They
prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use imagination to solve
problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations from several different viewpoints.
Kolb called this style “diverging” because these people perform better in situations that
require ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming. People with a diverging learning style
have broad cultural interests and like to gather information.
They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong
in the arts. People with the diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open
mind and to receive personal feedback.
Assimilating (watching and thinking – AC/RO)
The assimilating learning preference involves a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts
are more important than people.
These people require good clear explanations rather than a practical opportunity. They excel
at understanding wide-ranging information and organizing it in a clear, logical format.
People with an assimilating learning style are less focused on people and more interested in
ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are more attracted to logically sound
theories than approaches based on practical value.
This learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In
formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring
analytical models, and having time to think things through.
Converging (doing and thinking – AC/AE)
People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find
solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people
and interpersonal aspects.
People with a converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and
theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to questions and
problems. People with a converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and
problems than social or interpersonal issues. A converging learning style enables specialist
and technology abilities. People with a converging style like to experiment with new ideas,
to simulate, and to work with practical applications.
Accommodating (doing and feeling – CE/AE)
The Accommodating learning style is “hands-on,” and relies on intuition rather than logic.
These people use other people’s analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential
approach. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans.
They commonly act on “gut” instinct rather than logical analysis. People with an
accommodating learning style will tend to rely on others for information than carry out their
own analysis. This learning style is prevalent within the general population.
Educational Implications
Both Kolb’s (1984) learning stages and the cycle could be used by teachers to critically
evaluate the learning provision typically available to students, and to develop more
appropriate learning opportunities.
Educators should ensure that activities are designed and carried out in ways that offer each
learner the chance to engage in the manner that suits them best. Also, individuals can be
helped to learn more effectively by the identification of their lesser preferred learning styles
and the strengthening of these through the application of the experiential learning cycle.
Ideally, activities and material should be developed in ways that draw on abilities from each
stage of the experiential learning cycle and take the students through the whole process in
sequence.
